petroleum

crude oil, oil

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Encyclopedic Entry

Vocabulary

Oil, that is. Black gold. Texas tea.

Photograph by Rebecca Hale

Leading Petroleum Consumers

1. United States
2. China
3. Japan
4. India
5. Saudi Arabia
Source: US Energy Information Administration

Leading Petroleum Producers

1. Saudi Arabia
2. Russia
3. United States
4. Iran

5. China
Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration

Proven Reserves
These nations have the worlds largest proven oil reserves.
1. Saudi Arabia
2. Venezuela
3. Canada
4. Iran
5. Iraq
Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration

Playtime
A petroleum play is full of drama! A petroleum play is a group of oil fields in a single
geographic region, created by the same geologic forces or during the same time
period. A petroleum play may be defined by a time period (Paleozoic play), rock type
(shale play), or a combination of both.
Tar Pits
In Los Angeles, California, bitumen has been seeping to the Earths surface for
thousands of years at what is now called the La Brea Tar Pits. The pits have
preserved fossils of saber-toothed cats, mastodons, turtles, dire wolves, horses, and
other plants and animals that were trapped in the sticky substance 40,000 years ago.
Bitumen continues to bubble up through the ground today.
Petroleum (also known as crude oil or simply oil) is afossil fuel that was formed from
the remains of ancient marine organisms.
Millions of years ago, algae and plants lived in shallow seas. After dying and sinking
to the seafloor, the organic material mixed with other sediments and was buried.
Over millions of years under high pressure and high temperature, the remains of
these organisms transformed into what we know today as fossil fuels.Coal, natural
gas, and petroleum are all fossil fuels that formed under similar conditions.
Today, petroleum is found in vast underground reservoirs where ancient seas were
located. Petroleum reservoirs can be found beneath land or the ocean floor. Their
crude oil is extracted with giant drilling machines.
Crude oil is usually black or dark brown, but can also be yellowish, reddish, tan, or
even greenish. Variations in color indicate the distinct chemical compositions of
different supplies of crude oil. Petroleum that has few metals or sulfur, for instance,
tends to be lighter (sometimes nearly clear).
Petroleum is used to make gasoline, an important product in our everyday lives. It is
also processed and part of thousands of different items, including tires, refrigerators,

life jackets, and anesthetics.

When petroleum products such as gasoline are burned for energy, they release toxic
gases and high amounts of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas. Carbon helps
regulate the Earths atmospheric temperature, and adding to the natural balance by
burning fossil fuels adversely affects our climate.
There are huge quantities of petroleum found under Earths surface and in tar pits
that bubble to the surface. Petroleum even exists far below the deepest wells that are
developed to extract it.
However, petroleum, like coal and natural gas, is a non-renewable source of energy.
It took millions of years for it to form, and when it is extracted and consumed, there is
no way for us to replace it.
Oil supplies will run out. Eventually, the world will reach peak oil, or its highest
production level. Some experts predict peak oil could come as soon as 2050. Finding
alternatives to petroleum is crucial to global energy use, and is the focus of many
industries.
Formation of Petroleum
The geological conditions that would eventually create petroleum formed millions of
years ago, when plants, algae, and plankton drifted in oceans and shallow seas.
These organisms sank to the seafloor at the end of their life cycle. Over time, they
were buried and crushed under millions of tons of sediment and even more layers of
plant debris.
Eventually, ancient seas dried up and dry basins remained, called sedimentary
basins. Deep under the basin floor, the organic material was compressed between
Earths mantle, with very high temperatures, and millions of tons of rock and
sediment above. Oxygen was almost completely absent in these conditions, and the
organic matter began to transform into a waxy substance called kerogen.
With more heat, time, and pressure, the kerogen underwent a process
called catagenesis, and transformed into hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons are simply
chemicals made up of hydrogen and carbon. Different combinations of heat and
pressure can create different forms of hydrocarbons. Some other examples are
coal, peat, and natural gas.

