Nordic Journal of Music Therapy

ISSN: 0809-8131 (Print) 1944-8260 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rnjm20

Music and Emotion

Annemiek Vink
To cite this article: Annemiek Vink (2001) Music and Emotion, Nordic Journal of Music Therapy,
10:2, 144-158, DOI: 10.1080/08098130109478028
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08098130109478028

Published online: 10 Jul 2009.

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ARTICLES
Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 10(2), pp. 144-158.

Music and Emotion

Living apart together: a relationship between music
psychology and music therapy
Annemiek Vink
Abstract
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Does music induce emotion in the listener or do we project emotion to music? It is the latter
opinion that is supported most frequently in music psychology research. Various studies
demonstrate that a variety of physiological and psychological changes occur when listening to
music, although it is not yet clear how these changes are brought about, related directly to
musical qualities. The question how music influences the listener is of importance to music
therapy. Music therapy and music psychology generally function as separate disciplines. In this
review article it is proposed that music therapy and music psychology can benefit from each
other's work in a living-apart-together
relationship.
Keywords: emotion - music - music psychology - music therapy - research

Introduction
'Ladies and Gentlemen, my respected and beloved
music friends! Musica animae levamen, music is
medicine for our souls.' These are the opening lines
of the book 'Die musikalische Hausapotheke/The
musical home medicine cabinet' written by the
German musicologist Christopher Rueger(1991). In
this work, Rueger describes a variety of musical
recipes to cure an equally impressive variety of
disorders. If we take a closer look into his laboratory,
we can read that listening to Beethoven's Symphony
No.2 helps to cope with feelings of depression and
doubt. The popular Goldberg Variations of Bach will
decrease sleeping disorders.
If it could only be so simple. For many lay people,
these descriptions are their idea of what music
therapy is all about. Many people have read about
the 'Mozart Effect' and a music therapist is often
pictured in non-medical journals as being an
equivalent of 'a healthcare deejay'. There are,
however, many disciplines involved in the study of
the effects of music on the listener. It is the music
psychologist who looks at effects of music in the
general listener, e.g. what emotions can be induced
by music in the listener? Cognitive theory studies
how music is perceived and how cognitive schemata
144

Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 2001, 10(2)

are activated when listening to music. How does

our brain react to music? The music therapist uses
music as a therapeutic medium with a variety of
different client populations in yet another discipline.
For a layperson, these fields seem logically
intertwined. Music induces emotions and this works
therapeutically as various cognitions and feelings
ANNEMIEK VINK
has been trained as a psychologist and works as a
music therapy teacher at the Conservatory in
Enschede, the Netherlands. Also she works on a
Phd-research studying the effect of music therapy
in reducing agitation with demented elderly (n-240),
under supervision of Prof. Dr. J.P.J. Slaets of the
University of Groningen, the Netherlands and as copromotor Prof. Dr. D. Aldridge (University of
Witten-Herdecke, Germany), with financial support
of ZorgOnderzoek Nederland, The Dutch Alzheimer
Society (Alzheimer Nederland), Music therapy fund
Buma stemra (Fonds Muziektherapie Buma Stemra),
the Triodos Bank, the Rens Holle Stichting and Het
Burgerweeshuisfonds Meppel.
Correspondence: Drs. A.C. Vink, Conservatory
Saxion Hogeschool Enschede, Music Therapy Dept.
PO Box 70.000; 7500 KB Enschede The Netherlands.
Web: www.knoware.nl/users/jdehaas (INFO MUSIC
THERAPY). E-mail: a.c.vink@planet.nl

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MUSIC AND EMOTION

become activated, of course. In practice, there is
still little collaboration between these fields of
expertise. In fact, music researchers studying
cognitive aspects and brain activity even state that
it is far too early to be able to describe precisely how
a healthy person reacts to music, both physically
and psychologically. Before this knowledge is
gathered, it is far too early to state that music is
therapeutic, let alone to be considered as 'medicine'
as Rueger described. How will we ever be able to
develop cogent theories from neurological research
ifwe can't even agree on which halves ofthe brain
processes various aspects of music experience
(Kaufmann & Frisina, 1992)? Music therapists state
on the other hand, that music cannot be considered
as medicine as it is not merely the music from which
the client benefits. Other factors contribute to the
therapeutic effect as well, such as the group
interaction, the interaction with the music and the
therapeutic alliance. What are current research
insights from the field of music psychology and can
they be applied in music therapy, in an arts
relationship?
To examine the mutual aspects of these
disciplines, the focus in this review will be on the
question how music is related to the experience of
emotion. Everyone recognizes the ancient old idea
that music affects man. But how? This question has
turned out be an enormous difficult task to answer
scientifically.

it be a particular circumstance or a person etc.

