Global Governance

1 (1995), 367-372

What Is Global Governance?

Lawrence S. Finkelstein
he n a m e given this journal reflects inescapable ambiguity about the
nature of the "international s y s t e m , " indeed about what the international system is, or what it e n c o m p a s s e s . Does global mean what
has been signified by international,
interstate, intergovernmental,
or even,
o f t e n , transnational?
If so, w h y not use one of those terms, instead of
choosing a more ambiguous o n e ?
Evidently, something else is intended. That intention reflects the great
changes that have been occurring both in the d y n a m i c s of relations in the
world of states and in understandings of those dynamics. In the first issue
of this journal, for e x a m p l e , UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali
e m p h a s i z e d the internationalization of the problems of human rights and
d e m o c r a c y , previously thought of as issues for states to deal with within
their own boundaries. He also d e m o n s t r a t e d how the pursuit of d e m o c r a c y
as an international goal involves the cooperation of a range of international
agencies and also of m a n y n o n g o v e r n m e n t a l a c t o r s i n c l u d i n g "political
internationals," which he saw as "the first signs of an e m e r g i n g transnational democratic politics." 1 We understand that there are m a n y new actors
in the world of states and that they play increasingly significant roles. We
understand that nongovernmental actors are an important part, although by
no means all, of what drives the interdependence that presses on and qualifies sovereignty. We recognize the interconnectedness of the decision processes a m o n g and within states in that world. We k n o w that international
negotiations involve what has been termed " t w o level g a m e s " or " d o u b l e edged d i p l o m a c y . " 2 We appreciate what J a m e s Rosenau has referred to as
"the crazy-quilt nature of m o d e r n i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e . " 3 It is hence reasonable to be u n c o m f o r t a b l e with traditional f r a m e w o r k s and t e r m i n o l o g i e s
associated with the idea of international relations in an interstate system.
A m b i g u i t y a f f e c t s not only what is meant by global but also what is
meant by governance.
While the latter word turns up often in scholarly
discourse about how states relate to each other in the international system,
little attention has been given to what it means. 4 At least, it must be clear
that it does not mean " g o v e r n m e n t , " or we would say that instead. S i n c e
the international system n o t o r i o u s l y lacks hierarchy and g o v e r n m e n t , the
fuzzier word governance
is used instead. We use the word also in another
case of ambiguity as to the p r e s e n c e of g o v e r n m e n t t h a t is, when we

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What Is Global Governancef

refer to part of what f a c u l t i e s are s u p p o s e d to do in u n i v e r s i t i e s . In o t h e r