Sedimentary basins, where ancient seabeds used to lie, are key sources of
petroleum. In Africa, the Niger Delta sedimentary basin covers land in Nigeria,
Cameroon, and Equatorial Guinea. More than 500 oil deposits have been discovered
in the massive Niger Delta basin, and they comprise one of the most productive oil
fields in Africa.
Chemistry and Classification of Crude Oil
The gasoline we use to fuel our cars, the synthetic fabrics of our backpacks and
shoes, and the thousands of different useful products made from petroleum come in
forms that are consistent and reliable. However, the crude oil from which these items
are produced is neither consistent nor uniform.
Chemistry
Crude oil is composed of hydrocarbons, which are mainly hydrogen (about 13% by
weight) and carbon (about 85%). Other elements such as nitrogen (about 0.5%),
sulfur (0.5%), oxygen (1%), and metals such as iron, nickel, and copper (less than
0.1%) can also be mixed in with the hydrocarbons in small amounts.
The way molecules are organized in the hydrocarbon is a result of the original
composition of the algae, plants, or plankton from millions of years ago. The amount
of heat and pressure the plants were exposed to also contributes to variations that
are found in hydrocarbons and crude oil.
Due to this variation, crude oil that is pumped from the ground can consist of
hundreds of different petroleum compounds. Light oils can contain up to 97%
hydrocarbons, while heavier oils and bitumens might contain only 50% hydrocarbons
and larger quantities of other elements. It is almost always necessary to refinecrude
oil in order to make useful products.
Classification
Oil is classified according to three main categories: the geographic location where it
was drilled, its sulfur content, and its API gravity (a measure of density).
Classification: Geography
Oil is drilled all over the world. However, there are three primary sources of crude oil
that set reference points for ranking and pricing other oil supplies: Brent Crude, West
Texas Intermediate, and Dubai and Oman.
Brent Crude is a mixture that comes from 15 different oil fields between Scotland and
Norway in the North Sea. These fields supply oil to most of Europe.

West Texas Intermediate (WTI) is a lighter oil that is produced mostly in the U.S.
state of Texas. It is sweet and lightconsidered very high quality. WTI supplies
much of North America with oil.
Dubai crude, also known as Fateh or Dubai-Oman crude, is a light, sour oil that is
produced in Dubai, part of the United Arab Emirates. The nearby country of Oman
has recently begun producing oil. Dubai and Oman crudes are used as a reference
point for pricing Persian Gulf oils that are mostly exported to Asia.
The OPEC Reference Basket is another important oil source. OPEC is the
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries. The OPEC Reference Basket is the
average price of petroleum from OPECs 12 member countries: Algeria, Angola,
Ecuador, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab
Emirates, and Venezuela.
Classification: Sulfur Content
Sulfur is considered an impurity in petroleum. Sulfur in crude oil can corrode metal
in the refining process and contribute to air pollution. Petroleum with more than 0.5%
sulfur is called sour, while petroleum with less than 0.5% sulfur is sweet.
Sweet oil is usually much more valuable than sour because it does not require as
much refining and is less harmful to the environment.
Classification: API Gravity
The American Petroleum Institute (API) is a trade association for businesses in the
oil and natural gas industries. The API has established accepted systems of
standards for a variety of oil- and gas-related products, such as gauges, pumps, and
drilling machinery. The API has also established several units of measurement. The
API unit, for instance, measures gamma radiation in a borehole (a shaft drilled into
the ground).
API gravity is a measure of the density of petroleum liquid compared to water. If a
petroleum liquids API gravity is greater than 10, it is light, and floats on top of
water. If the API gravity is less than 10, it is heavy, and sinks in water.
Light oils are preferred because they have a higher yield of hydrocarbons. Heavier
oils have greater concentrations of metals and sulfur, and require more refining.
Petroleum Reservoirs