Specific attributes within the emotion appraisal
process are the personal involvement with the
stimulus, the cognitive appraisal ofthe stimulus and
a behavioural change towards the stimulus (Frijda,
1988). The presence of these characteristics and the
degree to which they are represented in a person
depend on the type of emotion experienced.
The concept of a 'musical emotion' is difficult to
define according to general emotion theories. A
variety of different emotional responses and
experiences can be found under the header of
'emotion'. Although we can often read about the
concept of 'musical emotion' in the literature,
regretfully how a 'music induced emotion' can be
defined is not clarified. Also the term 'emotion' in
the context of music listening is open for debate.
Often, emotions can be classified in order of their
(biological) functions. A classical example is the
experience of fear in this context. The cognitive
appraisal that a certain situation is threatening leads
to a behavioural change, e.g. fleeing or avoiding the
situation. In a musical context there are no apparent
biological functions. Although, everywhere on the
world, music is played and listened to, we cannot
state that we cannot live without the presence of
music. As such, the intensity of an emotion
experienced is difficult to explain in a musical context
to directly result from music (Dowling and Harwood,
1986).
In everyday life, emotions are induced by concrete
circumstances within a realistic setting, which we
often cannot control, such as being involved in a
Theoretical orientations of musical
car accident. This 'real life' influence is often found
emotions
lacking in a musical context. Although music can be
Music psychology research shows us that non- frightening and threatening, there is always the sense
knowledgeable listeners respond emotionally to of control, for instance by turning the music off.
music as do music performers, both during playing The use ofthe verb 'emotion' is often therefore not
and during listening to music. But how can these acknowledgeable in a musical context. In recent
experiences be described? Is it accurate to state that music psychology literature we can see a clear shift
'musical emotions' are experienced? Researchers in descriptions used to refer to musical experiences.
discuss if it is legitimate to state that feelings In most of the research focussing on musical
experienced in relation to music are actual emotional emotional responses, the focus has actually been
states.
on specific characteristics of an emotion: such as
In general psychology, emotions are currently appraisal and arousal components. In some cases it
described as specific process-oriented response is possible, according to Sloboda (1991), that music
behaviours. To clarify the word process-oriented, can induce intense emotions, but he states it is more
an emotion is always directed at something, whether accurate to describe 'musical emotions' as mood
Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 2001, 10(2)

ANNEMIEK.VINK

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states, experiences and feelings that are influenced

by music listening. Music functions as a catalyst or
stimulus for the experience of emotions, a
characteristic often witnessed and used in music
therapy practice.
The concept of 'musical emotion' has many
conceptual difficulties. Sloboda and Juslin (2001)
describe how emotion theories such as Frijda's
(1988) are beneficial to the study of musical emotions.
They state that music psychologists generally are
reluctant to turn to emotion psychology for
theoretical guidance. On the other hand, they hold
that it is interesting to note that psychologists
themselves do acknowledge that art may evoke
strong emotional response, but few scientists seem
to have considered this problem worthy of study.
Sloboda and Juslin (2001) state it is significant that
one of the most influential analysis of music and
emotion to date, namely that of Meyer (1956) is based
on a theory of emotion.
According to Meyer (1956) there are certain
elements within the music, such as a change of
melodic line or rhythm, that create expectations
about the future development of the music. The
expectation the listener has about the further course
of musical events is a determinant for the experience
of 'musical emotions'. Music arouses expectations,
which may or not be directly and immediately
satisfied. He states: ...The greater the build-up of
suspense of tension, the greater the emotional
release upon resolution...(Meyer. 1956, p.28). The
music arouses tendencies and this fulfils the
conditions according to the arousal of affect. The
role of emotion in this process is complex. The
primary dimension on which emotion is experienced
is in terms of a build-up of tension and release of
tension, both within the music and in the listener.
The more elaborate the build-up of tension to a
certain climax, the more intense emotions will be
experienced. When resolution follows, relaxation
follows.
An important implication of Meyer's theory is
that any conscious insight in this process reduces
the emotional effect of music. This implicates that a
'naive' listener without much music theoretical
knowledge has a predominant affective response
towards music whereas a trained listener reacts
mostly cognitively while listening to music (Jansma
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Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 2001, 10(2)

&deVries, 1995).
Within the music psychology research literature,
Mandler's (1984) and Berlyne's (1971) cognitive
theories of emotion are occasionally referred to.
Mandler holds arousal as a prerequisite for the
experience of emotion, but sees arousal in essence
as of minor importance. Mandler attaches the more
value to the cognitive appraisal of bodily
experiences. Emotions, in line with Meyer (1956).
are caused by interruptions of expectations about
future events. The interruption, depending on the
personal involvement, causes arousal for which an
explanation is sought. Information processing is
important for the experience of emotions. The
experience of arousal is a result of a 'mis-match'
between existing knowledge structures and the
integration of new information. This thought
'matches' Meyer's idea, who states that as a result
of unexpected musical changes, arousal is
experienced. According to Mandler, negative
emotions will be the result of an extreme mismatch
between musical information and existent musical
schemata. Accordingly, positive emotions are
experienced when musical information matches
existing cognitive schemata.
A comparable emotion theory is from Berlyne
(1971). He hypothesized that when we listen to
music, we take into account factors such as the
complexity, familiarity and novelty of the music. The
degree to which the music sounds familiar
determines if the music is experienced as pleasurable
or uncomfortable. The hedonic value is low when
the music is entirely new to the listener, and
progresses with increasing familiarity and will
decrease again when the music is totally known.
This process can be described with a reversed Ucurve. According to Berlyne the experience of
arousal is an important factor in the experience of
emotion, equal to Mandler. But he goes further, he
states that it is the listener's intention to experience
arousal while listening to music. Musical preference
is based on the preference to maintain the level of
preferred arousal constant. The more complex the
music, the more arousal will be experienced. The
listener seeks activation, but to a certain extent.
When the maximum is achieved he will avoid further
activation. In a listener with more elaborate music
knowledge structures, arousal will be less when

