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Psiquiatra Biolgica
www.elsevier.es/psiquiatriabiologica
Revisin
Department of Psychiatry and Psychology, EURON, Maastricht University Medical Centre, South Limburg Mental Health Research and Teaching Network, Maastricht, Holanda
Mondriaan Zorggroep, Division Addiction Care, South Limburg, Holanda
c
Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Kings College London, Kings Health Partners, Londres, Reino Unido
d
NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Kings College, Londres, Reino Unido
b
r e s u m e n
Palabras clave:
Cannabis
Psicosis
Tetrahidrocanabinol
Dopamina
Sistema endocanabinoide
Los estudios epidemiolgicos efectuados en la poblacin general han demostrado sistemticamente que
el consumo de Cannabis aumenta de modo dependiente de la dosis el riesgo de desarrollar trastornos
psicticos. Aunque los indicios epidemiolgicos entre el consumo de Cannabis y las psicosis han obtenido una atencin considerable, apenas se conoce el mecanismo biolgico mediante el que esta droga
aumenta el riesgo de psicosis. La investigacin en estudios efectuados en animales sugiere que el delta9-tetrahidrocanabinol (THC, el componente psicoactivo principal del Cannabis) aumenta los niveles de
dopamina en diversas regiones del cerebro, incluido el ncleo estriado y el rea prefrontal. Dado que se ha
formulado la hiptesis de que la dopamina representa una va nal comn decisiva entre la biologa del
cerebro y la experiencia real de psicosis, inicialmente prestar atencin a este neurotransmisor podra ser
productivo en el examen de los efectos psicotomimticos del Cannabis. Por consiguiente, en la presente
revisin se examinan las pruebas concernientes a las interacciones entre el THC, los endocanabinoides y
la dopamina en la regin tanto cortical como subcortical implicadas en las psicosis, y se consideran los
posibles mecanismos por los que una disregulacin de la dopamina inducida por el consumo de Cannabis podra dar lugar a delirios y alucinaciones. Se concluye que podran emprenderse productivamente
estudios adicionales sobre los mecanismos subyacentes que relacionan el consumo de Cannabis y las
psicosis desde una perspectiva de una sensibilizacin progresiva del desarrollo, como consecuencia de
interacciones genes-ambiente.
2012 Elsevier Espaa, S.L. Todos los derechos reservados.
General population epidemiological studies have consistently found that cannabis use increases the
risk of developing psychotic disorders in a dose-dependent manner. While the epidemiological signal
between cannabis and psychosis has gained considerable attention, the biological mechanism whereby
cannabis increases risk for psychosis remains poorly understood. Animal research suggests that delta-9tetrahydrocannabinol (THC, the main psychoactive component of cannabis) increases dopamine levels
in several regions of the brain, including striatal and prefrontal areas. Since dopamine is hypothesized
to represent a crucial common nal pathway between brain biology and actual experience of psychosis, a focus on dopamine may initially be productive in the examination of the psychotomimetic effects
of cannabis. Therefore, this review examines the evidence concerning the interactions between THC,
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50
endocannabinoids and dopamine in the cortical as well as subcortical regions implicated in psychosis,
and considers possible mechanisms whereby cannabis-induced dopamine dysregulation may give rise to
delusions and hallucinations. It is concluded that further study of the mechanisms underlying the link
between cannabis and psychosis may be conducted productively from the perspective of progressive
developmental sensitization, resulting from gene-environment interactions.
2012 Elsevier Espaa, S.L. All rights reserved.
Introduccin
Desde hace mucho tiempo, las drogas y los frmacos estimulantes, como las anfetaminas, se han asociado a sntomas psicticos.
Las dosis altas pueden inducir sntomas positivos en individuos sin
antecedentes psiquitricos, mientras que dosis incluso bajas pueden exacerbar los sntomas positivos en pacientes con un trastorno
psictico (Abi-Dargham, 2004; Curran et al., 2004). A mediados
de la dcada de los setenta, las reproducciones experimentales de
los efectos psicotomimticos de las drogas/frmacos estimulantes, en combinacin con los efectos antipsicticos observados de
los frmacos bloqueadores de los receptores D2 , dieron lugar a la
hiptesis dopaminrgica inicial de la esquizofrenia. Perfeccionada
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51
Tabla 1
Qu sabemos de la asociacin entre el consumo de Cannabis y las psicosis?