w o r d s , w e say " g o v e r n a n c e " b e c a u s e w e d o n ' t really k n o w w h a t t o c a l l
what is g o i n g o n .
T h e s e a m b i g u i t i e s s e e m t o j u s t i f y R o s e n a u ' s v e r y b r o a d use o f the
term global governance
in his article in the first issue of this j o u r n a l : " s y s tems of rule at all levels of h u m a n a c t i v i t y f r o m the f a m i l y to the international o r g a n i z a t i o n i n w h i c h the pursuit o f g o a l s t h r o u g h the e x e r c i s e
o f control has t r a n s n a t i o n a l r e p e r c u s s i o n s . " 5 H e g o e s o n t o b r o a d e n the
definition even f u r t h e r b y s a y i n g that " r u l e " m e a n s " c o n t r o l " o r " s t e e r i n g , "
which r e q u i r e s o n l y that " t h e c o n t r o l l e r s . . . seek to m o d i f y the b e h a v i o r
. . . o f other a c t o r s . " 6 G l o b a l g o v e r n a n c e , thus, i s a n y p u r p o s e f u l a c t i v i t y
i n t e n d e d t o " c o n t r o l " o r i n f l u e n c e s o m e o n e e l s e that e i t h e r o c c u r s i n the
arena o c c u p i e d by n a t i o n s or, o c c u r r i n g at other l e v e l s , p r o j e c t s i n f l u e n c e
into that arena.
It is not w r o n g to wish to u n d e r s t a n d such p h e n o m e n a . Q u i t e the c o n trary. R o s e n a u is p e r s u a s i v e in a r g u i n g that o u r c o n c e p t u a l s c o p e m u s t be
b r o a d e n e d if we are to u n d e r s t a n d w h a t we h a v e until n o w called i n t e r n a tional relations in the c h a n g e d c i r c u m s t a n c e s that surely will prevail in the
twenty-first c e n t u r y . H i s v i g o r o u s s c h o l a r l y i m a g i n a t i o n g e n e r a t e s a g e n e r o u s s p e c t r u m o f t y p e s o f a c t o r s a n d a c t i v i t i e s that e x e m p l i f i e s his e x p a n s i v e d e f i n i t i o n o f g l o b a l g o v e r n a n c e . T h e t r o u b l e is, h o w e v e r , h o w
hard it is to k n o w what is e x c l u d e d by that d e f i n i t i o n o r w h e r e to dig into
the spaghetti bowl he puts on the table. It is, of c o u r s e , correct that international c r i m e s y n d i c a t e s , w h i c h R o s e n a u labels " T C O s " o r " t r a n s n a t i o n a l
c r i m i n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s , " 7 are a f a c t o r to be dealt with in i n t e r n a t i o n a l relations. D o e s i t really c l a r i f y m a t t e r s , h o w e v e r , o r f a c i l i t a t e the r e s e a r c h
e n t e r p r i s e , to t o s s t h e m in a h o p p e r a l o n g with s t a t e s , i n t e r g o v e r n m e n t a l
organizations, n o n g o v e r n m e n t a l organizations, and M o o d y ' s Investor's
S e r v i c e ? " G l o b a l g o v e r n a n c e " a p p e a r s t o b e virtually a n y t h i n g .
It should be p o s s i b l e to d e f i n e g l o b a l g o v e r n a n c e in a w a y that g i v e s
greater direction to the r e s e a r c h e n t e r p r i s e w i t h o u t a b a n d o n i n g c o n c e r n f o r
or sacrificing a c c e s s to an e x p a n d i n g u n i v e r s e of actors, issues, a n d a c t i v ities. To begin with, we s h o u l d be r i g o r o u s in insisting that g o v e r n a n c e is
an a c t i v i t y t h a t is, d o i n g s o m e t h i n g . If we need to i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e it, we
must say the i n s t i t u t i o n in q u e s t i o n is a m e a n s of g o v e r n a n c e , a g o v e r n a n c e o r g a n i z a t i o n or a g e n c y , or an a c t o r in g o v e r n a n c e .
B e y o n d t h a t , it is i m p o r t a n t to r e c o g n i z e that we n e e d the t e r m b e c a u s e g o v e r n m e n t is l a c k i n g in the w o r l d of s t a t e s . 8 W h a t we n e e d is a
c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n that e n a b l e s us to p e n e t r a t e and u n d e r s t a n d the g o v e r n m e n t - l i k e e v e n t s that o c c u r in the w o r l d of s t a t e s e v e n in the a b s e n c e of
government. T h o s e events occur, as Rosenau and others have insisted,
across a broadening range of issues. W i t h g o v e r n a n c e d e f i n e d as such activities, the way is cleared to i d e n t i f y a n d e x a m i n e the p r o c e s s e s of i n f l u e n c e ,