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MUSIC AND EMOTION

listening to complex music. As such, a trained
listener, will both according to Berlyne and Mandler,
hold a greater preference for complex music than a
naive listener as the threshold for experiencing
arousal is higher. Fischer (1981) demonstrated that
subjects who had taken amphetamine, a drug which
causes arousal, preferred the more complex music.
There are many experiments that backup the ideas
of Berlyne. Subjects prefer melodies that are
intermediate in the number of different pitches used
and which have intermediate levels of complexity
(Weinberger, 1998). Weinberger values Berlyne's
theory of importance to therapy as it may explain
why the same music can produce different emotions
in the same person at different times, a known
difficulty complicating research. He also states that
the findings may be of help with further direct
investigations of the brain substrates of music and
emotion. A basic understanding of these
relationships should also benefit future uses of
music therapeutically.
The theories described above, are often referred
to in describing the emotional impact of music. In
general it is stated that Meyer's (1956) theory is
comprehensive but problematic to test empirically
and there are no research studies known which have
directly tested Meyer' s assumptions in relation to
musical emotions. Meyer himself acknowledged this
problem by doubting the possibilities to test the
existence of 'musical emotions' in a scientifically
controlled manner. Sloboda (1985) states in this
context, that many researchers have the tendency
to come up with their own theorizing about the effect
of music, with the result that feedback for the
development of a general theoretical framework
explaining the effects is lacking. This can also be
seen in music therapy research, many music
therapists have studied or described if their own
practice has any effect. The research studies are as
such often very different in therapeutic orientation
and difficult to compare related to client populations.

of studies that Hevner conducted. Hevner (1935,

1936, 1937) is one of the first researchers who
systematically studied which musical parameters are
related to the experience of emotion. She adapted
various short existing piano pieces and played them
for the subjects, both the original version and an
adapted version. In the adapted version, she
constantly only manipulated one musical element,
such as the mode (major or minor), the harmony
(simple-complex), rhythm (steady-fluent), tempo
(fast-slow) and the melody line (increasingdecreasing). Other musical parameters were held as
constant as possible. After playing, she asked the
subjects to indicate on the 'Hevner's adjective
circle', which emotion verb best described the
emotional content of the piece. Tempo and mode
had the strongest impact on the listener, when
describing the experienced emotion in the music.
Piano music played fast in major was described as
cheerful and in contrast the slow piece in minor as
dreamful and sensitive.
After Hevner, it has been repeatedly shown that
various musical elements, with a particular mode
and tempo, are expressive of emotion in music. Based
on research studies such as these, it has been easily
deduced that music induces emotion in the listener.
This conclusion is however not warranted. The work
of Hevner demonstrates which emotions are
experienced in the music and not necessarily refer
to the emotions experienced in the listener. Maybe
so, but often it has not been the focus of research.
On the basis of attribution based research, it can
only be stated how musical elements are expressive
of emotion and how the emotional content of the
piece is valued.
A continuing problem that occurs in research
such as Hevner's, is that she chose musical
parameters that are representative for the music in
general. Music often induces reactions and
emotional responses in very specific moments in
the music, such as by sudden changes in tempo or
a climax of musical theme, as we will read later from
Sloboda (1991). Statements about the tempo of a
musical piece are merely descriptive of one
Musical expression of emotion
characteristic of emotional expression of the music
Are there certain elements in music, which may or the musical experience in the listener (Jansma &
invoke musical experiences in the listener? Going deVries, 1995).
back in the literature, we willfindthe impressive line
According to Desain and Honing (in Jansma &
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ANNEMIEKVINK
de Vries; 1995) false is also the expectation that
musical parameters can be manipulated in a totally
independent manner. They mention as an example,
the manipulation of tempo. A piece cannot be simply
played twice as fast. Also temporal relations between
the notes accordingly need to be adjusted in order
to let the music still sound natural. Still, with great
consistency, it has been shown that musical
characteristics, such as the mode, rhythm and tempo,
are perceived by the listener to be expressive of
emotion (for an overview of this topic see
Gabrielson & Lindstrom; 2001).
In most of the music psychology research
studies, only classical music is studied. In the music
therapy literature we can read that listener's
preferences range from heavy metal to classical
music. Also in the context where musical emotions
with children are studied, mostly classical music has
been used as test material. The generalisability of
the results, when only studying classical music, is
therefore small. Still, there are reasons why
researchers prefer classical music, as classical music
is mostly not accompanied by sung lyrics, which is
the case for most of the popular music repertoire.
For the earlier researchers, there were also interesting
ethical reasons. Wing (1968) described that while
developing his musical ability test:
"Jazz music was not included, as this would be
unlikely to yield examples of really good harmony,
would be likely to prejudice the authorities against
the test, and would waste the children's time if they
were listening to poor music" (Wing, 1968, p.37).
In more contemporary research studies, also
popular music, jazz or religious music has been
included. This is an important development for music
psychology findings to be generalised to music
therapy practice.
Regardless of the above-mentioned
methodological problems, it is the common research
outcome that listeners in general can describe with
great accuracy which emotional expression is
communicated. But of interest also for music therapy
is whether these findings can be related to the
experience in the listener. Which emotions or
reactions are exactly induced in the listener through
music? Various research studies have tried to answer
this question with a variety of physiological and
cognitive listening tests.
Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 2001, 10(2)

