Active Use of Solar Energy in Buildings

ACTIVE USE OF
SOLAR ENERGY
IN BUILDINGS
WHY HOW WHAT
GUIDE FOR THE ARCHITECT
DAGNE
VILKA
HORSENS
2010
ActiveUseofSolarEnergyinBuildings
2010
ActiveUseofSolarEnergyin
Buildings
Why?How?What?
Guideforthearchitect
AuthorDagneVilka
ConsultantLailaOlesen
Horsens,November2010
ArchitecturalTechnologyandConstructionManagement
Electivesubject(Dissertation)final7thsemester
ViaUniversityCollegeCampusHorsens
This is a College assignment for examination use ONLY no legal or technical validity is
claimedorassumed.
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ListofContents
Listoffigures........................................................................................................................4
Listoftables..........................................................................................................................5
Introduction..........................................................................................................................6
Definitionofproblem...........................................................................................................7
1. Solarenergysroleinglobalscale..................................................................................8
1.1. Historyofsolarenergy...........................................................................................8
1.2. Solarenergyversusotherenergysources...........................................................10
1.3. Positiveandnegativeaspectsofsolarenergy.....................................................12
2. Solarenergypropertiesanddependenceofenvironmentalissues.............................14
2.1. Sunsenergyoutput.............................................................................................14
2.2. Atmosphere,timeandlocationinfluenceosolarenergy....................................17
3. Activesolarenergysystems.........................................................................................20
3.1. Photovoltaicsystems...........................................................................................21
3.1.1.Solarradiationconversiontoelectricity......................................................21
3.1.2.Typesofphotovoltaic(PV)solarcells...........................................................22
3.1.3.Designsolutionsforincreasingefficiency....................................................23
3.1.4.Efficiencyaffectingissues.............................................................................25
3.1.5.Systemcomponents.....................................................................................26
3.1.6.Designvariationsinbuildings.......................................................................27
3.2. Photoelectrochemicalsystems...........................................................................28
3.3. Solarthermalsystems..........................................................................................29
3.3.1.Perforatedplatecollectors...........................................................................29
3.3.2.Flatplatecollectors......................................................................................30
3.3.3.Evacuatedtubecollectors............................................................................32
3.3.4.Batchcollectors............................................................................................33
3.3.5.Systemcomponents.....................................................................................34
3.4. Solarthermoelectricsystems...............................................................................36
3.5. Solarcoolingandotherapplications....................................................................38
Conclusion..........................................................................................................................40
References..........................................................................................................................41
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Listoffigures
Figure1.DevelopmentofActiveandPassivesolarenergy..................................................8
Figure2.SevillesPowerTower[3]......................................................................................9
Figure3.WorldTotalEnergyProduction[4].......................................................................10
Figure4.EnergyConsumptionbyIndustry[9]...................................................................12
Figure5.LargestSolarPoweredBuilding[10]....................................................................13
Figure6.EquilibriumoftheSun[11]..................................................................................14
Figure7.Nuclearfusion......................................................................................................14
Figure8.Electromagneticwave[15]..................................................................................15
Figure9.ElectromagneticSpectrumProperties[17].........................................................16
Figure10.Lightreflection[18]...........................................................................................16
Figure11.InteractionofincomingsolarradiationwiththeAtmosphere[20]..................17
Figure12.Globalyearlyirradiance[21].............................................................................18
Figure13.SolarGeometry[22]..........................................................................................18
Figure14.YearlysumofglobalirradiationonahorizontalsurfaceDenmark[23].........19
Figure15.Officeenergyconsumption[24]........................................................................20
Figure16.Residentialenergyconsumption[25]................................................................20
Figure17.Positivelyandnegativelychargedatoms[26]...................................................21
Figure18.Photovoltaiccellconstruction[27]....................................................................21
Figure19.Electronflow[28]..............................................................................................22
Figure20.Monocrystallinesiliconeingotandwafers[29]...............................................22
Figure21.Productionprocessoftypicalcrystallinesiliconesolarcells[30]......................23
Figure22.Amorphoussiliconthinfilmcell[31].................................................................23
Figure23.Monocrystallinesiliconecellfragment[32].....................................................23
Figure24.Polycrystallinesiliconecellsurfacetexture[33]..............................................24
Figure25.Concentratedsolarcellwithfocusinglenses[34].............................................24
Figure26.Concentratedsolarcellwithfocusingmirrors[35]...........................................24
Figure27.Solarpanelsonatrackingsystem[36]..............................................................24
Figure28.Efficiencyversussolarradiation[37,page134]................................................25
Figure29.DependenceonSunincidenceangle[37,page135]........................................25
Figure30.Sweepingsnowfromsolarpanels[38]..............................................................26
Figure31.Offgridsystemexample[39]............................................................................26
Figure32.Photovoltaicpavement[40]..............................................................................27
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Figure33.IntegratedConcentratingSolarFaadeSystem[41].........................................27
Figure34.Photovoltaicfaadecladding[42].....................................................................27
Figure35.Dyesensitizedsolarcells[44]...........................................................................28
Figure36.Perforatedplatecollectorsprincipalscheme[47]...........................................30
Figure37.Flatplatecollectorcomposition[48].................................................................30
Figure38.Flatplatecollectorsinstalledonawall[50]......................................................31
Figure39.Evacuatedtubecollectormountedonaroof[51]............................................32
Figure40.Evacuatedglasstubecomposition[52].............................................................32
Figure41.Evacuatedtubesgeometry[53].......................................................................32
Figure42.Integratedtanksolarevacuatedtubecollector[54]........................................33
Figure43.DoItYourselfbatchsolarcollector[55].........................................................33
Figure44.Flatplatecollectorclosedloopsystem[56]......................................................34
Figure45.Solarthermoelectricsystemcollectortypes[57]..............................................36
Figure46.ThesolarfurnaceatOdeillo[58].......................................................................37
Figure47.Evaporativecoolingsystemprinciple[59].........................................................38
Figure48.Desiccantcoolingsystem[60]...........................................................................38
ListofTables
Table1.Comparisonofrenewableenergysources[6,page31,7]...................................11
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Introduction
As conventional sources soon wont be able to meet the demands of future society,
development and use of renewables is increasing. On one hand the rapid growth of
population, rising standards of life andon the other hand environmental problems caused
bypollutionsandineffectiveresourceuseareissuesthatinfluenceeachother.Inbetween
them is energy production the consumption is rising, but producing more of it by using
nonrenewablesources,theenvironmentissufferingandnolongtermexistenceispossible.
Tokeepthebalancebetweenrisingconsumptionanddecreasingresources,renewablesare
usedthatmaketheenvironment,societyandeconomicssustainable.
Inthebuildingindustry,thatisoneofthemainenergyconsumers,newsustainableprojects
are not thinkable without use of renewables, especially solar energy. As it is such an
abundantandinfinitesource,remarkablesavingsorevenearningscanbeachievednotonly
financially but also materially. To do this, the Sun can be used in two ways active and
passive.Passiveuseismoreknownassolararchitectureanddealswithshapesandmaterials
thatduringexploitationdontdependonotherenergyinputsprovidedbymen.Toughactive
useissupportedbydifferenttechnologicalsystems,thereforemoreefficientandthesubject
describedinthisresearch.
Althoughthehandlingofactivesolarsystemsmayseemtobetheresponsibilityoftechnical
engineers,theconceptofaprojectisstilldefinedbyarchitects.Solartechnologiesmustbe
implementedinaprojectfromtheverybeginningandmanythingshavetobesubordinated
accordingtothemtoachievemaximumefficiency.
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Definitionofproblem
Somesaythatagoodarchitectmusthaveknowledgeinallsectorsoflifeandinnowadays
situationoneofthemainissuesistheuseofrenewables.Asthefieldofactiveuseofsolar
energyisrelativelynew,moreandmoreinventionsappeareverydayanditisgettinghard
to keep up with the nowadays tendencies. Not to get confused by the clever marketing
strategies of different novelties, basic knowledge is needed to be able to objectively
evaluatealltheproductsandoptimallyusethem.
Thisresearchisasummaryofallissuesrelatedtoactiveuseofsolarenergyinbuildingsthat
in many cases are missed. All chapters together offer the basic information needed to be
abletoorientateinthisfield.Themainquestionsthatdefinetheissuesaboutactiveuseof
solarenergyare:
Whyshouldsolarenergybeused?
Although everywhere is promoted that use of this energy type is good, not
everybody knows what are the real reasons and therefore the real gains can be
missed. Also the awareness of importance in global scale is essential, to keep up
withthenowadaystendencies.
Howdoessolarenergyworkandwhataretheissuesthataffectit?
Theefficiencyofsolarsystemsisnotonlydependentonthephysicalcharacteristics
of different technologies, but also issues like time, region, climate etc. By
understanding the principles of solar energy properties, optimal evaluation by
makingthechoiceofasuitablesystemcanbedone.
Whatarethesolarsystemtypesandhowcantheybeused?
Solarenergycannotbeconvertedonlywithsolarpanelsplacedonroofs.Thereare
numerousothertypesofsolarsystemsandwayshowtousethem.Inchapter3all
types are described to show the diversity and enable designers to find the right
solutionfortheirregionandgivethedirectionshowtousethem.
Architects, that define and modify the surrounding environment, are the third party that
brings the inventions from laboratories to the customers. Although the scientists and
engineersarewelleducatedinthisfieldanddelivergoodinventions,thecurrentarchitects
educationisincompleteconcerningrenewablesourceuse.Thereforethisresearchisalsoa
suggestionofthebasicinformationthatstudentsandemployeesofbuildingindustryshould
knowwhendevelopingprojects.
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1.Solarenergysroleinglobalscale
SolarenergyisthescientificnamefortheenergywegetfromtheSuninformofradiantlight
andheat.Nowadayseverybodyknowsthatthisisanimportantsourcethatshouldbeused
in all possible ways beginning from simple actions like letting sunlight in your room to
establishing plantsthatcollectsolarenergyandconducttothe customers.Thekeywordis
savingenergyandSunisoneofthebestsourcestodothat,butnoteverybodyknowswhy.
1.1. HistoryofSolarenergy
TheroleofSunwasalreadyrecognizedby theancient civilizations,although therewas no