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369

d e c i s i o n , a n d a c t i o n that s h a p e o r d e t e r m i n e t h e m ; i n c l u d i n g r e l e v a n t
p o w e r a n d the m e a n s o f e x e r c i s i n g it; d i p l o m a c y a n d p o l i t i c s b e t w e e n and
w i t h i n s t a t e s ; a l l i a n c e s and c o a l i t i o n s o f s t a t e s ; i n t e r n a t i o n a l p r e s s u r e
g r o u p s o f n o n g o v e r n m e n t a l actors, i n c l u d i n g p o l i t i c a l a l l i a n c e s s u c h a s
t h o s e r e f e r r e d to by Secretary-General B o u t r o s - G h a l i ; individuals w i e l d i n g
i n f l u e n c e w h e t h e r b e c a u s e of position or status or the p o w e r of their ideas;
c o n s e n s u a l k n o w l e d g e , as well as participants in a n d m e t h o d s of d e v e l o p ing it; p r o p a g a n d a and c o m m u n i c a t i o n ; f e e d b a c k l o o p s b e t w e e n i n t e r n a t i o n a l , n a t i o n a l , a n d s u b n a t i o n a l actors; a n d i n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o c e d u r e s a n d
m e t h o d s that c h a n n e l inputs and d e t e r m i n e t h e i r e f f i c a c y . T h e g o v e r n a n c e
a c t i v i t y b e i n g s t u d i e d d e t e r m i n e s the f a c t o r s of this kind that need s t u d y .
C o m p a r i n g g o v e r n a n c e will reveal d i f f e r i n g p a t t e r n s o f factoral p r e s e n c e
a n d e f f e c t . T h e r e i s n o r e a s o n , m o r e o v e r , w h y c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y o f the
f a c t o r s t h e m s e l v e s a c r o s s g o v e r n a n c e i s s u e s s h o u l d not c o n t r i b u t e t o understanding governance.
N e x t it is i m p o r t a n t to r e c o g n i z e that, a l t h o u g h a d o p t i n g rules m a y be
a p r i m a r y o b j e c t i v e of g o v e r n a n c e , as of g o v e r n m e n t , and m a y e v e n be the
m o s t i m p o r t a n t s e r v i c e p e r f o r m e d , it is not the o n l y f u n c t i o n of g o v e r n a n c e p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e it is not the only t h i n g g o v e r n m e n t s d o .
V i e w i n g the matter this way leads to the f o l l o w i n g d e f i n i t i o n of global
governance:
G l o b a l g o v e r n a n c e is g o v e r n i n g , w i t h o u t s o v e r e i g n a u t h o r ity, r e l a t i o n s h i p s that t r a n s c e n d n a t i o n a l f r o n t i e r s . G l o b a l g o v e r n a n c e i s
d o i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y what g o v e r n m e n t s do at h o m e .
T h i s d e f i n i t i o n i s c o n c e r n e d with p u r p o s i v e a c t s , not tacit a r r a n g e m e n t s . It e m p h a s i z e s what is d o n e rather than the c o n s t i t u t i o n a l b a s i s f o r
d o i n g it. It is n e u t r a l as b e t w e e n the activities and their o u t c o m e s . S c h o l a r s h i p a b o u t g l o b a l g o v e r n a n c e i s c o n c e r n e d not o n l y with d e c i s i o n s but
a l s o with t h e i r c o n s e q u e n c e s e . g . , a l l o c a t i v e e f f e c t s , p r o g r a m s a n d proj e c t s , e f f i c a c y , c o m p l i a n c e , and d o m e s t i c i m p l e m e n t a t i o n .
T h e d e f i n i t i o n is f l e x i b l e as to scope; it a p p l i e s w h e t h e r the s u b j e c t is
g e n e r a l (e.g., g l o b a l security and o r d e r ) o r s p e c i f i c (e.g., the W H O C o d e
on the M a r k e t i n g of Breast M i l k S u b s t i t u t e s ) . It is f l e x i b l e e n o u g h as to
reach; it a p p l i e s w h e t h e r the participation is bilateral (e.g., an a g r e e m e n t to
r e g u l a t e u s a g e of a river f l o w i n g in t w o c o u n t r i e s ) , f u n c t i o n - s p e c i f i c (e.g.,
a c o m m o d i t y a g r e e m e n t ) , r e g i o n a l (e.g., the T r e a t y of T l a t e l o l c o ) , or
global (e.g., the N P T ) . T h e definition a c c o m m o d a t e s both governmental
a n d " s o v e r e i g n t y f r e e " a c t o r s . 9 And it a c c o m m o d a t e s both ad hoc a n d ins t i t u t i o n a l i z e d , as well as both i n f o r m a l a n d f o r m a l , p r o c e s s e s .
T h e approach is broader than R o s e n a u ' s , from which it departs. It
s e e k s to i m p a r t g r e a t e r s y s t e m to the s a m e f a c t o r s by setting " g o v e r n a n c e
as a c t i v i t y " as the rubric for analysis. T h e d e f i n i t i o n p o i n t s to a very b r o a d
r e s e a r c h a g e n d a . If it s h o u l d be c h a r g e d that the c h a l l e n g e is o v e r w h e l m ing, t h e r e are t w o a n s w e r s .

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What Is Global Governance!