Physiological studies involving musical

emotions.
Both Berlyne (1971), Mandler (1984) as Meyer (1956;
see arousal as an important factor in emotiona!
experiences while listening to music. A typical
example of physical experiences reported wher
listening to music is the experience of thrills
Goldstein (1980) illustrated that thrills were
experienced by 96% of the subjects.
Already in the 18th century an effort was made
to study the effect of music in relation to
physiological changes. One of the most known
researches of that time is from Gtry, who published
in 1741 about the influence ofmusic on the frequency
ofheartrate(inDainow, 1977).
Often referred to in the music therapy literature,
is the relation between music and physical changes
in the clients. Smeijsters (1995) formulated the
analogues process model, in which he described
that musical characteristics can be perceived in the
client's pathology and vice versa. In many research
studies, it has been tried to establish if there is a
relationship between for instance musical rhythm
and physical rhythm, following Pythagoras idea that
musical vibrations can bring about healing physical
changes. The average beat rate in music equals
almost exactly the average heartbeat, with 72 to 80
beats per minute. The precise relationship between
musical rhythm and heartbeat is still unclear,
although support can be found that the heartbeat
follows musical rhythm. Stimulating music increases
the heart rate and sedative music reduces the heart
rate. Each type of music increases the heart rate.
This increase is higher when listening to stimulating
music than to sedative music.
A problem that occurs when measuring the heart
rate is to establ itish that is also the measurement of
the intended emotional change. An illustrative
example was provided by Harrer (1977) who
compared the heart rate of the famous conductor
Herbert von Karajan while he was directing Leonora
Overture No.3, to his heart rate while flying a spoils
aircraft. During flight-time, the heart rate peaked at
115 beats per minute while during conducting a
maximum was achieved of 150 beats per minute. The
maximum increase of pulse frequency, telemetrically
recorded from Herbert von Karajan while conducting

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MUSIC AND EMOTION

the Leonora Overture No.3. was obtained during
those passages with the greatest emotional impact
upon the conductor. These were the same passages
that he singled out in subsequent conversations as
being the ones he found most profoundly touching.
At these moments the pulse rate increased for a
short while, to twice the level of the initial value.
When the tape was played back to him and a further
pulse measurement was made, the same peaks were
found. Changes however were much greater while
he was conducting.
Next to changes in heart rate, changes in breathing
can be perceived as a result of intense emotional
experiences. The frequency of breathing and heart
rate are normally to a certain extent co-dependent.
An increase of muscle activity together with active
breathing increases the hearth rate, as can be seen
for instance during hyperventilation (Frijda. 1988).
Ries (1969) found clear correlations between the
respiration amplitude and the emotional response
towards music. The relationship between the
breathing amplitude and the subject's affective
responses were highly correlated indicating that the
more a subject reported liking the selection, the
deeper his breathing became. Research studies
involving respiration measurement are often not
easy to interpret (Harrer, 1977). The main reason is
that often only one characteristic of respiration is
measured, such as the frequency or the amplitude.
In general, it is stated that the frequency of breathing
increases when listening to preferred music and that
the breathing becomes deeper. The foremost
problem however is that there are too many
individual differences to be perceived in respect to
irregularities of breathing and the depth of breathing,
for instance as an result of extraneous factors such
as smoking.
Many factors can influence physiological
measurements. The amount of coffee a subject has
drunken before the registration is for instance an
influence in heart rate measurements. Often the
amount of variables for which should be controlled
for is too large to establish a reliable representative
conclusion. Also is it an ancient old idea that each
type of emotion is characterized by a specific pattern
in physiological changes (Rimet al.. 1990). People/
clients who are for instance fearful do not respond
equally on physiological measures and we cannot

estimate from a certain measurement that someone

is experiencing 'moderate happiness'. Also it is
possible that people may well feel angry or sad
without demonstrating any physiological changes.
Stavenga (1979) compares the difference between
mentally handicapped and normal adults in this
context. Both can display the same physiological
changes, while experiencing them entirely differently
in a psychological manner. To return to Frijda (1988).
the experience of arousal should not be seen as a
key feature of an emotional experience. Still, it is
interesting to see if this is also the case for musical
experiences, as so many hold that arousal is indeed
a key feature in the appraisal of music listening. Bever
(1988) states that the perception of musical
structures always arouses in relation to the appraisal
of the aesthetic value of the music.
Physiological measurements are extremely
popular though. Often music psychology and music
therapy research outcomes are seen as too abstract,
and defined clinical measurements are seen as a
solution to communicate research to other
healthcare professionals. Often we see a combination
of approaches in modern-day research, the
qualitative method to assess the individual
experiences combined with physiological
measurements. Through qualitative research these
individual differences in experience can be more
easily assessed.
With the arrival of new methods it is hoped that
more insight will be gained in the future how musical
structures are perceived and how emotional
responses are related for instance to brain
processes. According to Peretz (2001) musical
emotions appear isolable in the human brain. She
states that current evidence is pointing to the
existence of a specific neural arrangement for certain
musical emotions. One of the intriguing new findings
is that subjects exhibit greater left frontal activity to
music expressing joy and happiness (Schmidt &
Trainer, 2001 in Peretz. 2001) and greater relative
right frontal EEG activity to music expressing fear
and sadness. Currently with new measurements
such as functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
(fMRI) is studied in more detail which brain activity
can be perceived when subjects are listening to
music. But also physicians here state that there is a
long way to go before accurately music perception
Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 2001, 10(2)

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ANNEMIEKVINK
can be measured.
To conclude, music does bring about
physiological changes although it is not yet clear
how these changes are related to musical
characteristics. Clear outcomes in this context are
of value for music therapy. If music produces
physiological and psychological effects in healthy
persons as listeners, then it may be assumed that
people with known diseases respond in specific ways
(Aldridge, 1996). If music is known to influence a
physiological parameter such as the heart rate or
blood pressure then Aldridge argues music can be
used therapeutically for patients who have problems
with heart disease and hypertension. These are
interrelations from which both disciplines can
benefit.

