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(ISSN 1992-8424)
ABSTRACT
We propose a novel reactive routing algorithm called PARTROUTE which achieves
energy efficient routing in sensor networks with stationary and mobile nodes.
PARTROUTE uses coarse mobility awareness in each node to reduce the overheads of
reactive routing by intelligently re-using parts of the created on-demand routes beyond
their standard lifetime. We show that the responsiveness of the network improves while
the overall network traffic is reduced. The effectiveness of PARTROUTE with a large
percentage of mobile nodes is also shown.
Keywords: wireless sensor network, routing protocol, PARTROUTE, mobility
aware, AODV, AODVjr
INTRODUCTION
MOTIVATION
848
THE
PARTROUTE
ALGORITHM
ROUTING
discarded if vj VM. A mobile node uses only MROUTE-REQUEST to create a route to the gateway.
All stationary nodes in the network except the
gateway use S-ROUTE-REQUEST to reach the
gateway. The gateway uses M-ROUTE-REQUEST
to find a stationary or mobile node in the network
since M-ROUTE-REQUEST is accepted and
processed by all nodes. We assume that the network
has a single gateway and each node in the network is
aware of this gateway. The principle can be extended
to multiple gateways, without loss of generality.
In PARTROUTE stationary nodes are allowed to
behave like mobile nodes under certain conditions. If
the duration for which mobile nodes rest (i.e. become
stationary) is large when compared to the duration
for which they move, they can be allowed to
temporarily function as stationary nodes during the
stationary phase. The target application determines
(a) the use of this role-switching feature and (b) the
duration of rest. Role-switching is discussed in
Section 3.3.
3.1
849
850
3.5
Figure 2: M-ROUTE-RE
EQUEST from mobile
m
node 100
extends traace L(1, 2) to P(1,2,6)
P
In
the
interm
mediate-node
mode,
any
representtative can be a reply-node and send thee MROUTE-REPLY to an
a M-ROUTE
E-REQUEST
T. A
n
successfuully created rooute between the mobile node
and a reppresentative coould extend the
t previous trrace
terminatinng at the repreesentative by adding new sttatic
links beyond it or create a neew trace if the
a shown in Fiig. 1.
representtative is the gaateway itself as
Even duuring trace extension, the create-trrace
message acknowledgement is geenerated by the
gateway instead of thhe intermediatte node. Exissting
traces get extended byy the recursivvely applying this
principle.. In Fig. 2 an M-ROUTE-R
REPLY generated
from nodde (representaative) 2 in ressponse to the MROUTE-REQUEST frrom node 10 forms
f
a route P(1,
way and adds static
s
link L(22, 6)
2, 6, 10) to the gatew
to extendd the trace L(1, 2) to P(1, 2, 6).
After creating a route in the intermediate-n
i
node
n
discoverrs that it did not
mode, if the mobile node
a acknowleddgement from the gatewayy for
receive an
an appliccation level event, it staarts sending MROUTE-REQUESTs in
i destination-node mode after
a
NTa certainn number off retries (givven by EVEN
RETRY-COUNT) usinng the intermeediate-node mode
m
mined by thhe target appplication. Since
as determ
gateway is the reply-nnode for this mode, a routte is
b
the mobile
m
node and the gatew
way
created between
possibly creating anothher trace in thhe process. Once
O
munication ressumes, the moobile
applicatioon level comm
nodes sw
witches back too using interm
mediate-modee MROUTE-REQUESTs for
f creating suubsequent routtes.
Sincee M-ROUTE-REQUESTs are processedd by
all nodess they may form shorterr traces thann S-
RO
OUTE-REQUE
ESTs. This iss acceptable to mobile
nod
des since theyy would anywaay change their location.
How
wever, repressentatives on tthe trace creaated in the
pro
ocess would help
h
provide faaster responsees to other
nod
des generatingg M-ROUTE-R
REQUESTs.
3.6
Role Swittching
A stationaryy node that is uunable to find a route to
n
by
the gateway thhrough other stationary nodes
nsmitting a S-ROUTE-RE
S
EQUEST is allowed
a
to
tran
beh
have like a moobile node (Seection 3.5). Th
his allows
stattionary nodees that havve been iso
olated by
dep
ployment or have becoome isolated
d during
opeeration possiibly due too non-availaability of
neighbouring staationary nodees to be ablee to route
eveents through VS VM insteaad of only VS. Similarly,
a mobile
m
node could become stationary if it remains
idlee and the target appllication justiifies this
con
nversion afterr consideringg the dynamics of the
mobile node as discussed
d
in Section 2.
We now expplain using Figg. 3 how role--switching
by a node particiipating in rouute formation affects
a
the
beh
haviour of PA
ARTROUTE aafter the route is created.