Petroleum is found in underground pockets called reservoirs. Deep beneath the

Earth, pressure is extremely high. Petroleum slowly seeps out toward the surface,
where there is lower pressure. It continues this movement from high to low pressure
until it encounters a layer of rock that is impermeable. The petroleum then collects in
reservoirs, which can be several hundred meters below the surface of the Earth.
Petroleum can be contained by structural traps, which are formed when massive
layers of rock are bent or faulted (broken) from the Earths shifting landmasses. Oil
can also be contained by stratigraphic traps. Different strata, or layers of rock, can
have different amounts of porosity. Crude oil migrates easily through a layer of
sandstone, for instance, but would be trapped beneath a layer of shale.
Geologists, chemists, and engineers look for geological structures that typically trap
petroleum. They use a process called seismic reflection to locate underground rock
structures that might have trapped crude oil. During the process, a small explosion is
set off. Sound waves travel underground, bounce off of the different types of rock,
and return to the surface. Sensors on the ground interpret the returning sound waves
to determine the underground geological layout and possibility of a petroleum
reservoir.
The amount of petroleum in a reservoir is measured in barrels or tons. An oil barrel is
about 42 gallons. This measurement is usually used by oil producers in the United
States. Oil producers in Europe and Asia tend to measure in metric tons. There are
about 6 to 8 barrels of oil in a metric ton. The conversion is imprecise because
different varieties of oil weigh different amounts, depending on the amount of
impurities.
Crude oil is frequently found in reservoirs along with natural gas. In the past, natural
gas was either burned or allowed to escape into the atmosphere. Now, technology
has been developed to capture the natural gas and either reinject it into the well or
compress it into liquid natural gas (LNG). LNG is easily transportable and has
versatile uses.
Extracting Petroleum
In some places, petroleum bubbles to the surface of the Earth. In parts of Saudi
Arabia and Iraq, for instance, porous rock allows oil to seep to the surface in small
ponds. However, most oil is trapped in underground oil reservoirs.

The total amount of petroleum in a reservoir is calledoil-in-place. Many petroleum

liquids that make up a reservoirs oil-in-place are unable to be extracted. These
petroleum liquids may be too difficult, dangerous, or expensive to drill.
The part of a reservoirs oil-in-place that can be extracted and refined is that
reservoirs oil reserves. The decision to invest in complex drilling operations is often
made based on a sites proven oil reserves.
Drilling can either be developmental, exploratory, or directional.
Drilling in an area where oil reserves have already been found is
called developmental drilling. Prudhoe Bay, Alaska, has the largest oil reserves in the
United States. Developmental drilling in Prudhoe Bay includes new wells and
expanding extraction technology.
Drilling where there are no known reserves is calledexploratory drilling. Exploratory,
also called wildcat drilling, is a risky business with a very high failure rate. However,
the potential rewards of striking oil tempt many wildcatters to attempt exploratory
drilling. Diamond Glenn McCarthy, for example, is known as the King of the
Wildcatters because of his success in discovering the massive oil reserves near
Houston, Texas. McCarthy struck oil 38 times in the 1930s, earning millions of
dollars.
Directional drilling involves drilling vertically to a known source of oil, then veering the
drill bit at an angle to access additional resources. Accusations of directional drilling
led to the first Gulf War in 1991. Iraq accused Kuwait of using directional drilling
techniques to extract oil from Iraqi oil reservoirs near the Kuwaiti border. Iraq
subsequently invaded Kuwait, an act which drew international attention and
intervention. After the war, the border between Iraq and Kuwait was redrawn, with the
reservoirs now belonging to Kuwait.
Oil Rigs
On land, oil can be drilled with an apparatus called anoil rig or drilling rig. Offshore,
oil is drilled from an oil platform.
Primary Production
Most modern wells use an air rotary drilling rig, which can operate 24 hours a day. In
this process, engines power a drill bit. A drill bit is a cutting tool used to create a
circular hole. The drill bits used in air rotary drilling rigs are hollow steel, with