Conservatory Enschede in the Netherlands, to the

question how they experience the described
emotions both during listening and playing music.
As can be seen, most of the subjects experienced
joy while listening to music. It is however difficult to
understand whether this outcome was the direct
result of the music listening, e.g. music induced
emotion, or invoked through musical associations
and attribution processes. Also, joy experienced
during play has very different origins then joy
experienced when listening to music. Jansma & de
Vries (1995) give us another complicated
interpretation with this scale. How should we
understand the study outcome that many of the
subjects have experienced hope or disappointment
while listening to music? What do these results
mean? Are they directly caused through the music,
regardless of the style? Or are they the result of a
lucky or disappointing expenditure in the cd-store.
Cognitive emotional studies of music
Emotions such as reproach are typically not
appraisal
experienced in a musical context.
In line with the popular tradition in psychology,
Waterman (1992) demonstrates that most adult
currently cognitive processes are studied, both in listeners have a variety of musical responses
normal healthy adults and in diverse client towards music and that a variety of extrinsic factors
populations. A variety of different cognitive tests influence these responses. Meyer (1956) states it
have been used to gain more insight in the actual would be interesting to learn more how listeners,
experience of the listener, whether he is a healthy whether client or healthy adults, experience emotions
adult, a routine listener, or a music therapy client. directly from musical characteristics or through
Still, this line of research is in its infancy. Most of musical associations, the well known 'Darling, they
the music psychology research studies make use of are playing our song' idea. To repeat Meyer's
validated instruments from psychology studies. assumptions, he held it to be difficult to
There are many logical arguments for this choice in experimentally relate the effect of music to induced
terms of the representation of the study, the decrease emotions in the listener. From the few experimentally
in costs etc. But generally, these lists consist of controlled research studies it can be stated that some
emotion terms that are difficult to interpret in the emotions are more easily induced than others and
context of music. Waterman (1992. in Jansma en de that effects are mostly found on the dimension of
Vries, 1995) used a well-established list from Ortony, relaxation/tension and happiness/sadness (Clark &
Clore and Collins (1988) to let subjects score which Teasdale, 1985). It remains unclear however, how
emotions they had experienced in response to music. musical parameters are related to these effects and
This question is very aspecific, because there are open for debate is whether such outcomes could be
many different ways how one can respond to music: of value for music therapy.
as a product, admiration for the performance etc.
Typical for most of the emotion checklists is that
Also it is unclear what is meant with 'experienced in fixed categories have been used. Problematic here
response to music'. There is a clear distinction is that people have a tendency to polarise their
between emotions experienced when playing music opinions on certain emotion traits, regardless of the
or listening to music, which is generally ignored in emotion object. A method, which more freely gives
research. In table 1, the responses can be seen from room to the variety of emotional responses, is the
some of the first year music therapy students at the free response technique. This method has been used
Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 2001, 10(2)