awareness that Suns energy can run a steam engine or produce electricity to run a
householdorvehicle.Thebigburningballintheskywasadeityindifferentculturesworld
wide. It came every morning and disappeared every evening, ruling peoples lives. During
time the importance grew and fell and it seems that nowadays it is close to the level that
ancientcultureshad,onlynotinthefieldofreligionbutscience.
Passiveuseofsolarenergylightandwarmthisusedeversincewe,humans,areawareof
ourselves. The first steps to use the Sun for producing something was to concentrate the
Suns rays to gain fire and use this fire in different religious and household needs 7th
CenturyBC.Duringtime,whenmorecomplicatedbuildingswithglasswindowsdeveloped,
the function of the glazed surface was not only giving a possibility to look through the
buildingenvelopebutalsogainwarmthfromtheSun,bysituatingthesesurfacestotheside
wheretheSunshinesatmost.Thepassiveuseofsunlightwasintentionalandusedinmore
andmoreways,andthesemethodsareusedalsonowadaysinsolararchitecture[1].
Figure1.DevelopmentofActiveandPassivesolarenergy
TheturningpointinuseofSunenergywaswhenscientistsstartedtodevelopdevicesthat
collectedenergyfromtheSunanddirecteditforfurtheruse,startingfromthe18thcentury.
The reason for the first attempts was the search for new discoveries after the Scientific
Revolution in the 16th Century. The first significant invention, in 1860s made by August
Mouchet, was a solarpowered motor of 0.5 horsepower and a steam engine that was
powered by the Sun. In the 1870s William Adams used the same principle of the steam
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engine, but concentrating the Suns rays with

mirrors to achieve higher efficiency 2.5
horsepower.Thisprincipleisalsousednowadays
andknownasthePowerTowerConcept(Figure
2).Inthenextdecadethefirstsolarcellwasborn
with the conversion rate of 12% (Charles Fritz)
and the first solar system for heating water was
installed (Charles Tellier) [2]. Despite the
promising achievements none of the inventions
Figure2.SevillesPowerTower[3]
where developed further, because the use of
fossilenergy,atthattime,wasmoreefficient.
Theuseofsolarenergy, asweknowitnow,startedtodeveloprapidlyinthe20thcentury
afterWorldWarII.TillthenattemptstoproduceenergyfromSunforcommercialusewhere
minororunsuccessful,butthediscoveriescontinuedinthelaboratories.Thefirstkickwas
whenscientistsin1954discoveredasemiconductormaterialthatincreasedtheefficiencyof
solarcellsto6%.Itwassiliconethebasismaterialofsolarcellsandsolarpanelsnowadays.
Twoyearslater,thefirstcommercialsolarcellwasavailablebutthepricewashigh300$
per watt and the popularity was low. Further development was promoted by the space
programstherewasaneedofanenergysourcethatisrenewableinspace,theefficiency
of the solar cells rose. The importance and development of solar energy increased rapidly
aftertheOPECoilembargoin the1970s.Thisincidentshowedtheworldthatthe gain of
fossilsources is unstable and there is a need energy sources that can replace it. The Solar
technologies became more and more efficient, the price decreased and new inventions
showedupmoreoften.
Nowadays solar energy is a common used source. The driving force for development and
establishment of renewable sources is not only the political reasons, but also economical,
socialandenvironmentalaspects.Thecontinuousdevelopmentsandtechnologicalprogress
promoteswiderangeofproductsanditstartstogetconfusingforthecustomer.
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1.2. Solarenergyversusotherenergysources
Thediversityofsourcesfromwhomtogainenergyiswide.Thesesourcescanbeclassifiedin
two groups renewable and nonrenewable. The nonrenewable sources are mainly fossil
fuelscoal,petroleumandnaturalgas(remainsofthedecompositionofplantsandanimals,
ironically,bythehelpofSunsenergy)andnuclearpowerenergygainedfromuraniumvia
nuclearfission.Thesearetheconventionalsourcesandashistoryshowsalthoughcheap
uponothersbecauseofthehighenergydensity,unreliable,withthetendencyofproducing
pollutants,whenusedand,astheclassificationsays,nonrenewablethesourcewillexpire.
On the other hand, renewable sources agree with the main requirements for nowadays
situation. The main advantages are endlessness of delivered energy (can be recycled) and
pollutantfreeuse.Fornowtheefficiencyiscomparativelylowandthereofalsothepriceis
higher, but the potential is big. The commercial use of these sources is recent and
developmentforhigherefficiencyishappeninginfullswing.Witchofthesourcesisgoingto
bethemostusedinfuturedependsontheregions,theirpoliticsandenvironmentalaspects.
Todayssituationshowsthatweareusingnonrenewablesourcesmorethantherenewable
(Figure 3). The awareness of need of changes is relatively new, so the shift is only in the
beginning. The rise of population and social development is an additional burden to the
energy production for both conventional and renewable sources. The difference here
conventionalsourceshavenolongtermperspective.
Figure3.WorldTotalEnergyProduction[4]
The renewable energy sources have way more types to offer than the conventional ones,
that also makes them more accessible in different regions and independent from the fuel
market.Themainstreamformsofrenewableenergyare:
Windpowerairflowusedtorunwindturbines;
Hydropower:
o Hydroelectricenergyproductionofelectricalpowerthroughtheuseofthe
gravitationalforceoffallingorflowingwater;
o Damlesshydrosystemsthatusethekineticenergyofwaterflow;
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Ocean energy in ways of tidal power, thermal energy conversion, marine

currentpower;
Solarenergy:
o PassiveuseofSunwithoutactivemechanicalsystems;
o Active:
Photovoltaicsystemsenergyconvertedtoelectricity
SolarThermalsystemsenergyconvertedtothermalenergy;
Biomassreleasingenergybyburningplants;
Geothermal energy collecting heat from Earths core and also more shallow
seams.[5]
o
It is interesting to mention that wind, hydro and biomass sources are directly or indirectly
drivenbytheSun.Thecauseforwindispressuredifferencesofgassesthataredependent
onthelevelheatedbytheSun.ThewindandSunaffectthemovementofwaterindifferent
scales and the energy, that biomass releases by burning, comes from the Sun. Of course
manyotherforcesinfluencetheseenergysources,buttheroleofSunisunquestionable.
Table1.Comparisonofrenewableenergysources[6,page31,7]
InTable1basiccriterionarecollectedtogetabetteroverviewofthemaincharacteristicsof
each source. The overall status of solar energy is positive because of the high amount of
energy available, variations of gained energy types and low impact on environment. Very
important,inthiscase,istheestablishmentinsmallscale,inmeansofgoodpossibilitiesto
usethissourceforpersonaluse.Thepricefactorshowstheaveragesituationnow,butitis
variablewiththetendencytodecreaseformostofthesourceswiththelapseoftime.The
main disadvantage on the background of other energy sources is the supply frequency
solarenergyisweatherdependent.
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1.3. Positiveandnegativeaspectsofsolarenergy
Continuingtheresearch,wearetakingacloserlookinthedifferentaspectsthatmakethis
energysourcesopromisinginthefuturedevelopmentofenergyproductioninglobalscale
andthebuildingsciencesfromtheviewpointofanarchitect.
SunisthebiggestenergysupplieronEarth.EveryhourtheEarthreceives10,4EJ(equalto
2,91012kW)ofSunenergy.TheamountofSunenergywereceiveeach dayisjustalittle
lessthantheestimatedenergycontainedintheworldscoalreserves(expectedtolastfor
next 130 years)[8]. Although a big part of the solar energy is lost in different reflecting,
conducting and absorbing processes in the Earths atmosphere, the remaining amount is
enoughtoproduceenergysavingsindifferentlevels.Thisqualityensuresagoodchanceto
be a premier source when replacing the use of conventional energy sources by the rising
requisitionofmankind.Besidesthis,solarenergyhasalsoothersignificantcharacteristics:
RenewablesourcethesolarenergycomesfromtheSunthatisgoingtostayasitis
forthenext5billionyears;
Variety solar energy can be used for electricity generation, heating and day
lighting;
Notietofuelsbythegenerationofenergynofuelsareinvolvednofuelcosts,no
pollutionbycombustionprocesses,nodependenceofthefuelmarket;
Thesourceisaccessibleworldwide;
Also as history shows, the role of solar energy is rising and implication in different fields
relatedtoenergyissuesisinescapable.
In the worldwide energy consumption scene

about40%isusedinthebuildingindustry(Figure
4). Production of materials, construction and
maintenance of all the buildings in the world
consume big amounts of energy, therefore the
representatives of this industry have significant
influenceontheglobalenergysituation.Thiswhy
it is important for engineers, contractors,
planners and especially architects the creators
of the building concepts, to understand the role
of solar energy. To convince to give preference
tosolarenergyoverothersources,herearethe Figure4.EnergyConsumptionbyIndustry[9]
mainadvantages:
SavesmoneySolarenergyisanendlessandfreesourcethatcanpartlyortotally
overtakethesupplyofelectricity,heatingspacesandlightingofabuildinginwaysof
solararchitecture(passiveuse)and photovoltaicandthermalsystems(activeuse).
Also the payback period can be short (depends on the consumption) and if the
systemsproducemoreenergythanneeded,theoverstockcanbesold;
Environmentally friendly during the production of energy no water or air is
polluted and the process is noisefree, thereof it contributes the protection of
environment;
Independencesolarsystemsdontnecessaryhavetobeconnectedtopowerlines
or other networks. Installed efficient, they can provide households with all the
necessaryenergyindependentfromothers;
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Maintenance solar systems are

