Display Techniques

October 6 university

Tables
Organized and summarized.
Examples:

Infection control surveillance data

Medication usage
wait time

Graph display may prove more interesting.

Dr. Ahmed Saleh

Display Techniques
October 6 university

Graphs
Definition: graphs are diagrams or pictures
representing the successive change in the
value of a variable measure (s).
Purpose: they add a visual dimension to
data and show trends, comparisons, and
relationships within and between number
sets.
Dr. Ahmed Saleh

Graphic Representation of
Frequency Distribution

October 6 university

Frequency, Relative Frequency, and

Cumulative Frequency
Frequency is the number of times a given

datum occurs in a data set

Relative frequency is the fraction of times
an answer occurs.
Cumulative relative frequency is the
accumulation of the previous relative
frequencies
Dr. Ahmed Saleh

Frequency Polygons
October 6 university

Frequency polygons are line graphs for

frequency distributions.
They are a graphical representation for
understanding the shapes of distributions.
They serve the same purpose as
histograms, but are especially helpful in
comparing sets of data.
Frequency polygons are also a good choice
for displaying cumulative frequency
distributions.
Dr. Ahmed Saleh

Frequency Table
October 6 university

DATA VALUE

FREQUENCY

2
3
4
5
6
7

3
5
3
6
2
1

Dr. Ahmed Saleh

Frequency Polygon
October 6 university

Frequency

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

Data value
Dr. Ahmed Saleh

6.00

7.00

Relative Frequency Table

October 6 university

DATA VALUE

FREQ.

RELATIVE FREQ.

3/20 = 0.15

5/20 = 0.25

3/20 = 0.15

6/20 = 0.30

2/20 = 0.10

1/20 = 0.05

Dr. Ahmed Saleh

Relative Frequency Polygon

October 6 university

40

Percent

30

20

10

0
2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

Data Value
Dr. Ahmed Saleh

6.00

7.00

Cumulative Frequency Table

October 6 university

DATA VALUE

FREQ

RELATIVE
FREQ

CUM.
RELATIVE
FREQ

0.15

0.15

0.25

0.40

0.15

0.55

0.30

0.85

0.10

0.95

0.05

1.00

Dr. Ahmed Saleh

Cumulative Frequency Polygon

October 6 university

30

20

10

0
2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

Data Value
Dr. Ahmed Saleh

6.00

7.00

Cumulative Frequency Polygon

October 6 university

120
100
80
60
40
20
0
2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

Data Value
Dr. Ahmed Saleh

6.00

7.00

Histogram
October 6 university

A histogram is a bar graph of the frequency distribution.

Bars are blended by connecting them at the frequency
midpoints.
Consists of contiguous boxes.
The horizontal axis is labeled with what the data represents
The vertical axis is labeled either "frequency" or "relative
frequency".
The graph will have the same shape with either label.
Frequency is commonly used when the data set is small
Relative frequency is used when the data set is large

Dr. Ahmed Saleh

Construct A Histogram
October 6 university

How many bars (5 to 15 bars)

Starting point to be less than the smallest
data value.
A convenient starting point is a lower value
carried out to one more decimal place than
the value with the most decimal places.
For example,

6.1
2.23

6.05.
2.225.
Dr. Ahmed Saleh

Frequency

Histogram
October 6 university

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

Data Value
Dr. Ahmed Saleh

7.0

Histogram
October 6 university

Dr. Ahmed Saleh

Types of Distribution Curve

October 6 university

Symmetrical: the two sides of the curve are

identical if the polygon is folded in half
perpendicular to the baseline

(e.g. bell-shaped)

Dr. Ahmed Saleh

Types of Distribution Curve

October 6 university

Normal Distribution

Dr. Ahmed Saleh

Standard deviation and the normal

distribution

October 6 university

Dr. Ahmed Saleh

Types of Distribution Curve

October 6 university

Skewed:

Curve is Positively Skewed if it tails off to the

right side of the midline, and
Negatively Skewed if it tails to the left side of
midline.

Dr. Ahmed Saleh

Types of Distribution Curve

October 6 university

Dr. Ahmed Saleh

October 6 university

A distribution with a positive skew

Dr. Ahmed Saleh

October 6 university

A distribution with a very large positive skew.

Dr. Ahmed Saleh

October 6 university

A distribution with negative skew.