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MUSIC AND EMOTION

Emotion

% Listening
1998

% Playing
1998

% Listening
1999

% Playing
1999

Sadness

90

80

63.6

Joy

100

100

100

%Listening
2001

%Playing
2001

% Listening
2000

% Playing
2000

72,2

33,3

55,6

100

88.9

72,2

88,9

100

88,9

88.9

Liking

40

40

36,4

36,4

77.8

77,8

44,4

44,4

Appreciation

70

60

81,8

54,5

77.8

22,2

55,6

55,6

Dislike

90

60

63,6

45.5

55,6

22,2

88,9

44.4

Satisfaction

60

100

63,6

90.9

22,8

77,8

55,6

100

Suspense

80

60

45.5

27,3

22.2

88,9

100

77,8

Hope

60

50

45.5

54,5

55,6

77,8

66,7

55,6

Anger

40

50

54,5

81,8

44.4

55,6

55,6

66,7

Hopelessness

40

40

9.1

45,5

33,3

33,3

55,6

33,3

Disappointment

30

60

27,3

54,5

66,7

44,4

55,6

44,4

Pride

50

70

63,6

63.6

33,3

44,4

44,4

66.7

Relief

80

60

18,2

63,6

33,3

100

66,7

66,7

Sympathy

30

50

63,6

63.6

88,9

33,3

88,9

33,3

Happiness for

80

50

63,6

36,4

88,9

88,9

55,6

77,8

Resignation

70

40

27,3

27.3

66.7

44,4

77,8

44,4

Fear

50

50

45,5

18,2

33,3

44,4

33,3

44,4

Remorse

20

10

36,4

18,2

22,2

44,4

44.4

44,4
66,7

Gratitude

70

40

54,5

27,3

55.6

44,4

88,9

Resentment

40

40

18,2

27,3

22,2

44,4

66,7

33,3

Serf-satisfaction

40

80

27,3

18,2

22.2

22,2

11.1

33,3

Fears confirmed

30

30

54,5

15,2

33,3

22,2

77,8

33,3

Shame

10

30

18,2

27,3

33.3

22,2

22,2

33,3

Reproach

10

9.1

22,2

22,2

33,3

11,1

Gloating

20

10

36,4

18.2

11.1

22,2

33,3

n-10

n-10

n-11

n-11

n-9

n-9

n-9

n-9

Table 1: The experience of emotions on the Ortony, Clore and Collins scale (1988) by music
therapy students experienced when listening to music and performing music.
on few occasions by music psychology researchers descriptions. First, people tended to use music as a
in the context of music appraisal. Sloboda (1992) 'change agent' to alter their mood state (n-41). This
asked adults to recall any memories from the first was reported through statements such as 'music
ten years of their lives that involved music in any relaxes me, when I am tense and anxious' and 'music
way. It was not asked specifically whether there was motivates and inspires me to be a better person'.
an emotional association with the music, just what Secondly, people reported that music was used as a
musical experiences one recalled from childhood. method of catharsis to promote the intensification
From the free descriptions, it was determined that in or release of already existent emotions (n-34). Example
39% of the cases emotion was indeed a classifying statements included 'music releases emotions' and
characteristic. Also on adult age, emotion was an 'music helps me discover what I am actually feeling'.
important factor in the free descriptions of music Sloboda states that the common factor to all examples
experiences. Sloboda (1992) let 67 regular music was that music does not create emotion, but rather
listeners describe in their own words, the nature of it allows a person access to the experience of
their most valued emotional experience to music. emotions that are already 'on the agenda'. A
Two dominant themes emerged in the spontaneous statement, all music therapists will recognize.
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A positive factor of such open-ended studies is

that it can be studied if one refers to emotion when
describing musical experiences and if these emotions
are experienced directly in response to music. A
disadvantage of such retrospective studies is the
question of how reliable these descriptions of
childhood experiences are. It can be assumed that
regardless of the subject one describes of ones
childhood, emotional descriptions will be given. If
someone were to describe riding a bicycle in
childhood years for instance, these terms were also
likely to be found, simply because we evaluate all
sorts of sti muli with affective responses. The
question is again if they are actually emotional
experiences directly invoked through music which
are measured?
Researching emotional experiences directly
related to music is complex, as has been
demonstrated above. In the context of music
listening, the effect seems to be related to earlier
associations that are different for us all. In the studies
described above it is clear that association processes
are present, although it has not been the study focus.
From many music therapy studies involving the
effects of Guided Imagery and Music, these
associational processes have been well
demonstrated and documented.
Also in relation to specific musical characteristics,
there are still many more layers than only structural
characteristics with which the emotional response
is associated, such as admiration for the
performance. One single music piece can invoke a
large variety of emotional responses: one of the
powers of music, but a headache for the researcher.
Many researchers have tried to identify a single
emotion in the listener when he is listening to music,
such as sadness or joy. Emotional experience in the
context of music is an interesting but difficult process
to study. Music cannot simply make someone sad
or happy. There are many other responses thinkable,
which may occur at the same time. Exactly for these
reasons, Meyer (1956) was sceptical about the
possibility to ever identify clear relations between
the music listened to and the responses invoked in
the listener. He held it impossible that a listener can
specify what elements in the music invoke for
instance thrills. Sloboda (1991) studied this claim
and argues that trained professionals can describe
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Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 2001, 10(2)

what elements and on what time they induce a

response. The subjects all first described which
physical changes they had experienced when
listening to music. 90% of the respondents reported
to have experienced thrills, 88% indicated to have
laughed and 85% reported to have cried while
listening to music. The listeners turned out to be
very capable in stating which musical selections
induced the responses and even more specific during
which moments in the music. The specific fragments
were related to the published scores and classified
to the musical features they contained. Twenty
passages related to the response crying which
contained features such as melodic appoggiaturas
and melodic or harmonic sequences. Shivers were
related most frequently with new or unprepared
harmony. These findings correspond with Meyer's
(1956) and Mandler's (1984) expectations. The
specific moments in the music were all associated
with sudden, unexpected musical changes.
From this study we may conclude that there are
indeed musical elements that can be described in
association with the emotional experience. Still, the
experiences have been described in retrospect. The
physiological changes reported in this study, may
bear no resemblance to the actual emotions
experienced at the time when one was listening to
the music, as Rime, Phillipot and Cisamolo (1990)
found when comparing the emotions subjects
recalled and experienced in everyday life.
Only on few occasions, musical responses were
studied when subjects were actually playing or
listening to music. Waterman (1996) compared
differences in emotional responding to music
between trained and untrained listeners. He derived
14 fragments from Sloboda's (1991) study, which
were found to induce emotional responding.
Fragments selected were jazz, pop and classical
music. When listening to the music, the listener could
activate a switch-button, when something in the
music caused something to happen to him.
The outcome measure was the number of
responses per bar of music. This was the task for
the naive listener. The professional musicians
performed the same pieces with also an inventive
responsemode, which they could press to indicate
reactions experienced. Waterman found that
subjects could reliably indicate that the music moved

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MUSIC AND EMOTION

them and did not find differences between the two
groups in the degree that they were able to indicate
events within musical extracts to be emotionally
loaded. This was apparent when the music was
known or unknown and to a lesser degree when the
musical genre was found pleasing or displeasing.
Methodological problems are numerous in these
sorts of approaches. Emotions are often of short
duration and when they are studied in an
experimental setting it can be questioned in what
way they were influenced by task demands, such
as in Waterman's study, pressing a button. The
experimental setting holds an entirely different
atmosphere to the couch at home. The described
questionnaires can be validated to a certain extent
by testing them in different populations and in
different circumstances. Still, it is problematic that
people have the tendency to select basic emotions
to describe their experiences and they are less
capable to describe the nuances (Frijda, 1988).
According to Frijda, these questionnaires do not
help us to gain any insight in how complex emotions
can be understood, such as experienced when
listening to music. What does one exactly experience
when indicating that someone is happy or sad?
Aldridge (1996) warns for the quantitative approach
in music research. He holds that we should be careful
not to organize nature according to concepts
imposed on it and demonstrates the need for a more
phenomenological, holistic understanding of
musical experiences through qualitative research.
Standard questionnaires are difficult to use in a
musical setting. Bartel's (1992) CART-M test
(Cognitive-Affective Response Test) has been
especially developed to measure musical
responding. In this questionnaire there has also
been made a distinction between different ways of
responding: cognitively or affectively. Sloboda
(1985) refers to humour, to clarify the influence of
cognitive and affective stages in musical
responding. We can only laugh about a joke when
we have heard all of it. The cognitive stage is a
necessary prerequisite for the affective phase to
occur. Affective responses may or may not occur,
someone may equally well have understood thejoke
but for some reasons could not laugh about it. With
music something similar happens. When someone
listens to music, he always makes a mental