generally simple in use and upkeep
and can also be implemented in the
total building maintenance in cases
where solar systems replace or are a
partofbuildingcomponents.
Design diversity active and passive
use of solar energy can be carried out
in vide variety of ways. Implemented
solar systems can positively affect the
designandevenraiseitsquality.
Figure5.LargestSolarPoweredBuilding
[10],Dezhou,ShangdongProvincein
Unfortunately solar energy has also its
northwestChina
problematicsides.Butsincethepositiveaspects
clearlyplacethissourceintheleadingroleinthefuture,thereintensiveresearchesaredone
tosolveorlearntodealwiththesedisadvantages.Themainweakpointsandtheirpotential
solutionsare:
Environmentalunfriendlymaterialsandbyproductsusedintheproductionofsolar
devices.Mostlysolarcellsandpanelsthatproduceelectricityarecomposedofthese
kindsofmaterials.Althoughtheamountofriskymaterialsissmall,thesolutionisto
raisetheefficiencyofthesedevices,inthatwayreducingthecellmaterialneeded.
Low efficiency and high cost these are permanent parameters that will change
during time. The efficiency problem is the most investigated issue and good
solutionsareavailablealreadynow.Thecostisdependentonthecommercialuseof
solartechnologiesandhasatendencytodecrease.
Solar energy dependence on climatic conditions, regions, daytime and pollution
this is the biggest disadvantage, also in global scale. The original energy output of
SunisdecreasedbythesefactorsandtheyhinderaconstantenergygainonEarth.
Thisisalsoareasonfortheneedofstoringenergy;thereforeadditionaldevicesto
solar systems are needed. Evaluation of the regional characteristics and ability to
choosedevicesappropriatetotheseconditionsisthesolutionandalsothesubject
ofthenextchapters.
Allenergysources,nomattersifconventionalorrenewable,havetheirprosandcons.Some
are more perspective than others, but as long as we learn to use them wisely and for the
rightreasons,globalproblemswontaffectusandwewillhaveasafefuture.
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2.Solarenergypropertiesanddependenceof
environmentalissues
In this chapter we are analyzing the energy types the Sun is emanating and the supplied
energys activity under different environmental impacts. This knowledge is important,
becauseithelpstounderstandtheenergyconversionprocessesandeasestomaketheright
choiceofsolardevices.
2.1.Sunsenergyoutput
InthiscasethefeaturedfactsoftheSunareminor.Theunderstandingofhowtheenergyis
produced is more relevant since this information should be used in further research of
effective use of solar systems. The informations language is kept simple to ease the
understandingforreaderswithoutspecialknowledgeaboutthissubject.
From the very beginning the reason

why Sun is able to produce energy is
related to the birth of this star. Sun
took shape from particles of space
(nebulabigdustandgascloud)slowly
joining together and forming a sphere
bytheforcesofgravity4.5billionyears
ago. The sphere rotated and this
rotation caused the mass to compress
more and more. The compression
pushed together the gases in the core,
temperature and pressure rose till
nuclear fusion occur and energy was
produced(similarreactionsareusedin
nuclear power plants on Earth). In its
Figure6.EquilibriumoftheSun[11]
turn the energy raised the pressure
even more and stopped the compression. The pushing and pulling forces in the mass
stabilizedandtheSuntookconstantsizeasweknowitnow(Figure6).
So, nuclear fusion, possible only by

extremely high pressure and temperature,
isthemainenergycreatorintheSun.Inthis
process two or more atomic nuclei join
together and form a new nucleus and
energy. The Sun consists of 74% hydrogen,
25%helium andsevenotherelementsthat
form the rest. In the nuclear fusion two
hydrogen nuclei join and form helium, but
as the new nuclei helium is lighter than
Figure7.Nuclearfusion
the two hydrogen nuclei the remaining
massisconvertedintoenergy(E=mc2).Thefreshheliumnucleusjoinswithanotherhelium
nucleus forming full value helium that contains also two hydrogen nuclei. These hydrogen
particles split away and the process starts from the beginning (Figure 7). This continuous
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chain will last till there is enough hydrogen in the Sun, because not always the hydrogen
joinswithanothernucleusofitstype.Ifitcomestoreactionswhereotherparticlesjoin,no
new hydrogen is formed [12]. This why slowly the hydrogen amount decreases and in 5
billionyearsotherreactionswillstarttooccurandtheSunwillchangeitscharacteristicsfor
usdisadvantageous.Buttillthenthereactionsprovideuswithenergyandthiscanclearlybe
seenasarenewableenergysource.
The energy released by the nuclear fusion in the core of the Sun is in form of gammaray
photonsandneutrinos.Theneutrinosareparticleswithminimalenergyandleavethestar
as nothing happened. But the photons, that have the most energy, start a long journey
throughthephotospheretotheSunssurface.Thistravelcantaketo1millionyearsbecause
the particles are hindered by the stars gravitational attraction. During this process the
photonslooseenergyfortheburdensomemovementandintheendtheyreachthesurface
asvisiblephotons[13].
The photon is the key word in understanding the tie between the energy produced in the
coreandenergywereceiveontheEarth.Thedefinitionsays:Thephotonisthequantumof
the electromagnetic interaction and the basic "unit" of light and all other forms of
electromagneticradiationandisalsotheforcecarrierfortheelectromagneticforce.[14].
That means that the energy from the core is electromagnetic radiation and its main
characteristicsare:
It consists of electric and magnetic
energy that are bounded and form a
wave depending on their power
(Figure8);
Ability to diffuse in matter or vacuum

(inspacewiththespeedoflight);
Differentwavelength;
Than shorter the wave than more
energetictheradiationandopposite;
The waves can be reflected, scattered
Figure8.Electromagneticwave[15]
and absorbed (depends on the
irradiated mass properties). If absorbed, the energy is converted to heat or
electricity;ifscatteredorreflectedtheenergyisredirectedorredistributed[16].
So the electromagnetic radiation, produced in the center of the Sun, travels to the stars
surfacethenfurtheroninalldirectionsinspacewhereitisabsorbedbyobjectsthatarein
thewayofthisradiation.AndEarthisthatkindofanobject.
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Figure9.ElectromagneticSpectrumProperties[17]
Assaidbefore,thewavelengthoftheradiationvaries(electromagneticspectrum,Figure9).
Sun emits all types of electromagnetic radiation only the quantities of each type are
different. Mostly its the radiation with wavelength from 100 to 106 nm that includes
ultraviolet radiation, visible light and infrared radiation. Since all waves absorbed heat up
themassthemainfunctionofsolarradiationistomaintainthelifeandmotionofprocesses
onourplanet.
Wefeelthesolarradiationinformofheatandlight.Light
isasmallpartofthespectrumthatisvisiblebythehuman
eye. The wavelength is from 400 to 700 nm and the
intensityofsunlightcanalsobeanindicatorforthepower
level of the received radiation. Visible light is the part of
solar radiation with the highest energetic potential
(ultravioletradiationismoreenergeticthanlightbutmost
ofitisabsorbedbytheozonelayer),sothanmorelightwe
get than more energy is available. The visible spectrum
contains all colors and our brain is able to convert these
waves,strikingoureyes,ininformationvisualreflection
ofthescene.TheSunemitsallspectrums,sotheoretically
itcontainsallthecolors,howeveritiswhiteandshadesin
differenttonesonlywhenthereisafilterinfrontofitlike
theatmosphere,airpollutionetc.
So to produce energy, electromagnetic radiation in the

spectrum of solar radiation is used. Sun is reliable in
meansofemittingconstantenergyflow,butsadlytillthe
energy reaches the Earths surface it is weaken
dramatically. The energetic intensity of the radiation,
Figure10. Lightreflection[18]
before breaking into the Earths atmosphere is 1,366
kW/m2,alsocalledthesolarconstant.Buttheintensitywhenreachingtheplanetssurfaceis
onlyupto1000W/m2inclearskyconditions.Thereasonsforthisdecreasearediscussedin
thenextparagraphs.
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2.2.Atmosphere,timeandlocationinfluenceonsolarradiation
The efficiency is the most important issue that defines the choice of use of solar energy.
Apart from the potential of technologies it is affected by environmental issues like the
climaticprocessesintheatmosphere,locationandtime.
The electromagnetic radiation, emitted by the Sun, reaching the Earths atmosphere is
affectedalreadybytheuppermostlayersexosphereandthermosphere.Herethegamma
ray, Xray and ultraviolet radiation (wavelength less than 200 nm) are interacting with
oxygen O2 and nitrogen N and turned into heat. Only the ultraviolet radiation with
wavelengthmorethan200nm,togetherwithallthebiggerwavelengthsolarradiationtypes
continuesthetravel.Thenextstopistheozonelayerinthestratospherewheretherestof
ultraviolet radiation is reacting with oxygen and forming the ozone itself (only 13 % of
ultraviolet radiation penetrates). Further down the infrared solar radiation is absorbed
mainlybywatervaporandcarbondioxide(themaingasesofgreenhouseeffect).TheWater
vapor is available in big amounts in the lowest layer of atmosphere the troposphere, in
formofclouds,airhumidityetc.Theonlyradiationtypethatisabletoresistabsorptionis
visiblelight.Butittoocanbereducedbythereflectionofairbornedustandclouds(ableto
reflect better than to absorb) [19]. Also radio waves reach the Sun, but they are minor in
connectionwithsolarenergybecauseoftheirlowenergylevel.Furtherontheradiationis
absorbed by the Earths surface (also reflected by snow, ice and light colored objects)
whereitreleasestheenergybyheatingthesurface.Thenthiswarmth,informofinfrared
radiation, is emitted by the Earth and sent back to the atmosphere. An objects ability to
reflect or absorb solar radiation is called its albedo. It varies between 0 (total absorption)
and1(totalreflection).
Figure11.InteractionofincomingsolarradiationwiththeAtmosphere[20]
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Asaresultoftheatmospheresimpactwegetthreekindsofsolarradiation:
BeamirradiancedirectlyfromtheSun,minimallyaffectedbytheatmosphere;
Diffuseirradiancesolarradiationscatteredbytheatmosphere(clouds);
Reflected irradiance coming from the Earth as reflected radiation and infrared
radiation and depending on the surfaces albedo (comparatively small and
dependentonthereceivedradiation).
Thisdistributionisusefulindefiningthechoiceofsolarsystemsconcentratingdevicescan
efficientlyusebeamirradiancewhilediffuseandreflectedradiationwillbeleftunattended
andviceversaifnonconcentratingdevicesused[6,page66].Allthesethreetypesformthe
total energy quantity that is only about a half of the energy of the point of the solar
constant.
Unfortunately the solar radiation is not only