1. Los estudios epidemiolgicos han demostrado que el consumo de Cannabis aumenta el riesgo de desarrollar sntomas psicticos de manera dependiente de la dosis,
con independencia de los posibles factores de confusin y de los efectos de la automedicacin (Arseneault et al., 2002; Konings et al., 2008; McGrath et al., 2010;
Moore et al., 2007)
2. El consumo de Cannabis no es una causa necesaria ni suciente de enfermedad psictica. Por consiguiente, la relacin entre el consumo de esta droga y las psicosis
puede entenderse mejor desde un punto de vista de interacciones genes-ambiente (Henquet et al., 2008)
a. Los pacientes con un diagnstico de esquizofrenia son ms sensibles a los efectos cognitivos y conductuales del Cannabis que los individuos de control
(DSouza et al., 2005)
b. Se ha encontrado que un grado elevado de esquizotpia, un trastorno psictico y el genotipo COMT val158met moderan la sensibilidad a los efectos psicticos
del Cannabis (Caspi et al., 2005; DSouza et al., 2005; Henquet et al., 2005a, 2006; van Os et al., 2002)
c. Los factores de riesgo ambiental pueden inducir una sensibilidad diferencial al Cannabis por lo que respecta al riesgo de psicosis, es decir, un trauma en la
infancia (Harley et al., 2009; Houston et al., 2008) y un entorno de crianza urbana (Henquet et al., 2009)
3. La exposicin acumulativa a riesgos ambientales podra aumentar el riesgo de psicosis de manera aditiva. Por consiguiente, el concepto de sensibilizacin conductual
podra proporcionar un mecanismo verosmil de la relacin entre el consumo de Cannabis y las psicosis (Collip et al., 2008; Cougnard et al., 2007; Dominguez
et al., 2009)
4. Aunque algunos estudios no han encontrado cambios de la morfologa cerebral relacionados con el consumo de Cannabis (Delisi et al., 2006), otros sugieren que un
consumo elevado a largo plazo puede dar lugar a cambios cerebrales estructurales (Matochik et al., 2005; Welch et al., 2010; Yucel et al., 2008), posiblemente
relacionados con el inicio precoz del consumo (Arnone et al., 2008; Wilson et al., 2000)
5. En la esquizofrenia se han revelado alteraciones en el sistema endocanabinoide, en particular un aumento de los niveles de anandamida y un aumento de la
disponibilidad de receptores CB1 , independiente del consumo de Cannabis (Dean et al., 2001; Koethe et al., 2007; Leweke et al., 1999)
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B
Aferencias extrnsecas
Aferencias extrnsecas
CB
CB
GLU
CB
GABA
GLU
Dendrita DA
Dendrita DA
GABA
Interneurona intrnseca
GABA
CB
CB
GABA
CB
Interneurona intrnseca
Figura 1. Convergencia de la dopamina y los endocanabinoides en el rea tegmentaria ventral (ATV). A) Los patrones de descarga en las neuronas dopaminrgicas (DA)
del mesencfalo estn inuidos por una serie de aferencias excitadoras (glutamatrgicas [GLU], segn lo indicado en gris) e inhibidoras (GABArgicas [GABA], segn lo
indicado en gris). Las neuronas DA regulan las terminales presinpticas mediante la senalizacin
endocanabinoide retrgrada (2-AG, segn lo indicado en azul). B) Cuando los
canabinoides exgenos (tetrahidrocanabinol [THC], segn lo indicado por las hojas de Cannabis) se unen a los receptores CB1 localizados en las terminales glutamatrgicas
endocanabinoide retrgrada (2-AG, segn lo indicado en azul) se altera y la estimulacin de los receptores CB1 por THC inhibe
(GLU) y GABArgicas (GABA), la senalizacin
la liberacin de glutamato y GABA.
Aferencia cortical
CB
GLU
Potenciacin a
largo plazo
A2
Depresin a largo
plazo
NMDA
CBe
D2
MSN (va indirecta)
Figura 2. Plasticidad estriatal de las neuronas (MSN, medium spiny neurons) que
pertenecen a la va indirecta. Las bras corticales forman sinapsis glutamatrgicas
(GLU) en las MSN. En estas sinapsis se induce una depresin a largo plazo mediada
por endocanabinoides (segn lo indicado en azul) siempre que est presente dopamina (segn lo indicado en naranja) en los receptores D2 . En ausencia de dopamina
o en presencia de agonistas del receptor A2A (segn lo indicado en gris) se induce
una potenciacin a largo plazo.
la no llegada de la
negativa global. La imposibilidad de senalizar
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54
conocimientos sobre la funcin endocanabinoide prefrontal. Utilizando el paradigma del laberinto de agua de Morris, Varvel y
Lichtman (2002) demostraron que ratones con desactivacin del
receptor CB1 no dirieron de los ratones de control de tipo salvaje con respecto a la memoria de reconocimiento. Sin embargo,
los ratones con desactivacin del receptor CB1 cometieron signicativamente ms errores de perseverancia tras la localizacin de la
plataforma que se haba modicado. Adems, se puso de maniesto
que la administracin de THC agrav signicativamente el rendimiento nemotcnico en ratones de control de tipo salvaje, mientras
que en ratones con desactivacin del receptor CB1 el rendimiento
de la tarea no se afect (Varvel y Lichtman, 2002). Puesto que la
funcin de la memoria se basa en parte en el funcionamiento del
cerebro prefrontal, se podra formular la hiptesis de que los deterioros observados del rendimiento son atribuibles a los efectos del
THC en las regiones cerebrales prefrontales.