representation of the music and affect may or may

not occur. Both within music and in emotion, these
cognitive and affective phases can be distinguished.
In the CART-M they are called a formal-intellectual
dimension and an emotional-expressive dimension.
With a semantic differential test it was studied if
emotional responses were different among subjects
when listening to different music styles. The
responses to classical music were more cognitive
than towards jazz and country music. This study
implicates that more musical repertoires should be
included than only classical music. Also it was
demonstrated that the more familiar the music was,
the more affective the response became. Also the
amount of musical training is a determinant in the
response. The subjects with music theoretical
knowledge predominantly responded cognitively to
the music and untrained listeners affectively. These
findings again correspond to the theories of Meyer
(1956),Mandler(1984andBerlyne(1971).

Music psychology meets Music therapy

Although the topic of music and emotion is central
to both music psychology and music therapy,
research findings from the respective fields are not
commonly shared. Only some articles written on the
topic of music therapy relate to how music therapy
and music psychology could benefit from one and
another.
Generally, in music psychology groups of healthy
people are compared to each other, e.g. groups who
have received formal music education and groups
who have not. What would be interesting to know
next is how do healthy people differ in this context
to certain client populations, to understand more
about musical emotions.
Music psychologists could for one benefit from
music therapy studies in this area. By now it is more
or less clear that people respond emotionally to
music but interesting to know next what are the
variations between different subjects. Smith (1989)
studied for instance the listening preferences in
subjects ranging from 18 to 89 in preferred loudness
levels, a typical music psychology topic of relevance
to music therapy practice.
A task for music therapists could be to study
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further how musical preferences are related to a

variety of client populations. How do demented
elderly for instance perceive music and emotions
from a music psychological view. It would be an
enrichment of the literature to compare these to music
therapy findings. As music psychology generally
focuses on healthy adults, it could be beneficial to
music psychology research to study preferences
and emotions in a therapeutic context with client
populations such as the elderly and comatose
people.
In this last section, some researchers will be
highlighted which have incorporated music
psychology findings in their music therapeutic
research. Bunt (1995) is one of the few authors who
mentions the common grounds between music
psychology and music therapy in understanding
musical development. For developing therapeutic
goals and finding ways to attune to the child, it is
important to know the capacities of children per se
in understanding and perceiving music. When are
children able to sing spontaneously? What musical
qualities children adhere to when they have
emotional experiences? Terwogt and Grinsven (1991)
demonstrated that young children are able to
recognize basic emotions in classical music. Here
the music therapist can also benefit from general
psychological findings. Children at the age of four
are better in expressing these emotions than
recognizing them (Field and Walden, 1982). At later
ages children are more able to differentiate between
the variety in positive and negative emotions
(Manstead, 1993).
Most of the descriptions resemble the trend to
music psychology: how is emotion perceived/
experienced when one listens to music. In practice
already in receptive music therapy, instruments such
as deri vates of the Hevner's adjective circle are used,
to let the person become adapted to the therapy
and to gather emotional connotations which the
person has with the music for assessment purposes.
Regretfully, these instruments are often not
described in the clinical literature nor has their use
and effect been documented. Meyer (2001) describes
how often it is not the patterning of the music per se
that evokes emotion, but the connotations that it
has for different listeners.
This idea has been described in various music
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Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 2001, 10(2)

therapy studies. Smeijsters, Wijzenbeek and van

Nieuwenhuijzen (1995) hypothesized that in the life
of depressive patients, several values are very
important (e.g., chaos, authority, death, religion). It
was studied in an explorative study if specific
musical excerpts can evoke these connotations.
Depressive clients (n-44) listened during two
sessions to 16 selected musical fragments (such as
Bach (2 min), Symphony no. 2 E flat major, Part 1:
Allegro di molto). Patients were asked to select, from
a list of 14 values, those values (such as violence,
family and relaxation) that came to mind as they
listened to each excerpt. Results showed that the
fragments indeed evoked the values but they found
no one-to-one relationship. The authors underline
the complexity of interpreting these results. In
general, most studies are complicated by the fact
that there are so many antecedents and responses
that interact, which are difficult to measure. General
emotions terms are thus likely to yield results, but
often the nature of the response is unclear. Research
is needed which is more directed at understanding
the process of how emotions develop in music than
the end-state 'static' experience.
A method which is typically based on music
psychological findings is Guided Imagery and Music
developed by Helen Bonnny. The method is based
on the assumption that the most appropriate music
can be selected for healing purposes. The client
listens to the music in a relaxed state and shares the
experiences with the therapist. The music is selected
for specific themes such as 'positive affect'.
Erdonmez Grocke (1999) has written extensively on
the application of GIM, also in reference to a variety
of client populations. Bonny states (1986) about
the assumptions of GIM that research on the musicassisted imagery process (GIM) demonstrated that
personal music preferences were not usually
applicable for healing when used in therapeutic
settings. This statement is one of debate for music
therapy for which the music psychological findings
are interesting. Others have demonstrated that
music should be selected carefully in line with
personal preferences. Gerdner (2000) demonstrated
in her study the effects between listening to standard
relaxation music compared to individualized music
in its effect to reduce agitation in demented elderly.
Both types of interventions were clearly more