reducedbytheatmospherebutalsoisirregularin
means of time daytime and season. Because of
the Earth rotating, the solar radiation is available
only at daytime when the Sun is over the
horizon and reaching the maximum irradiance
level in the noon. And, because of the Earths
rotation around the Sun in elliptical track, the
distance toSunvaries(dependingontheseason)
andthereforealsothesolarconstant (Figure12).
To get more detailed information about these
differences it is useful to analyze a region by its
geographical latitude, height over see level and
thesurfacesalbedo.
Figure12. Globalyearlyirradiance[21]
TheSunsangleofaltitudevariesby
daytime and latitude as longer the
day and steeper the Sun shines to
the horizontal surface, than higher
the solar radiation supply and
absorption. These conditions are
commonintheworldareasthatare
closer to the equator (latitude 0).
But also good performance of
energy supply from Sun can be
observed in the far north regions
whereatsummertimethedaylasts
for six months (midnight Sun).
Figure13. SolarGeometry[22]
Althoughtheradiationlevelreceived
isdramaticallylow,solarsystems,setupupright,cancollecttheenergyfromdirectsunlight
andthereflectedenergyfromtheiceandsnow.Theheightoverthesealevelisimportant
simplybecauseashigherthesurfacethanshorterthedistanceforradiationtogothrough
the atmosphere. All these geographical location issues are less of importance in regions
where cloudy weather is common the impact of water level in air is bigger, but this
informationcanbeusefulifpassivesolarenergyprinciplesareused.
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2010
However, the climate characteristics, height over see level, surfaces albedo, location
latitudeandangularaltitudevaryfromregiontoregion.Tosimplifythesearchfortheactual
receivedsolarradiationmapsandtablescanbeused,wherealltheseaspectsaregathered
and the average energy units shown (Figure 14). Usually they are arranged by concrete
locationsandregions.
Figure14.Yearlysumofglobalirradiationonahorizontalsurface Denmark[23]
19
2010
3.Activesolarenergysystems
Activeuseofsolarenergyisoneoftwomainpossibilitieshowtoimproveabuildingbyusing
theSun.Itis,incomparisonwiththeotherwaypassiveuse,moreefficientandisnotonly
able to save but also to earn. Active solar systems convert the solar energy, with help of
different technologies, to useful energy that can be used to support the building service
systems.
TheelectromagneticradiationemittedbytheSuncanbeconvertedinanactivewayintwo
main energy types electricity and thermal energy. Exactly these are the two types that
buildings(residential37%andcommercial35%)areconsumingthemost(Figure15and16).
Mainlyenergyisusedforspaceheating,lightingandsupportofelectricalequipment.
Figure15.Officeenergyconsumption
Figure16.Residentialenergy
consumption[25]
Sologicallyfollowsthat,iftheownerofabuildingwantstosavemoneybyusingrenewable
energy,thesearethefieldsthatmustbeaffectedandsolarenergyisthebestwaytodoit.
Theconversionprocesscanbedirect,wheresolartechnologiestransformtheSunsenergy
to heat or electricity, or performed in several steps like, for example, the solar thermal
electricsystems.Theindirectconversionsystemconsistsofmorecomponentsthatrequire
morespacebutontheotherhand,thedirectconversionsystemsaresmaller,simplerand
canbeeasilyintegratedinbuildings.
Inthenextsectionsthemainconversionsystemtypesareexplored:
Photovoltaicsystems;
Photoelectrochemicalsystems;
Solarthermalsystems;
Solarthermoelectricsystems;
Solarcoolingandotherapplications.
Eachofthemhastheirowncharacteristicsandwaystobeused.Whichoneisbetterupon
theotherdependsoncriterionslikeefficiency,price,availabilityandallinallthecustomers
needs.
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3.1.Photovoltaicsystems
The direct process of solar energy conversion to electricity is generally maintained by

photovoltaicsolarcellsandiscalledthephotovoltaiceffect.Itoccurswhenspecificmaterials
are affected by sunlight and electric current is generated. To understand what exactly
happensinthecells,itisadvantageoustostartfromtheverybasics.
3.1.1.Solarradiationconversiontoelectricity
As taught in the physics classes in school,
every atom consists of a nucleus and its
surrounding electrons connected together
with the power of valence band. Every
normalatomsnucleushasarounditcertain
number of electrons. But the electrons have
unstable characteristics and under certain
circumstancestheycanleavethenucleusand
joinothernormalatomsinthatwayforming
Figure17.Positivelyandnegativelycharged
positively and negatively charged atoms.
atoms[26]
Positively charged atoms have a lack of
electrons and negatively charged atoms excessive electrons (Figure 17). Because in nature
everything tends to be in equilibrium the contrary charged atoms are attracted to each
othersimilarasmagnetsandtendtoexchangetheelectronstogetbacktothenormalstate.
Thisexchangeofelectronsinlargeratomquantitiesiscalledtheflowofelectricity.Asimilar
process occurs also in the solar cell but only a little more complicated. A force that drives
this flow is called voltage (V), the flow itself current measured in amperes (A) and the
relationship between the voltage and the current is expressed in watts (W) power the
forceconsumesbymovingtheflow.
The photovoltaic cell is usually made of

several layers of materials as seen in
Figure 18. The uppermost that faces the
Sun is the protective layer that prevents
frommechanicaldamage.Itisattachedto
the cell with a transparent adhesive.
Further down is an antireflection layer
that minimizes the reflection and
promotes the absorption of light. In the
middle of the cell is the most important
layer made of a semiconducting material
wheretheflowofelectronsoccurs.That,
Figure18. Photovoltaiccellconstruction[27]
in its turn, is covered from both sides
with metallic contacts that collect the electrical current and conducts it to an external
circuit. The metallic contact in the upper part between the antireflection layer and
semiconducting material is in form of a mesh so that it doesnt stop the incoming light.
Underthesemiconductingmaterialthemetalliccontactisinformoffoil.
Sothesolarelectromagneticradiationpenetratestheupperlayersofthecelltillithitsthe
semiconducting material. This solar radiation is the certain circumstance mentioned
beforethatactivatestheelectrons.Theirradiatedelectronsbecomesoenergeticthatthey
21
2010
areabletoescapethevalencebandofan
atomandflowfreelyinthematerial. But
for the flow of electricity also a force is
needed that guides all the electrons in a
common direction. Therefore the
semiconducting material is made of two
parts an ntype semiconductor that is
doped with positive particles and ptype
semiconductor that is doped with
negative particles. These both materials
formagradientofelectricalpotentialthat
force the electrons. So to sum up, the
Figure19. Electronflow[28]
sunlight hits the lower part the ptype
material that is saturated with electrons (negatively charged atoms) and sets them free
leavingemptyvacancies.Thechargedparticlesmovetothentypesemiconductormaterial
where a lack of them is (positively charged atoms) this makes the electric current. The
characteristicsofthematerialpreventmanyoftheelectronstojoinbacktothenucleusin
thentypelayerandtheycancontinuethewaythroughthemetalliccontactstoanexternal
circuit(Figure19).Intheexternalcircuitthepoweredelectronsleavetheirenergybydriving
electricaldevicesandweakenedcomebackthroughthecircuittotheptypematerialinthe
cell and by the power of valence band that is now stronger, are placed back in the empty
vacanciestheyleftbefore.Andthenagainandagaintheyarechargedbythesolarradiation
andabletoescape.
3.1.2.Typesofphotovoltaic(PV)solarcells
Nowadays for commercial use various types of PV technologies are available. The most
important criterions in comparing them are the devices cost and efficiency that is the
relationbetweensolarenergyreceivedonthecellandtheelectricalpoweroutput.Themost
popularelectricityproducingcelltypesare:
Singlecrystalline or monocrystalline cells
the electricity production process described
beforeisonthebasisonthesetypesofcells.
These were the first ones invented and
therefore the most common used. The
whole development of PV industry was
based on these cells. The semiconducting
material is produced by growing a single
ingotcrystalfrommeltedhighpuritysilicone
(Czochralsky process). Further the crystal is
sliced in thin wafers (Figure 20). The
Figure20. Monocrystallinesilicone
productionprocessisslow,energyintensive
ingots andwafers[29]
and a lot of waste materials remain,
thereforethecostishigh,buttheefficiencynowadayshasincreasedupto25%.
Multicrystalline or polycrystalline cell production is more simple melted high