Dr. Ahmed Saleh

Graphic representation of comparison data

October 6 university

Pictograph or pictogram
A graph that utilizes pictures or symbols to
represent data, usually frequency
distribution;
Most often used when multiple languages
are involved, such as World Health
Organization data, even if the languages are
cultures are completely different.
Road signs and similar pictographic material
is often applied as a global standard.
Dr. Ahmed Saleh

Pie or Circle Graph

October 6 university

A display of relative frequency (percentages), of

the proportional relationships.
Only few divisions or categories and the total of all
categories is 100%.
A pie graph is usually used to display parts of
whole in percentages.
Statisticians tend to regard pie charts as a poor
method of displaying information.
It is more difficult for comparisons to be made
between the sizes of items in a chart.
Comparison by angle is less accurate than
comparison by length.
Dr. Ahmed Saleh

Pie or Circle Graph

Gyn
Urololgy
Ortho
GenSurg

Dr. Ahmed Saleh

October 6 university

Bar Graph or Bar Chart

October 6 university

It is a display of comparisons between different

groups or a collection of discrete objects or events
that cannot be ordered.
It emphasizes the groups discrepancies. A bar
graph compares two or more categorical variables.
Each bar represents a category.
A bar chart or bar graph is a chart with
rectangular bars with lengths proportional to the
values that they represent.
The bars can be horizontally or vertically oriented.
Dr. Ahmed Saleh

Bar Graph or Bar Chart

October 6 university

Average CABG Mortality

Mortality Percent

6
5
4
3
2
1
0

2006

Year

Dr. Ahmed Saleh

2007

Pareto chart
October 6 university

Pareto chart is a special type of bar chart.

Values being plotted are arranged in

descending order.
The graph is accompanied by a line graph
which shows the cumulative totals of each
category, left to right.
The chart is named after Vilfredo Pareto,
and its use in quality assurance was
popularized by Joseph M. Juran and Kaoru
Ishikawa.
Dr. Ahmed Saleh

Pareto chart
October 6 university

Dr. Ahmed Saleh

Line graph or run (trend) chart

October 6 university

It is a display of performance change with

systematic increase or decrease in the value
of some variable.
Either a comparison between two groups in
the same study or a comparison within one
group when conditions change over time (a
display of change over time).

Dr. Ahmed Saleh

Statistical Process Control

(SPC)

October 6 university

SPC is an effective method of monitoring a

process through the use of control charts.
Control charts distinguish background
variation from events of significance based on
statistical techniques.
SPC monitor both process center and its
variation about that center.

Dr. Ahmed Saleh

Statistical Process Control

(SPC)

October 6 university

SPC a valuable tool from both a cost reduction

and a customer satisfaction standpoint.
Two kinds of variations:
Natural or common causes of variation and
may be variations in temperature,
specifications of raw materials or electrical
current etc. These variations are small, and
are generally near to the average value
Special causes happen less frequently than
the first.
Dr. Ahmed Saleh

Statistical Process Control

(SPC)

October 6 university

SPC indicates when an action should be

taken in a process, but it also indicates
when NO action should be taken.

Dr. Ahmed Saleh

Graphic Representation Relationship

October 6 university

Scatter diagram
Used to study possible relationships
between two variables.
Indicate the existence of a relationship, as
well as the strength of that relationship.
Display what happens to one variable when
another variable is changed.
The diagram can be used to test a theory
that the two variables are related.
Correlation does not necessarily mean
causality.
Dr. Ahmed Saleh

Scatter Diagram
October 6 university

Strong Positive Correlation

Dr. Ahmed Saleh

Scatter Diagram
October 6 university

Moderately Negative Correlation

Dr. Ahmed Saleh

Scatter Diagram
October 6 university

NO Correlation
Dr. Ahmed Saleh

Flowchart
October 6 university

Flowcharts are maps or graphical

representations of a process.
Steps in a process are shown with symbolic
shapes.
The flow of the process is indicated with
arrows connecting the symbols.

Dr. Ahmed Saleh

Flowchart
October 6 university

High-level flowcharts map only the major

steps in a process for a good overview.

Dr. Ahmed Saleh

Flowchart
October 6 university

Detailed flowcharts
show a step-bystep mapping of
all events and
decisions in a
process

Dr. Ahmed Saleh

Flowchart
October 6 university

Deployment
flowcharts
Organize flowchart
by columns.
Each column
representing a
person or
department
involved in a
process.
Dr. Ahmed Saleh

Flowchart Symbols
October 6 university

Dr. Ahmed Saleh

Fishbone Diagram
October 6 university

Dr. Ahmed Saleh

Fishbone Diagram
October 6 university

Generic headings:

Methods
Machines (equipment)
People (manpower)
Materials
Measurement
Environment

Dr. Ahmed Saleh