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MUSIC AND EMOTION

effective compared to baseline measurements. In all
aspects, carefully selected music based on the
person's preference and personal background was
far more effective than standard relaxation music.
Perhaps it could be hypothesized that when music
meets collectively shared connotations such as
presented in GIM, emotions can be invoked although
with different associations. This would be interesting
to research further.
In most of the research -both in music therapy
and music psychology- is chosen for the option
that people listen to music. Not many researchers
have addressed the topic of the experience of
emotions while performing or in music therapy while
improvising. The processes present here are difficult
lo grasp with scientific hands. Bunt and Pavlicevic
(2001) describe aspects of generating and receiving
of emotions through music in the realms of clinical
improvisation. They studied an outcome of music
psychological research in a music therapeutic
context. In the music psychology literature, specific
instruments are seen as being more suitable than
others to convey a particular emotion. Gabrielson
and Juslin (1996) instructed nine professional
musicians to sing or play -on violin, flute or electrical
guitar- particular emotional expressions such as
happiness, sadness and anger as well as without
expression. In general, the listener easily
understood which emotional expression was played
or sung. The researchers concluded that the effect
is influenced by the type of musical instrument or
whether one sings an emotional expression.
Bunt and Pavlicevic (2001) studied how therapists
judged short improvisations on emotional intentions
such as happiness, sadness, tenderness, anger and
fear. Two groups of music therapists were included.
The first group consisted of music therapy trainees
and the second group of music therapy researchers
and teachers. Members of each group were asked
to improvise freely on one of the described
emotions, after which the improvisation was rated
in terms of the presence for each emotional state.
The listening music therapists were able to describe
more or less accurately the intended emotions.
Problematic is the case, as it is in music psychological
research that it is likely that no singular emotion is
solely present but when someone is playing anger,
sadness is also experienced in the music, which

contributes to the variety in scores. This is one of

the major topics, which should further future
research: what are the interrelations between the
variety of musical parameters related to the variety
present in musical responding.

Coda
Far-reaching conclusions cannot be made about the
relationship and the direction of the relationship
between music and emotion. There are still too many
methodological and theoretical problems to be able
lo clearly describe this relation, both in music
psychology and music therapy. Ruud (2001)
describes that one should think that the music
therapist would be the first to know why music is so
effective in music therapy. How difficult it is to
describe this and to demonstrate this scientifically
has been shown in this paper. As there are so many
aspects still unknown, possibly a strong partner
can assist in finding new answers: both for music
psychology and for music therapy.
In this article some findings of music psychology
and music therapy research studies were discussed
which share the same topic: music and emotion. The
paper is certainly full of blanks, as this is a topic that
deserves a book (series:), but possibly it stimulates
discussion to fill in the blanks.
Still, the fields of music psychology and music
therapy are relatively young and it is only since
recent dates that the relation between emotion and
music is researched more thoroughly. Sloboda and
Juslin (2001) state that after a period of neglect,
because of the listed methodological problems, the
topic of music and emotion is again at the forefront
of music psychology. They illustrate this with the
sudden increase in music and emotion papers at
various conferences.
According to Sloboda (1985) it is important to
integrate existing knowledge from a variety of
disciplines to be able to further theoretical
development. He also mentions aptly the tendency
that researchers want to come up with a theory of
their own. Mostly this complicates integrating
findings. Luckily, more and more people build their
ideas upon already existing knowledge. Ansdell
(2001) sums some of the recent trends in musicology
which he sees as of importance for music therapy
Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 2001, 10(2)

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ANNEMIEKVINK
such as the study of music as a process as well as a Bunt, Leslie & Pavlicevic, Mercedes (2001). Music
structure. The latest European Music Therapy
and emotion: perspectives from music therapy.
conference in Naples in 2001 included musicology
In: Sloboda, J.A & Juslin, P.N. (Eds.) Music and
presentations that demonstrated the interrelations
Emotion: theory and research (pp. 181-205).
between disciplines. Possibly, on the next music
New York: Oxford University Press.
therapy conferences also music psychologists will Clark, David M. & Teasdale, John D. (1985).
be present. It is important to focus on these
Constraints on the effects of mood on memory.
interrelations, as current research is so often divided
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
in separate specializations. Often a musicology
45,1595-1608.
approach is to focus on musical elements and to Dainow, Elliot (1977). Physical effects and motor
ignore psychological characteristics and vice versa
responses to music. Journal of Research in
the therapist often attaches less value to
Music Education, 211-219.
musicological aspects.
Dowling, W. Jay & Harwood, Daniel L. (1986).
Currently, the impression on conferences and
Music and Cognition. Londen: Academic
from the literature is that music therapy and music
Press.
psychology are two entirely different fields, which Droh, Roland & Spintge, Ralph (1987). Musik in
they of course are. But in each relationship, it is
der Medizin: Neurophysiologische
their differences that attract and which should be
Grundlagen, Klinische Applikationen,
elaborated more, such as the question how music
Geisteswissenschaftliche Einordnung. Berlin/
and emotions are related. I hold that the two partners
Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.
in this young relationship can benefit a great deal Erdonmez-Grocke, Denise (1999). A
from their 'living apart together' relationship.
Phenomenological Study of Pivotal Moments
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Musical Excerpts on the Evocation of Values
Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 2001, 10(2)

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Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 2001, 10(2)