D e f i n i n g governance
this w a y m e r e l y m i r r o r s the b r e a d t h of g o v e r n m e n t a s w e c o m m o n l y u n d e r s t a n d it. C o n s i d e r , f o r e x a m p l e , A u s t i n R a n n e y ' s o b s e r v a t i o n : " F o r better o r w o r s e , m o d e r n g o v e r n m e n t s d o just about
e v e r y t h i n g . . . a c o m p l e t e list o f all the f u n c t i o n s p e r f o r m e d b y g o v e r n m e n t s t o d a y . . . w o u l d u n d o u b t e d l y i n c l u d e a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h directly a n d
p o w e r f u l l y a f f e c t j u s t about e v e r y c o n c e i v a b l e a s p e c t o f h u m a n l i f e m a r r i a g e , the r e a r i n g o f c h i l d r e n , e d u c a t i o n , the p r o d u c t i o n a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n
o f w e a l t h , r e l i g i o n , art, s p o r t , a n d s o o n a d i n f i n i t u m . " D e s p i t e political
i n i t i a t i v e s to limit the f u n c t i o n s of g o v e r n m e n t , it s e e m s unlikely that R a n n e y ' s o b s e r v a t i o n will b e s e r i o u s l y f a l s i f i e d . Not e v e r y o n e o f thirty-nine
m a j o r f u n c t i o n s h e listed a s p e r f o r m e d b y the U . S . g o v e r n m e n t under five
h e a d i n g s 1 0 is n e c e s s a r i l y c o n d u c t e d internationally, but, perhaps with m o d i f i c a t i o n , all t h e m a j o r h e a d i n g s are r e l e v a n t a n d m a n y o f the s p e c i f i c
f u n c t i o n s as w e l l . T h a t leads to the s e c o n d a n s w e r to the o b j e c t i o n .
T h e d e f i n i t i o n is no b r o a d e r than the international a g e n d a is already in
the era of i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e a n d d i s i n t e g r a t i n g b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n national
and international arenas. What R a n n e y said about modern national gove r n m e n t s is i n c o n t e s t a b l y true of the i n t e r n a t i o n a l s y s t e m .
I t d e s e r v e s u n d e r l i n i n g a l s o that the d e f i n i t i o n d o e s not limit g o v e r n a n c e t o t h e r e a c h i n g o f d e c i s i o n s a b o u t r u l e s . T h e t e r m , h o w e v e r , has
o f t e n b e e n u s e d that way. T h e p r e d o m i n a n t d e f i n i t i o n o f r e g i m e s , t o cite
an i m p o r t a n t e x a m p l e , is rule o r i e n t e d , a l t h o u g h it also e n c o m p a s s e s " p r i n ciples, norms and decisionmaking p r o c e d u r e s . " " The definition stretches
b e y o n d r u l e m a k i n g b e c a u s e , a s d o g o v e r n m e n t s , the international s y s t e m
d o e s m o r e t h a n d i r e c t the b e h a v i o r o f the r e l e v a n t a c t o r s . T o d o that f a r
f r o m e x h a u s t s w a y s in which international e x p e c t a t i o n s are s h a p e d , b e h a v ior i n f l u e n c e d , a n d values allocated a m o n g a c t o r s in the international syst e m . T o c i t e j u s t o n e c o n t e m p o r a r y e x a m p l e , the I n t e r n a t i o n a l M o n e t a r y
F u n d ( I M F ) , the UN D e v e l o p m e n t P r o g r a m m e (UNDP), the UN E n v i r o n m e n t
P r o g r a m m e (UNEP) and the W o r l d Bank sponsor the Global E n v i r o n m e n t Facility ( G E F ) to p r o v i d e c o n c e s s i o n a r y f i n a n c i n g necessary to offset costs of
e n v i r o n m e n t a l protection p r o g r a m s in d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s . 1 2 No rule is dir e c t l y i m p l i c a t e d in this activity, and c e r t a i n l y no rule e n f o r c e m e n t a l t h o u g h r e c i p i e n t s will p r e s u m a b l y be b o u n d to carry out the u n d e r t a k i n g s
they m a k e to r e c e i v e the f u n d s . Yet r e s o u r c e s are d i r e c t e d to a d v a n c i n g a
public p u r p o s e a n d to i n f l u e n c i n g national d e c i s i o n s and behaviors.
T h u s , g o v e r n a n c e should b e c o n s i d e r e d t o c o v e r the o v e r l a p p i n g c a t e gories of functions performed internationally, among them: information
creation and e x c h a n g e ; formulation and promulgation of principles and
p r o m o t i o n o f c o n s e n s u a l k n o w l e d g e a f f e c t i n g the g e n e r a l i n t e r n a t i o n a l
o r d e r , r e g i o n a l o r d e r s , p a r t i c u l a r i s s u e s o n the i n t e r n a t i o n a l a g e n d a , a n d
e f f o r t s to i n f l u e n c e the d o m e s t i c rules and b e h a v i o r of states; g o o d o f f i c e s ,
conciliation, mediation, and compulsory resolution of disputes; regime