puritysiliconeiscastedintoingotsandafterwardssliced(Figure21).Inthisprocess
multiplecrystalsformandthereforethematerialconductivityislover(upto20%),
buttheproductionisfasterandoflowcost.
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2010
Figure21.Productionprocessoftypicalcrystallinesiliconesolarcells[30]
Amorphous silicon cells are produced by

depositingthehighpuritysiliconevaporonvery
thin films of steel. In that way only 1 % of
materialisusedincomparisonwiththesilicone
crystalline
technologies.
Thereby
the
production cost is again lower, but the
efficiencyalsodecreases.Thepresentefficiency
is 13 %, but the other properties like weight,
low cost are good enough reasons for these
cells to be able to challenge the before Figure22. Amorphoussiliconthinfilm
mentionedtechnologies.
cell[31]
Other thin films are made of materials like Copper Indium Diselenide, Cadmium
TellurideandGalliumArsenide.Thistechnologyisstillindevelopmentbutthistype
has the biggest potential in increased efficiency in future. For now the main
obstaclesareincreasingcostsandcomplicatedproductiontechnologies.Thesilicone
cellindustryismorestableandthereforemorepopular.
3.1.3.Designsolutionsforincreasingefficiency
In addition to the potential of cell

materials to convert solar radiation to
electricity
supplements
and
modifications of the system can be
usedtoincreasetheefficiency.Starting
from the smallest scale, the PV cell
itself can be and is manipulated. As
beforementionedthesolarcellhasan
antireflecting layer that prevents the
sunlight to escape back to the Figure23.Monocrystallinesiliconecellfragment[32]
environment to reflect. This
reflection is one of the main factors
23
2010
why solar cells are not able to use all

received energy. Therefore the surface of
PV cells is made uneven, so that the cell
surface area is bigger and more planes
available for sunlight to hit. For example,
monocrystalline cells surface forms a
pattern of inverted pyramids in a grid
(Figure23)andpolycrystallinecellshavea
Figure24. Polycrystallinesiliconecellsurface
honeycomb texture (Figure 24) (attempts
texture[33]
formingthesurfaceinthesamepatternas
monocrystallinecellshaveledtodamagesinthematerial).Yettheseadditionalfeaturesare
alreadyincludedinthematerialsefficiencypercentage.
Continuing in bigger dimensions, the sunlight can be manipulated with concentrators.

Concentrated cells are a combination of classic silicone cells and focusing optics like glass
lensesorbentreflectingsurfaceslikemirrors.Thesolarradiationhitsthesubsystemandis
guidedtoaphotovoltaiccell.Theconcentrationratioistherelationbetweentheareaofthe
focusing optic and the area of the PV cell. In this technology smaller amount of cells is
needed on the same area as for nonconcentrating solar panels and the energy supply is
bigger.HoweverthemoneysavedonthedecreasedPVmaterialamounthastobespenton
thefocusingopticsandtrackingsystemsthatareneededtoachievetheoptimalangles.Also
thereisminimalenergygainifonlydiffusedradiationisavailable(cloudyweather).
Figure25.Concentratedsolarcells
withfocusinglenses[34]
Figure26. Concentratedsolarcellwithfocusing
mirrors[35]
Similar as in the concentrating systems, Sun tracking

installations may be added (Figure 27). Here it would be
useful to mention, although obvious, that solar cells are
only small (100 cm2) parts of the PV systems. One cell
usually is able to produce only about one watt power.
Becauseofthissmallamountandneedtosuitthesystems
voltage to the standard electricity handling equipments
voltage, many cells are connected in series and parallel
circuits forming panels (modules). But also one panel is
usually insufficient to deliver the desired energy amount,
so the needed numbers of panels are connected together
in one or several arrays. Further on these arrays can be
mounted whether on a fixed system or on Sun tracking
systems. There are two types of them one axis trackers
that follow the Sun from east to west and two axis
Figure27.Solarpanelsona
trackingsystem[36]
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2010
trackersthatadditionallyfollowinverticalaxisaccordingtothesunlightangleofaltitudein
different seasons. Tracking systems can increase the efficiency up to 40% in year. The
movementofthesystemsisdonebymotorsthat,logically,aredrivenbytheenergygained
fromthesolarpanels.Thenewtrackersalsoincludesensorsthatleadthepanelstowardsto
thebrightestpointsintheskyincaseofcloudyweather.ByplacingpanelsonSuntracking
systems that are fixed to building elements like walls or roofs, additional sound insulation
mightbeneeded,becausethemovinginstallationcanbenoisyandvibrate.
3.1.4.Efficiencyaffectingissues
ForpotentialbuyerstoeasetocomparethePVsystemsefficiency,indatasheetsproducers
presentthepoweroutputoftheirpanels.Normallythanbiggerthepanelis,thenhigherthe
energyoutput.Butinreality,thegainedenergyamountissmaller.Itisbecausethepanels
aretestedinlaboratoriesunderaunitedsystem.Thesimulatedsunlightfluxis1000W/m2
thatcorrespondstotheemittedSunenergyamountatclearskyconditionsatnoonatsea
level.Butthesekindsofsituationsrarelyoccurinreallife,sobasicallythepresentedpower
outputisthemaximumpossibleforapanel.Outsidethelaboratorysunlightsfluxisaffected
byfactors,describedinchapter2,likeclouds,airhumidity,pollutionetc.
The biggest affect on the power output potential is the sunlights flux characteristics
intensityandangle.SolarintensitymeaningisthatthanbrightertheSunshinesthanmore
energy is received to convert. But the maximum efficiency of PV systems is reached
relativelyfastanditdiffersjustalittlebytheemittedsolarradiationhighestamounts,that
meansthatthepotentialofthepanelsisthealmostthesameinclearasincloudyweather
conditions(Figure28).Thesunlightsfluxanglemeaningisthatthansteepertheflux,than
moreradiationcanbeabsorbedbythecellssurface(Figure29).
Figure28.Efficiencyversussolarradiation
[37,page134]
Figure29. DependenceonSunincidence
angle[37,page135]
Alsoarelatedissueistheshadoweffect.Byobjectsstoppingtheflux,notonlytheenergy
supplyincreasesbutalsothewholesystemcanbeaffected.Normallythecellsinpanelsare
connected with strings where the voltage (force) drives the current (flow of electricity). If
oneofthecellsisshadoweditlosesvoltage,butitstillhastocarrythecurrentofthecellsin
the string so it acts as a load. The other cells have to produce more voltage and that
decreasesthestringcurrent.Thetotalenergylossinthestring,becauseoftheonecell,is
biggerthanthelossofenergythatcouldbeproducedbytheshadowedcell.Ifmorecellsare
shadowedthewholestringcanstoptowork.
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2010
AnissuenotdirectlyconnectedtotheSunsfluxisthetemperatureeffect.Inmostsolarcells
(except amorphous silicon) the rise of temperature for every degree decreases the power
output0.40.5%.Temperaturesinthepanelrisebecauseofthemovementofparticlesinthe
material,triggeredbytheincomingradiation.Thisproblemhascausedadevelopmentofa
newproductphotovoltaicthermalhybridsolarcollector.ItsacombinationofPVcellsand
solar thermal collector, where the liquid of the collector absorbs the heat in that manner
coolingthePVcells.
Not less important, by planning and installing solar

systems things have to be taken into account like
precipitation in form of snow and hail or black frost.
Normally,solarpanelsarecoveredwiththeprotection
layer that can stand hail in the size of golf balls. The
problem of snow is that it can pile on the panels and
must be solved according to the system construction;
however,insmallamountsitmeltsawayfastthesame
as ice [37]. Also in areaswith high pollution dust may
pileonpanels,soregularcontrolandsurfacecleaning
isadvisable.Solarsystemsshouldalsobeprovidedwith
Figure30.Sweepingsnowfrom
lightning arrestors since the electricity flow in the
solarpanels[38]
systemcanattractthelightning.
3.1.5.Systemcomponents
The solar panels alone are not able to

provide a household with electricity
additional components are needed for
conversion, transmission and storage.
Solar power technologies can be
designedintwowaysgridconnectedor
offgridsystems.
If a household is not connected to the