Fou
ur cases aree used to analyze the different
circcumstances encountered
e
bby a mobile node M
when it createss a route too the gateway G. A
mbination of these cases m
may be used to
t explain
com
how
w PARTRO
OUTE handlles other situations.
Wh
herever appliccable, the conncerned nodee switches
its role immediattely after proccessing the M-ROUTEM
EQUEST. Rolle-switching does not ex
xempt the
RE
nod
de from its responsibilityy to processs the MRO
OUTE-REPLY
Y it receives for this M-ROUTEM
RE
EQUEST.
851
ROUTE-REQUEST, Ri-1 could givve a intermediiatenode respponse withoutt realizing thaat its route too the
gateway passes throuugh Ri, thus creating a cyycle
between Ri and Ri-1. When mobille (or stationnary)
nodes thhat use routes with L (Ri-1, Ri) as an
intermediiate link fail to receive accknowledgem
ments
for eventts they sends to the gatewaay, they perceive
this as a broken link problem andd use destinattionM
EQUESTs (or S-ROU
UTEnode M-ROUTE-RE
REQUES
STs) to find new routes to the gatew
way
breaking the above cyycle in the prrocess unless the
t nodes in thhe cycle. If noodes
new routees do not use the
in the cyycle are not ussed, the cyclee disappears after
a
link liffetimes expire due to absence of
communiication througgh the links.
Thereefore, rapid roole-switching by
b a mobile node
n
could advversely affect performance of PARTROU
UTE.
So we coonstrain fidgetty mobile noddes to always stay
mobile to minimizee the overhheads due such
s
conditionns.
Case 4: If a mobilee node UK swiitches its role and
becomes stationary just after proocessing the Mit
either
a
ROUTE-REQUEST
becomes
representtative provided K = P (sincce UP is adjacent
to R1) or all nodes betw
ween UK and R1 are stationnary.
Else, UK remains a stattionary non-reepresentative.
4
RFORMANCE
E
PER
PAR
RTROUTE
EVALU
UATION
OF
A large delay
d
in routee formation iss a bottleneckk for
reactive algorithms
a
duee to their on-ddemand naturee. In
the earlieer sections, we
w have seenn how traces can
successfuully help reducce this delay for
f mobile noodes.
In this Seection we builld an analytical model in order
to characcterize PART
TROUTEs performance
p
w
with
respect too delay in rooute formatioon. The modeel is
used to analyze
a
the simulation ressults presentedd in
Section 5.
5
4.1 Asssumptions
The noddes are idenntical with an
a ideal circcular
transmisssion range of
o radius L. The analysiss is
carried ouut with respecct events sent to the gatewaay G
by a mobbile node M moving
m
withinn a circular reggion
CK with radius
r
K as shown
s
in Fig.4. The changge in
position of M in thee interval bettween sendinng a
route-reqquest and geetting back its responsee is
negligiblee. All transm
mission, channnel and recepption
conditionns are ideal soo a route-respponse is receiived
for everyy route-requesst. Radio proppagation delaay is
negligiblee when comppared to the trransmission delay
at the meessage sourcee. So, the Hopp Traversal Time
T
(denoted by , 0) for
fo a message to be receivedd by
o the messsage
any nodde within a radius L of
transmitteer is essentiaally the same.. Mean queueeing
and proceessing delays are consideredd to be a part of
since theyy are applicabble to every noode. We assum
me a
4.2
Estimatin
ng Route F
Formation Response
Time
Suppose at a given instannt T, the mobille node M
a a distance x from the G and does not
n have a
is at
rou
ute to the gatew
way. It generaates a route-reequest and
exp
pects a route-rresponse. Delaay (D ) experrienced by
M at
a a distance x is the duratiion between the
t time at
which it originattes the route-rrequest and th
he time at
c
which it receives the route-reeply. So the cumulative
delay experienceed by M for alll its positionss on a ring
d
x andd (infinitesim
mal) width dx from G is
at distance
D . 2xdx. Hencee, for a given algorithm A, the mean
Ressponse Time (RTA) experieenced by M positioned
p
any
ywhere in CK is obtainned by averaaging the
cum
mulative delayy over all posiitions at distan
nce x, 0
x K in CK. Thiis is given as
K
RT
TA
D .
K
852
1 n x/L
x . Mobilityy pattern of M is random, trrace
lifetimes are configguration speccific and trrace
formationn depends on earlier route formaation
attempts and percenntage of sttationary noodes.
w
Assumingg n takes eacch value withhin its range with
equal proobability, the mean value of
o Dx is givenn by
/L
Dx 2
1 .
n / x/L x//L
a route-requeests are fieldeed at
In thee best case, all
the first hop.
h So Dx 2
2.