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f o r m a t i o n , tending, and e x e c u t i o n ; adoption of rules, c o d e s , and regulations; allocation of material and p r o g r a m resources; provision of technical
assistance and d e v e l o p m e n t programs; relief, humanitarian, e m e r g e n c y ,
and disaster activities; a n d m a i n t e n a n c e of peace and order.
A c c e p t i n g t h i s m e a n i n g o f global

governance

automatically disposes

of the a r g u m e n t that it is e i t h e r s y n o n y m o u s with r e g i m e s or c l o s e l y identified with them. In any c a s e , it is hard to find benefit in e m p l o y i n g the
term to duplicate another o n e already in very wide use.
T h e t e r m governance

has b e e n a p p l i e d to international m a t t e r s in a va-

riety of ways that have b e e n at best disorderly and perhaps c o n f u s i n g . Perh a p s there can be a g r e e m e n t on a c o m m o n , r e a s o n a b l e u s a g e , a n d it is that
p u r p o s e this f o r a y in d e f i n i t i o n is i n t e n d e d to a d v a n c e .

Notes
L a w r e n c e S. Finkelstein w a s p r o f e s s o r of political science at Northern Illinois
University. He has been v i c e - p r e s i d e n t of the Carnegie E n d o w m e n t for International Peace, deputy assistant secretary of defense, and an early m e m b e r of the UN
Secretariat.
1. Boutros B o u t r o s - G h a l i , " D e m o c r a c y : A Newly Recognized Imperative,"
Global Governance
1, no. 1 (winter 1995): 8.
2. Robert P u t n a m , " D i p l o m a c y and Domestic Politics: T h e Logic of T w o
Level G a m e s , " International
Organization"
42, no. 3 ( s u m m e r 1988); and Peter
B. Evans, Harold K. Jacobson, and Robert D. Putnam, Double-Edged
Diplomacy:
International
Bargaining and Domestic Politics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993).
3. James N. R o s e n a u , " G o v e r n a n c e in the Twenty-first C e n t u r y , " Global
Governance
I, no. I (winter 1995): 15.
4. For a somewhat fuller presentation on this theme, see L a w r e n c e S. Finkelstein, " W h a t Is International G o v e r n a n c e ? " paper presented at the A n n u a l Meeting of the International Studies Association, Vancouver, B.C., 21 March 1991.
5. Rosenau, " G o v e r n a n c e in the Twenty-first Century," p. 13.
6. Ibid., p. 14.
7. Ibid., p. 33.
8. What follows is i n f l u e n c e d by the paper cited in note 4. That paper shows
the strong influence of earlier work by Rosenau, especially the introductory chapter in Rosenau and Ernst-Otto C z e m p i e l , eds., Governance
Without Government:
Order and Change in World Politics ( C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e University Press,
1992); and R o s e n a u ' s chapter, " G l o b a l C h a n g e s and Theoretical C h a l l e n g e s : Toward a Postinternational Politics for the 1990s," in Czempiel and R o s e n a u , eds.,
Global Changes and Theoretical Challenges: Approaches to World Politics for the
1990s (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington B o o k s , 1989), pp. 1 - 2 0 .
9. The term is R o s e n a u ' s ; see J a m e s N. Rosenau, Turbulence in World Politics: A Theory of Change and Continuity
(Princeton: Princeton University Press,
1990), p. 36.
10. Austin Ranney, The Governing
of Men, rev. ed. ( N e w York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1966), pp. 4 2 - 4 3 .

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What Is Global Governance!

11. Stephen Krasner, "Structural Causes and Regime C o n s e q u e n c e s : Regimes

as Intervening V a r i a b l e s , " in K r a s n e r , ed., International
Regimes (Ithaca, N.Y.
Cornell University Press, 1983), p. 2.
12. " T h e Global Environment Facility," Finance and Development
28, no. 1
(March 1991): 24.