regional grid system photovoltaic solar
panels need also supplemental devices
like:
Inverter converts the direct
current(DC)fromsolarpanelsto
alternatingcurrent(AC),whichis
normally used in all household
devices;
Battery it operates in DC
currentsoitisplacedbeforethe
Figure31.Offgridsystemexample[39]
inverter. In batteries excess
powerisstoredthatmightremainifthewholeproducedpowerisnotconsumedby
the household. Also a battery charger is needed to run the charging process. If no
energy is produced by the solar panels, the stored power in the battery is used
(throughtheinverter)torunthehousehold;
Dumpheatersifabatteryisfullychargedandstillexcesspowerremainsitisledto
dumpheatersthatdischargethepowerinformofheat.
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2010
Diodesusedtocloseoropenthechaintopreventbatteryoverloadorisolatingthe
batteriesfromsolarpanelsatnight,thatthenactlikeaload;
Modecontrollercontrolsandcommandstheprocessesinthewholesystemsono
energyloss,overchargeorothererrorsoccur.
The systems may vary depending on the amount of power need, panel design, current
direction etc. For example, also backup generators may be added to support the system,
solartrackingmotorsandsoon(Figure31).
Inthegridconnectedsystemsthesamedevicesareneeded,exceptbatteries,theirchargers
and dump heaters, because the excess power is led to the regional grid system the grid
fulfillsthefunctionofstorage.Beforeconductingthepower,theenergymustbeconverted
fromDCtoACwiththeinverter.However,smallerbatteriesmightbeneededtostartupthe
systeminthemorningorforsimilarsmallloads[37,page144].
By connecting the system to the grid in some countries net metering of feed in tariff
programs are used. Both of them buy the excess energy when produced and support the
household by selling energy back. The difference is that the net metering program is
obsoleteandthepriceofbothenergytypessoldandboughtisthesame.Thenewfeedin
tariffprogram,establishedinsomeEuropeancountries,allowsthesmallproducertoearnby
sellingtheexcessforahigherprice.Thepoliticsunderthisprogramaretoencouragehouse
ownerstouserenewableenergysourcesmore.
3.1.6.Designvariationsinbuildings.
Photovoltaicsolarsystemsarelightinweightanddimensionallyvariableandthereforeeasy
to integrate in different parts of buildings. Also the design, installation and start up of the
systemcanbedoneinshorttime.Photovoltaiccellsintegratedinroofsandwindows,panels
replacing wall cladding, shades made of PV materials, pavements with builtin cells are
examplesthatshowthatthePVsystemsareabletoadjustto
different architectural elements and forms. Though, when
developing a project and integrating PV technologies in the
design, attention must be paid to prevent efficiency loss. For
fixed solar systems the most suitable angle must be chosen,
becausetheprimaryaimofthetechnologyisnotthelook,but
energygain.
Figure34. Photovoltaicfaade
cladding[42]
Figure32.Photovoltaic
pavement[40]
Figure33.Integrated
ConcentratingSolarFaade
System[41]
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2010
3.2.Photoelectrochemicalsystems
Photoelectrochemical cells have the same function as photovoltaic technologies they

produce electricity from sunlight. The difference is that instead of solid silicone
semiconducting materials these ones are made of chemically more complex materials
mesoscopic inorganic and organic matters. This comparatively new technology is able to
competewiththedominantPVindustry,becauseoftheirlowproductionandmaterialcosts
andsimplerequipmentneededforproduction,toughtheirefficiencyislowabout10%.
Dyesensitized thin film cells are photoelectrochemical cells that are made of inorganic
matter.ThecellwasinventedbyMichaelGrtzelin1991andisalsoknownastheGrtzel
cell,who,bytheway,wontheMillennium Technologyprizeat 2010.Theselowcostsolar
cells are made of asemiconducting matter formed between a photosensitized anode and
anelectrolyte.Skippingthecomplexprocessesexplanationthemajoradvantagesare:
Lowcostsimplecheapmaterials
are used and the production
doesnt
require
elaborate
techniques;
Flexibility the cell structure is
based on flexible sheets, so
integration in different structures
iseased.
Mechanicallyrobust;
Can work in low light conditions
and is even proposed for use
indoors;
Figure35.Dyesensitizedsolarcells[44]
Efficiency isnt affected by the
temperature.
The corresponding disadvantages are chemical stability problems like degradation when
exposed to ultraviolet radiation, the liquid electrolytes problems with temperatures can
freezeandexpands,andofcoursethelowefficiencyofonly11%.Althoughitispredicted
that in the future these problems might be solved and because of the usable material
flexibilitythesethinfilmcellsmightbeatthebulksiliconePVindustry[43].
Organicorpolymersolarcellsarealsothinfilmcellswiththeaveragethicknessof100nm.
Thecellcompositionismadeoforganicsemiconductingmateriallikepolyphenylenevinyline
thatisembosomedofconductiveelectrodes.Apartfromsiliconecellsthematterproduces
energybyelectrondonorsandacceptorscombinedinabulkheterojunctionthedonorand
acceptoraremixedtogether.Becauseofthematterbeingasolution,theproductionisdone
inrolltorollprintingthatisinexpensiveandcanbeproducedinlargescales.Thelowcost
andsimpleproductionmakesitpossibletousethecellsdisposable.Thepresentefficiencyis
about7%,butthisnumberisachievedinashorttime,sofuturepredictionsarepromising.
For now the main issues for scientists, apart from efficiency, is to solve low stability and
strengthproblems[45].
The present status of photoelectrochemical systems is minor in the support of saving

energyinbuildings.Thesetechnologiestendmoretobeusedinotherfieldslikehydrogen
production,datastorage,energystorageetc,butthefutureperspectiveisbigandmightbe
thatinyearsthesetechnologieswillreplacethecomparativelyheavyannonflexiblesilicone
basedpvsystems.
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2010
3.3.Solarthermalsystems
Solarthermalenergyissolarradiationtransformedtoheat.Systemsperformingthisprocess
can be divided it two groups low temperature and high temperature systems. Solar
thermalsystemsdealwiththelowtemperaturetechnologies,heatingupwaterorairthatis
used in buildings, but high temperature technologies mostly are used in solar thermal
electricsystemsdiscussedinthenextsection.
Heatingbuildingspacesanddomesticwaterconsumesmorethanahalfofthetotalenergy
amount used in residential as in commercial buildings. Solar lowtemperature thermal
systemscangreatlydecreasetheseheatingexpensesbytechnicallysimplesolutions,whose
paybacktimeisrelativelyfast.Anotableadvantageofsolarsystemsisthatitproducesthe
mostenergyatdaytimewhenpeoplearethemostactive.Thischaracteristicisespecially
advantageousincommercialbuildingsthatareusedatdaytime.Butsincehumansarealso
active after work, thermal systems rarely can meet the heating demand by themselves at
evenings and nights. Thats why they are usually combined with other systems and the
variation possibilities how to connect them are wide. In general, converted solar thermal
energycansupporttheheatingsystem,domesticwaterheatingandventilation.
In the next paragraphs the most effective ones solar collectors are described. The main
elementsofsolarcollectorare:alightabsorbingmaterialonthecollectorsurface,massthat
transfersheattotheloadsandareservoiriftheheatedmassisntuseddirectly.Themain
typesare:
Airbased collectors whose heat transporter is air and mostly they are used to
supporttheventilationsystem.Thistechnologysprincipleisclosetopassiveuseof
solarenergy,butastheelementsarenotapartofthebuildingstructureitisseenas
awayofactiveuse.Themostcommonexamplesare:
o Perforatedplatecollectors;
Liquidbasedcollectorsaretechnologieswherealsoaircanbeatransporter,butin
themostcasesitiswater.Thesecanbesubdividedin:
o Flatplatecollectors;
o Evacuatedtubecollectors;
o Batchcollectors.
3.3.1.Perforatedplatecollectors
Usuallythistypeofsolarheatingsystemconsistsofhollowpanelsthathavesmallpunctures
ontheexternalside(smallbecausetoavoiddraughts)andwhichareattachedtowallson
theEast,SouthorWestsides,orontheroof.Theexternal(cold)airentersthepanelandis
warmed up by the panels external plane that, in its turn, is heated by the materials
absorbedsolarradiation.Furtherthewarmairisdrawnwhetherdirectlytointernalspaces
withfansthroughwallgrills,ortotheventilationsystem(Figure36).Insuchwaytheheating
load is reduced the incoming air temperature from the panel in sunny days is between
17Cand28C.Thesesystemscanworkincloudyweathertoo,becausediffusedradiation
canalsoheatthepanelmaterial.Inwinterseasonthesnowmaybeanadvantagereflecting
solarenergytowardsthepanel.Butthesecollectorscanmainlybeusedinregionswherethe
solar irradiation level is relatively high. Also the direct connection to indoor spaces is in
conflictwiththesustainablebuildingdesignswhereairtightnessplaysabigrole[46].
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2010
Figure36.Perforatedplatecollectorsprincipalscheme[47]
3.3.2.Flatplatecollectors
Continuing in a more active manner, one of the technological options to capture Suns
energy is flat plate collectors. By different connections, these can support domestic water
heatingandventilationsystems.Themainflatplatecollectorelementsare:
Coveringlayertheuppermost
layer that faces the Sun. It is
usually made of one or more
layers of glass. The main
function is to let visible solar
radiation in, but stop the
infrared radiation, emitted by
theabsorberinformofheat,to
escapeout(greenhouseeffect).
The installation is called flat
platecollectorbecauseitisthe
Figure37.Flatplatecollectorcomposition[48]
most common surface form,
butitcanalsohavecarvingsor
even focusing substructure. In collectors without covering, wind can easily scatter
theheataway,yetthatkindofsystemsareusedinwarmregionsforpoolheating.;
Absorberusuallyamaterialwithhighabsorbingandheattransferqualitiesinform
of temperature stable polymers, aluminum, steel or copper that are covered with
blackmattcoatingorsimilar.Thisistheessentialpartofthecollectorthatconverts
thesolarradiationtoheatbyabsorptionandtransfersittotheheattransportfluid.
Heattransportmasscirculatesthroughtheabsorbermaterial,absorbstheheatby
heatconductionandtransfersittotheload.Insmallsystemsthecirculationcanbe
natural (thermosiphon effect where the mass with higher temperature migrates
upwards), but in larger systems the movement should be stimulated with fans or
pumps.Themasscanbewater,air,oil,etc,butthefirstoneismostcommonused
becauseofthehighheatconductionqualities;
Insulation situated behind the absorber to keep the heat in the collector and
preventheatloss.Mainlythematerialisthesameasusedforinsulationinbuildings.
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Theconversionandtransmissionprocessissimple:thefluidthroughpipingistransferredvia
natural or forced pressure to the collector where it is heated up by the absorber that can
reachtemperaturesupto150C.Furtheritflows(naturallyupwards)toaheatexchangeror
a tank where it gives away its heat to the load and continues its circulation back to the
collector. The heated fluids temperature meeting the load is usually between 30C and
70C.
All collector elements are