En conjunto, parece ser que la administracin repetida de THC
altera la funcin de la CPF y deteriora la cognicin actuando en
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Individuo C
Trastorno psictico
Esquizotpia
subclnica
Individuo B
Ausencia
Individuo A
Nacimiento
Adolescencia
Vida adulta
Edad avanzada
Figura 3. Fenotipo de sensibilizacin conductual. Un individuo A posee una expresin del desarrollo normal de las experiencias psicticas subclnicas que son leves
y transitorias. Un individuo B posee una expresin similar pero una persistencia ms
prolongada debido a una exposicin ambiental adicional como el estrs (segn lo
indicado por las echas en zigzag). Un individuo C posee una persistencia prolongada y una transicin posterior a un trastorno psictico clnico posiblemente debido
a una exposicin ambiental repetida, grave como el consumo repetido de Cannabis
(segn lo indicado por las hojas de Cannabis), adems de un estrs previo. Adaptada
de Collip et al., 2008, con permiso.
55
implicar la senalizacin
endocanabinoide. Filip et al. (2006)
demostraron que la administracin de rimonabant, un antagonista
del receptor de los CB1 , bloque potentemente la expresin de
hipersensibilidad a la cocana. Adems, Corbille et al. (2007)
demostraron que la sensibilizacin tras una dosis nica de
cocana o anfetamina disminuy en ratones con desactivacin
del receptor de CB1 y las desactivaciones del receptor de CB1
no sensibilizaron a la anfetamina administrada a diario durante
7 das (Thiemann et al., 2008b). Adems, en un paradigma tanto de
dosis nica como durante 7 das se demostr que ratones tratados
con el antagonista del receptor de CB1 AM251 manifestaron una
disminucin en el desarrollo de sensibilizacin a los estimulantes (Thiemann et al., 2008a). Por ltimo, Chiang y Chen (2007)
demostraron que la microinyeccin del agonista/antagonista
SR147778 CB1 -R inverso directamente en el estriado ventral
bloque potentemente la expresin de la hipersensibilidad a
metaanfetamina.
Por consiguiente, a pesar de algunos hallazgos contradictorios,
la investigacin sugiere un importante papel del sistema endocanabinoide en los procesos neuroqumicos que son la base de la
sensibilizacin. La exposicin repetida a THC podra sensibilizar a
un individuo a los efectos psicticos de este preparado, en interaccin con otros factores de riesgo ambiental como el estrs, y
esto podra ser especialmente pertinente para individuos genticamente en riesgo de una disregulacin dopaminrgica (Henquet
et al., 2008).
Conclusin
Aunque se han hecho progresos en la comprensin de la
funcin endocanabinoide, todava no est dilucidado el sistema
endocanabinoide, y sus interacciones con otros sistemas de neurotransmisores, incluido el sistema dopaminrgico, son complejas.
Aunque en el ATV la dopamina parece ser una funcin endocanabinoide antergrada, parece ser que, en el estriado ventral, parte
de la neurotransmisin dopaminrgica en realidad es una funcin
endocanabinoide retrgrada, como mnimo, por lo que concierne
a su implicacin en la plasticidad de las neuronas MSN estriatales. En consecuencia, aunque el THC podra estimular la descarga
de las neuronas DA en el ATV y, como consecuencia, aumentar los
niveles de dopamina en el estriado, en este ncleo, adems, el THC
podra ejercer sus efectos inuyendo directamente en la plasticidad
sinptica (Morrison y Murray, 2009).
Sin embargo, la mayor parte de pruebas obtenidas hasta la fecha
proceden de la investigacin emprendida en animales, y hasta
ahora no es posible ofrecer una respuesta clara a la pregunta de si
los efectos inductores de psicosis del Cannabis estn mediados por
la dopamina. Faltan estudios que investiguen los efectos agudos
y a largo plazo del THC sobre la neurotransmisin dopaminrgica, y la experiencia del aprendizaje y de la recompensa en seres
humanos. Los progresos en las tcnicas de imagen, tal como el desarrollo de nuevos radioistopos, al igual que la comprensin cada
vez mayor de la biologa y la psicologa de los sntomas psicticos positivos, parecen prometedores para el estudio futuro de
cmo las bases biolgicas de la relacin Cannabis-psicosis podran
alterar la experiencia de tal modo que acontecieran sntomas psicticos.
Financiacin
C. Henquet recibi nanciacin del Dutch Medical Research
Council (beca VENI). P. Morrison recibi nanciacin del MRC.
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56
Contribucin de autora
Todos los autores contribuyeron al manuscrito nal y lo aprobaron.
Conicto de intereses
J. van Os se ha beneciado de una beca de investigacin sin
restricciones o ha recibido una compensacin econmica como
conferenciante independiente en simposios de Eli Lilly, BMS, Lundbeck, Organon, Janssen-Cilag, GSK, AstraZeneca, Pzer y Servier,
empresas farmacuticas que tienen inters en el tratamiento de
las psicosis. Robin Murray ha recibido honorarios como conferenciante independiente en simposios patrocinados por Eli Lilly, BMS,
Lundbeck, Organon, Janssen-Cilag, GSK, AstraZeneca, Pzer y Servier, empresas farmacuticas que tienen inters en el tratamiento
de las psicosis.
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