Loweer the Respponse Time, lesser is the
possibilitty of the gateway and nodes near it gettting
choked with
w route-requuest packets thhat could degrrade
performaance in a livee scenario. Also,
A
decreasee in
Responsee Time imprroves perform
mance for high
h
speed moobile nodes (further discuussed in Secction
5.2.2). We
W also definee a figure of merit
m
Trace Inndex
(TI) whicch is used to compare thee effectiveness of
PARTRO
OUTE when compared
c
to AODVjr.
A
Smaaller
the valuue of TI, better
b
the reesponsiveness of
PARTRO
OUTE.
RTPARTROUTE
P
TI
RT
TAODV
4.3
ULATION
SIMU
853
75m to have
h
sufficientt overlap betw
ween transmission
range off nodes. Paacket size iss kept consttant,
lifetimeDYYNAMIC is keptt at 15s, CTPEERIOD is set to 30s
and EVE
ENT-RETRY
Y-COUNT is set to 3. The
estimatedd Hop Traverrsal Time is 0.1 seconds. An
event transmission is
i attempted by an evventgeneratinng mobile nodde every 6 secconds. If a moobile
node in PARTROUTE
P
E fails to delivver an event after
a
the retriees defined byy EVENT-RETRY-COUNT
T, it
uses
d
destination-no
ode
M-RO
OUTE-REQUE
EST
(Section 3.5) till it suuccessfully delivers
d
an evvent.
Henceforrth we use PARTROUTE-x to referr to
PARTRO
OUTE with thee value of lifeetimeSTATIC ass x.
We use
u the term Total Packet Count to dennote
the total number
n
of (daata and routingg control) pacckets
transmitteed by all nodees. Event Packet Count is used
u
to denotee the total num
mber event paackets transmiitted
by all noodes. Event Count
C
refers to
t the numbeer of
events seent by an evennt source for which it receeives
an acknow
wledgement. So, the total number
n
of pacckets
transmitteed for everyy event (TP
PE) successffully
transferreed to the gatew
way is given by
b
T
TPE
P
E
C
C
5.2 Reesults
5.2.1 Effect
E
of multiiple event souurces
From
m Fig. 6 it is cllear that multiiple event souurces
reduce thhe Response Time
T
of the neetwork as perr the
discussion in Section 4.3. Also, forr a given num
mber
s
once the
t created traaces get refresshed
of event sources
periodicaally, any furtther increase in the valuee of
lifetimeSTTATIC does not signifiicantly imprrove
performaance e.g. forr a single event
e
source no
significannt improvement in responsee time is obserrved
by increaasing lifetimeSTATIC
from 1500 to 200.
S
5.2.2 Comparison
C
off PARTROUT
TE with AODV
Vjr
Respponse Time foor PARTROU
UTE for a sinngle
mobile evvent source dooes not vary significantly
s
a
after
150s as shown in Figg. 6 So, PAR
RTROUTE-150 is
DVjr. A cerrtain
used forr comparisonn with AOD
854
T
With mobility, lenngths of tracess shorten so TPE
mobiliity,
TPE
for
decreasess. For 400%
PARTRO
OUTE-150 is
i 74% off AODVjr an
improvem
ment of 26%. With 80% mobility, duee to
lack of sufficient
s
stattionary nodess PARTROU
UTE150 and AODVjr havve similar TP
PE levels. Evvent
DVjr
Count forr PARTROUTE-150 is moore than AOD
for all caases except with
w
0% mobbility where it
i is
almost saame. PARTRO
OUTE-150 deelivers up to 15%
1
more eveents than AOD
DVjr with 40%
% mobility.
To seee the effectss of semi-mobbility (Sectionn 2)
with a larrge stationaryy period withiin the durationn of
the simullation we connfigure each node
n
in R to keep
k
switchingg its status beetween mobille and stationnary.
The duraation for beinng mobile annd stationary are
given byy two normallly distributed variables with
w
mean vallues of 450s and
a 50s respecctively, each with
w
a standarrd deviation of 10s. Thiis prevents roler
switchingg from happenning synchronnously. Each node
n
is initiallly mobile. PA
ARTROUTE--150 delivers 5%
more eveents, has a 17%
% lower respoonse time andd 8%
lower TP
PE compared to AODVjr.
5.2.3
5
Variationn in Trace Inddex
From Sectioon 4.2, theorretical values of Trace
Ind
dex with L=755 and K=300 aare given as 1, 0.66 and
0.32 for worst, mean and bbest case resspectively.
g.11 shows hoow the simullation results for Trace
Fig
Ind
dex for PART
TROUTE-1500 compare ag
gainst the
theoretical worsst, mean and best case leevels. The
west value of 0.44
0
is observed for Trace Index
I
with
low
stattionary nodess. With 40% mobility, the observed
Traace Index is 0..6 which is beetter than meaan value of
0.66.
I
Analysis
Figure 11: Trace Index
CONCLUSIION
855
856