kept together with a frame
around the collectors
perimeter that in its turn is
attached to a building
surface.Thecollectorshould
be placed so that the
distance to the load is as
short as possible to prevent
heat loss by transportation
of the fluid. For higher
efficiencythepanelmustbe
directed to the southern
sides and with the angle
approximately equal to the
geographical latitude the
most suitable place is the
Figure 38. Flat plate collectors installed on a wall [50]
roof. Collectors can also be
combinedwithsolartrackingsystemsbythesameprinciplesasforPVsystems,butbecause
ofthepipingthissolutionmightberiskyandcausesystemdamagesmoreoften.Also,the
same as for PV systems, collectors are dependent on the incident light angle if the
deviationismorethan60towards90,theefficiencydecreasesconsiderably.
Theabsorberpipingcanbedesignedinthreewaysharptype,serpentineandcompletely
floodedabsorber.Thefirstoneisaclassicalsolutionwhereonebiggerpipeonthebottom
side of the panel is splitting in several smaller pipes upwards parallel in the collector and
againjoiningtogetherintheuppersideofthecollector.Theserpentinetypepipingisone
continuouspipegoingthroughthecollectorinSshapecurving.Inthecompletelyflooded
absorbertheliquidisnottransferredthroughpipesbutbetweentwosteelsheetsthatare
stamped to form a circulation zone. This type is the most efficient one because maximum
surfaceofthecollectorisused.
The main disadvantage of collector systems, where water is used, is the temperature
sensibilitytheheattransferringmasscanfreezeincorrespondingtemperaturesandcause
thepipingofthepaneltocrack.Toavoidthis,antifreezeliquidscanbeaddedtothewater
or the water can be removed from the pipes before freezing is expected. Though, the
simplest way is to use polymer piping that is able to expand, for example silicone. Also
overheatingcancausedamagestheabsorbercanheatupto180andthistemperatureis
overthemeltingpointofmaterialslikepolypropylene.Thatswhythismaterialisavoidedin
collectorsandinsteadhightemperatesiliconesareused[49].
31
2010
3.3.3.Evacuatedtubecollectors
Evacuated tube collectors are composed of

evacuated glass tubes connected in rows to a
header pipe (Figure 39). The glass tubes are with
hollow cores where a copper heating pipe is
situated.Theairinthetubeisremovedsothatitis
invacuum.That,initsturn,iseliminatingheatloss
fromtheheatingpipeandmakesthissystemmore
efficientthanflatplatecollectors.Alsotheheating
pipes core is in vacuum, only a small quantity of
Figure39.Evacuatedtubecollector
liquid is left. The heating pipes upper part is
mountedonaroof[51]
integratedintheheaderpipethatisinsulatedand
whereaheattransportingliquid,usuallywaterorantifreezemixcirculatestotheheatload.
Ontheborderwheretheheatingpipeisenteringtheheaderpipetheglasstubeissealing.
The conversion process is the following: The

solar radiation that is able to travel also in
vacuum, heats up the copper heating pipe
and the liquid inside it. That, in its turn,
evaporatesupwards,butfasterthannormal,
because of the vacuum also in the heating
pipe. So the hot vapor collects in the upper
partofthepipethatislocatedintheheader
pipe. As mentioned before, a row of glass
tubes is connected to the main pipe that
means that there are several copper pipe
ends inside the header pipe. The circulating
liquid in this pipe gets heated by the pipe
ends and flows further to the load. The
temperatures can reach from 77C to 177C.
Vapor in the copper pipe condensates and
Figure40. Evacuatedglasstube
flowsdownwards,whereitcanbeheatedup
composition[52]
again.
The advantages of this system are ability to develop

higher temperatures and the round geometry of the
elements is able to absorb radiation in a wider angle
(Figure 41). Also the number of glass tubes can be
modified according to the heating demands. The
exchange of them is simple and if one of them gets
damagedthewholesystemsoperationisnotaffected.
On the other hand this technology is more
complicated and therefore also the price is greatly
higher. The placement principles are the same as for
PVsystemsandflatplatecollectors.
Direct flow evacuatedtube collectors are a

Figure41. Evacuatedtubes
modificationofthepreviouslydescribedsystem.The
geometry[53]
differenceisthatineachtubearetwopipesthatare
connected directly to the external circulation system similar as in flat plate collectors.
32
2010
Although the temperature of the mass transporting liquid is heated up to a higher

temperature(butlessthaninclassicevacuatedtubecollectors),thepossibilityofdamageis
big, because the system is composed of many glass tubes that are delicate and not in a
unitedandstiffbody.Anothersmallmodificationisintheglasstubestheycanbemadeof
two layers of glass and the vacuum is between them, like in a thermos. The heating pipe
therefore is in a normal pressure. But this composition is disadvantageous because the
doubleglasslayerlimitstheincominglightandcondensationcanoccuronthecopperpipe
anddamageitduringtime.
Thethirdvariationisawaterstoragetankplacedinsteadoftheheaderpipe(Figure42).In
thissolutionwatermovementisregulatedbythestandardhouseholdwaterpressureandit
canreplaceallthenecessarydeviceslikesolarcontrollers,expansiontanks,pumps,etc,that
areusuallyusedforclassicalsystems.Inthiswaythesystemiseasierandfeweritemsare
necessary. The weak pint is again the temperature the water can freeze or expand and
damagethewholesystem,butintegratedheatingelementscanmakeitpossibletousethis
applicationalsoincolderregions[54].
Figure42.Integratedtanksolarevacuatedtubecollector[54]
3.3.4.Batchcollectors
Oralsocalledbatchsolarheaters,isasimpleinstallationthat
consists of one or few tanks that are placed inside an
insulated box. One plane of the box that is facing the
southern side is made of glass. The tanks are connected
through pipes to a load that normally is a storage tank or
backup heater. The heat transfer principle is similar as used
inflatplatecollectors.Theonlydifferenceisthatthewateris
gatheredinabiggervolumeandthetankssurfacefulfillsthe
functionoftheabsorber.Thissystemissosimplethatitcan
easilybebuiltathomeconditions,butitcanbeusedonlyin
warm regions, because of the comparatively small Figure43. DoItYourselfbatch
absorptionsurfacethatneedsintensiveradiationsupplyto
solarcollector[55]
workeffective.
33
2010
3.3.5.Systemcomponents
Thesimplestairbasedperforatedplatecollectorscantransporttheirheatedmassintwo
directionstointernalspacesdirectlyorsupportaventilationsystem.Withtheliquidbased
collectors it is more complicated, because their produced temperature is higher and
thereforetheloadscanbedifferent.Ingeneral,theheatedmasscanbeuseddirectlyorina
closedloopsystem.
Inbothcasesliquidorairthedirectuseiseffectiveonlyinregionswithhighdailysolar
radiationlevelanduseatdaytime.Theliquidbasedcollectorsthatcanperformbestinthis
way are batch collectors. They are tanks themselves so a water tap can be connected to
themwithoutanyelementsbetween.Evacuatedtubecollectorsandflatplatesystemsneed
an additional water tank because the fluid flow is relatively slow (of course the heat
transporting mass in all these systems is water). The water tanks are usually insulated to
preventheatlossandhaveacoldwaterinletandoutletinthelowerpartforcoldwaterand
ahotwaterinletandoutletintheupperpart.Ifthesystemissmall,thecirculationhappens
by itself, but if not an additional pump is needed to transport the cold water from the
tanksbottomparttothecollector.Smallersystemelementslikecontrollersareadvisableto
preventoverheatingorhotwatercirculationtothecollectorsatnighttime.Alsointegrated
heaters can be added inside the tank to allow water use in nighttime, but this can be
expensiveiftheheaterneedstosupportthesystemforalongertimespan.
A closed loop system allows conducting the captured solar heat to other systems and the
amountofhotwatercanbemuchbigger.Theheattransportingmassfromthecollectorsis
usually not mixed with the water mass that is used for the loads so it can be a mix of
antifreezeandthereforeusedincolderregions.Batchcollectorsinthiscaseareunsuitable.
Themainsystemcomponentsinclassicinstallationsare:
Insulatedwatertanksthatcollectthehotfluid.Thesecanbeconnectedfurthertoa
space heating, water heating or a heat recovery ventilation system, depending on
theincomingtemperature.Astheevacuatedtubecollectorsdelivermassinhigher
temperatures it is usually used for space heating systems, and the flat plate
collectorsfordomestichotwatersystems;
Backup water heaters in form of integrated heating elements in the tank or
boilers.Theseservetosupportthesystemifthetemperaturesinthetankdecrease
undertheneededlevel.Usuallyitisatnighttime,butcanalsooccurinbadweather
conditions;
Pump drives or stops the fluid
circulation from the tank to the
collector;
Expansiontankpartofthecollectors
circulation system, allows the fluid to
expand or contract without damaging
thewholecirculationsystem;
Fill port and drain valve are openings
in the collectors circulation system to
fillinorremovethefluid.
Pressurereliefvalveisusedtoavoid
damages by pressure in extreme
conditions when the collector is
Figure44. Flatplatecollectorclosedloop
overheated. It is usually installed near
system[56]
thecollectorandalsothewatertankhas
34
2010
one;
Sensors and controllers are electrical devices that control the whole system
elements.
The thermal solar collectors can be also connected to other conventional or renewable
source systems, but these are more complicated and detailed calculations are needed to
checkontheefficiency.
35
2010
3.4.Solarthermoelectricsystems
Thesetechnologiesaremorecomplicatedversionsofthesolarthermalsystemsthatoperate
withmuchhighertemperaturesandtheendproductiselectricity.Theconversionprocessis
done in two steps the Suns energy is collected similar as in photovoltaic and thermal
systems,butfurtheronitisusedinthermodynamicengines.Thenumerousdevicesneeded
are expensive and to be costefficient, this system needs to be established in large scales
and that is usually done by solar power plants in regions with regular high solar radiation
level.
To convert solar energy in high temperature mass that can run a stream engine,
concentratingopticsareused.Ingeneraltherearethreetypesofthem:
Parabolic troughs semicircle shaped reflective plates that have a glass
encapsulated tube running along the focal line. In the tube usually is oil that is
heated up by the concentrated solar radiation and directed further to a steam
engine.Withthismethodtheincomingradiationisconcentrated100timesandthe
operatingtemperatureisbetween300Cand500C;
Central receivers system is the same as the Power Tower concept mentioned in
Chapter1 numerousmirrorsontwoaxissolartrackersaresituatedsothat they
reflect solar radiation all to one point, usually a tower where a central receiver is
installed. The concentrated beam heats up a salt liquid to temperatures between
500Cand1000C;
ParabolicdishesplacedonaSuntrackingsystem,focusthesunlighttoareceiverin
front of the dish. The receiver is usually a sterling heat engine that operates by
cycliccompressionofgas.Thissystemisabletoreachtemperaturesbetween800C
and 1200C, but as the shape is more complex the sizes are usually small and
thereforethetotalproducedenergyamount[37,page148150].
Figure45.Solarthermoelectricsystemcollectortypes[57]
36
2010
Fromallthesetechnologiesonlytheparabolicdishcollectormaybesuitableforindividual
usebecauseitiscomparativelysmallerandtheengineisinstalleddirectlyonthedish.Butit
isalmostimpossibletointegrateitinabuildingstructuresofreespaceisneededand,asall
of these systems, it is effective only when direct irradiance is available, scattered and
reflectiveradiationstaysunused.Thefirsttwoonesrunasteamenginethatwouldnormally
be placed inside a building and, with its additional supporting devices, take a lot ofspace.
And if damages occur, the loss may be not only the system elements but also the whole
building.
Figure46.ThesolarfurnaceatOdeillo[58]
37
2010
3.5.Solarcoolingandotherapplications
WithalltheprevioussystemsenergyistakenfromtheSunandsetinabuildinginasuitable
form,buttherearealsosituationswhenexcessenergyoccursinformofheatandoversteps
thelimitsofthermalcomfort.Theoretically,ifabuildingisbuiltinasustainableway,there
shouldbenoneedforenergyrejection,butasthisisarelativelynewandcomplicatedtrend,
thereisstillnecessityforcoolingsystemsthatmanagethisproblem.Themostcostefficient
way to deal with heat is with passive methods, but in cases where the excess energy is in
bigger amounts active cooling systems are used. By combining different renewable energy
systemsitispossibletodothisprocesswithoutspendingmoneyonit.Acleverwaytodoit
istousetheSun,becauseinmostcasescoolingisneededduringdaytimewhenactivework
isdoneorthesameSunsradiationcanoverheatspaces.
ItisnotpossibletogetcoldnessdirectlyfromtheSun,butitcanbedoneindirectbyusing
otherenergytypes likeelectricityorthermalenergy.Thecombinationofsolarenergyand
coolingtechnologiescanbecalledsolarcoolingsystem.Thesimplestsystemsarewherethe
solarelectricitydrivesairconditioners,fans,heatpumpsetc.andthemaintypesare:
Absorptioncoolingwherethermalheatgainedfromsolarcollectorsisusedtodrive
an evaporation process in a refrigerant like lithiumbromidewater mix or water
ammonia mix and the gained coldness is further transmitted to a load (ventilation
system).
Evaporative cooling evaporation of
aliquidisdrivenbysurroundedheat,
that means if for example water
evaporateslargeamountsofheatare
absorbed. This principle is used in
evaporative coolers that can be
driven by electricity gained from the
Sun(Figure47).Inadirectusewarm
dry air is changed to cool moist air
andinindirectsystemsthecoolmoist
aircoolsaheatexchanger.
Figure47. Evaporativecoolingsystem
principle[59]
Desiccant cooling is a combination of

evaporative cooling and dehumidification by a desiccant where water is used as a
refrigerant. Incoming air is dried by the desiccant (substance that absorbs water)
andthencooledbyindirectevaporationandtransmittedfurthertotheload.Todry
thedesiccantanddrivethewholesystemsolarthermalenergycanbeused.
Figure48. Desiccantcoolingsystem[60]
38
2010
In all these systems solar energy is only a secondary issue and can easily be replaced by
others, but the stimulus not to do it is the fact that the need of cooling increases and
decreasesparalleltosolarirradiationlevelchanges.
Allthepreviouslysystemsarethemostefficientandpopularones,andmostlyusedinthe
buildingindustry.Thediversityofothertechnologiesthatcanusesolarenergyiswide,for
example, Suns energy can be involved in generation of hydrogen in fuel cells, artificial
lightning; solar heat can be used in water distillation, solar cooking, mechanical energy
production, solar drying of wood and crops, etc. As long as there is a need for thermal
energyorelectricityinasystem,theSuncanbeusedtosupplyit.
39
2010
Conclusion
As history shows, the role of use of solar energy is raising, especially in the last 40 years,
nonstop.Thestimuliforthisprocessareenvironmental,socialandeconomicalreasonsand
themainaimistoprovideasafeandsustainablefuture.Solarenergyhasnumerousgood
characteristics that make it possible and also the governments of different countries have
recognized the potential, and invest more and more money in solar energy development
and support programs. Nowadays it has become a cool trend in all fields of life and it
definitelyshouldbeindulgedtoimproveourlivesnowandinthefuture.
Bydoingthisresearchandreadingdifferentinformationaboutsolartechnologiesandtheir
noveltiesitseemsthatthebigbreakthroughisclose.FornowthemaximumefficiencybyPV
systemsisaround25%,butthenewestinventionsshowthatinshorttimewewillbeableto
transformabout40%ofincomingsolarradiationandprobablyintenyearsitisgoingtobe
all 100% [61]. Ironically by using more renewable sources, it can indirectly raise the solar
radiation received on Earth. The irradiation is also affected by pollution level in the
atmosphere and, as by the energy production with renewables less pollutants are
discharged,advantageousconditionsforincreasingusefulirradiationcanbemade.
By getting closer to practical use of solar systems, it is important to analyze the

characteristicsofthelocalregion.Byknowingthatsolarenergyiselectromagneticradiation
reactingwiththeatmosphereandisdependentontimeandgeographicallocation,attention
must be paid firstly to weather characteristics. Maps, that show annual sum of solar
radiation received, should be used as a starting point when considering whether to use
active solar systems or not. To be very precisely, also future characteristics of the climate
should be taken into account, because this issue has a tendency to change. Also the
radiation character is important than more beam irradiation is received than more
advantageousistouseconcentratingsystemscombinedwithsolartracking,butifdiffused
irradiationisthemajority,fixednonconcentratingsystemsaremoresuitable.
The overall technological possibilities to convert solar energy are wide. Firstly the systems
can deliver different kinds of energy electrical, thermal, mechanical, that further can be
used to supply even more specific systems. Further on each conversion can be done by
numeroustechnologiesthatdifferfromeachotherbyefficiency,price,size,useetc.Alsothe
additionalapplicationscanbeaddedlikesolartrackersandconcentratingsubsystems.Itis
hardtotellwithspecificsystemisthebestbecauseitdependsonlocalconditionsandthey
can be very different. To choose the right system numerous aspects have to be evaluated
andinvestigated:
Needswhatisthedesiredenergytypethatshouldbeproduced?
Accordancetoregionisthesystemsuitableforcurrentlocationcharacteristics?
Governmental support are there programs available that could support the
establishmentorhelptoearnmoney?
Availabilityofproductisthesystemavailableinthecurrentregionorclosetoit?
Investmenthowmuchmoneywillbeallocatedforestablishment?
Spacehowmuchspaceisavailableforthesystem?
Efficiencywitchsystemismoreefficient?
Lifespanhowlongisthesystemabletoproduceenergy?
Paybacktimewhenistheestablishedsystemgoingtopayoff?
Even more specific issues like maintenance, possibilities of integration, environment
friendlinessandotherscanbeaddedandintheendofthecomparisontherightsolarsystem
shouldemerge.
40
2010
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ACTIVE USE OF

GUIDE FOR THE ARCHITECT

TheroleofSunwasalreadyrecognizedby theancient civilizations,although therewas no

engine, but concentrating the Suns rays with

Ocean energy in ways of tidal power, thermal energy conversion, marine

In the worldwide energy consumption scene

Maintenance solar systems are

From the very beginning the reason

So, nuclear fusion, possible only by

Ability to diffuse in matter or vacuum

So to produce energy, electromagnetic radiation in the

Unfortunately the solar radiation is not only

The direct process of solar energy conversion to electricity is generally maintained by

The photovoltaic cell is usually made of

Multicrystalline or polycrystalline cell production is more simple melted high

Amorphous silicon cells are produced by

In addition to the potential of cell

why solar cells are not able to use all

Continuing in bigger dimensions, the sunlight can be manipulated with concentrators.

Similar as in the concentrating systems, Sun tracking

Not less important, by planning and installing solar

The solar panels alone are not able to

If a household is not connected to the

Photoelectrochemical cells have the same function as photovoltaic technologies they

The present status of photoelectrochemical systems is minor in the support of saving

All collector elements are

Evacuated tube collectors are composed of

The conversion process is the following: The

The advantages of this system are ability to develop

Direct flow evacuatedtube collectors are a

Although the temperature of the mass transporting liquid is heated up to a higher

Desiccant cooling is a combination of

By getting closer to practical use of solar systems, it is important to analyze the

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