tungsten rods used to cut the rock. Petroleum drill bits can be 36 centimeters (14
inches) in diameter.
As the drill bit rotates and cuts through the earth, small pieces of rock are chipped
off. A powerful flow of air is pumped down the center of the hollow drill, and comes
out through the bottom of the drill bit. The air then rushes back toward the surface,
carrying with it tiny chunks of rock. Geologists on site can study these pieces of
pulverized rock to determine the different rock strata the drill encounters.
When the drill hits oil, some of the oil naturally rises from the ground, moving from an
area of high pressure to low pressure. This immediate release of oil can be a
gusher, shooting dozens of meters into the air, one of the most dramatic extraction
activities. It is also one of the most dangerous, and a piece of equipment called a
blowout preventer redistributes pressure to stop such a gusher.
Pumps are used to extract oil. Most oil rigs have two sets of pumps: mud pumps and
extraction pumps. Mud is the drilling fluid used to create boreholes for extracting oil
and natural gas. Mud pumps circulate drilling fluid.
The petroleum industry uses a wide variety of extraction pumps. Which pump to use
depends on the geography, quality, and position of the oil reservoir. Submersible
pumps, for example, are submerged directly into the fluid. A gas pump, also called a
bubble pump, uses compressed air to force the petroleum to the surface or well.
One of the most familiar types of extraction pumps is the pumpjack, the upper part of
a piston pump. Pumpjacks are nicknamed thirsty birds or nodding donkeys for
their controlled, regular dipping motion. A crank moves the large, hammer-shaped
pumpjack up and down. Far below the surface, the motion of the pumpjack moves a
hollow piston up and down, constantly carrying petroleum back to the surface or well.
Successful drilling sites can produce oil for about 30 years, although some produce
for many more decades.
Secondary Recovery
Even after pumping, the vast majority (up to 90%) of the oil can remain tightly
trapped in the underground reservoir. Other methods are necessary to extract this
petroleum, a process called secondary recovery. Vacuuming the extra oil out was a
method used in the 1800s and early 20th century, but it captured only thinner oil
components, and left behind great stores of heavy oil.

Water flooding was discovered by accident. In the 1870s, oil producers in

Pennsylvania noticed that abandoned oil wells were accumulating rainwater and
groundwater. The weight of the water in the boreholes forced oil out of the reservoirs
and into nearby wells, increasing their production. Oil producers soon began
intentionally flooding wells as a way to extract more oil.
The most prevalent secondary recovery method today is gas drive. During this
process, a well is intentionally drilled deeper than the oil reservoir. The deeper well
hits a natural gas reservoir, and the high-pressure gas rises, forcing the oil out of its
reservoir.
Oil Platforms
Drilling offshore is much more expensive than drilling onshore. It usually uses the
same drilling techniques as onshore, but requires a massive structure that can
sustain the tremendous strength of ocean waves in stormy seas.
Offshore drilling platforms are some of the largest manmade structures in the world.
They often include housing accommodations for people who work on the platform, as
well as docking facilities and a helicopter landing pad to transport workers.
The platform can either be tethered to the ocean floor and float, or can be a rigid
structure that is fixed to the bottom of the ocean, sea, or lake with concrete or steel
legs.
The Hibernia platform, 315 kilometers (196 miles) off Canadas eastern shore in the
North Atlantic Ocean, is one of the worlds largest oil platforms. More than 70 people
work on the platform, in three-week shifts. The platform is 111 meters (364 feet) tall
and is anchored to the ocean floor. About 450,000 tons of solid ballastwere added to
give it additional stability. The platform can store up to 1.3 million barrels of oil. In
total, Hibernia weighs 1.2 million tons! However, the platform is still vulnerable to the
crushing weight and strength oficebergs. Its edges are serrated and sharp to
withstand the impact of sea ice or icebergs.
Oil platforms can cause enormous environmental disasters. Problems with the
drilling equipment can cause the oil to explode out of the well and into the ocean.
Repairing the well hundreds of meters below the ocean is extremely difficult,
expensive, and slow. Millions of barrels of oil can spill into the ocean before the well
is plugged.

When oil spills in the ocean, it floats on the water andwreaks havoc on the animal
population. One of its most devastating effects is on birds. Oil destroys the
waterproofing abilities of feathers, and birds are notinsulated against the cold ocean
water. Thousands can die of hypothermia. Fish and marine mammals, too, are
threatened by oil spills. The dark shadows cast by oil spills can look like food. Oil can
damage animals internal organs and be even more toxic to animals higher up in the
food chain, a process calledbioaccumulation.
A massive oil platform in the Gulf of Mexico, theDeepwater Horizon, exploded in
2010. This was the largest accidental marine oil spill in history. Eleven platform
workers died, and more than 4 million barrels of oil gushed into the Gulf of Mexico.
More than 40,000 barrels flowed into the ocean every day. Eight national parks were
threatened, the economies of communities along the Gulf Coast were threatened as
the tourism and fishing industries declined, and more than 6,000 animals died.
Rigs to Reefs
Offshore oil platforms can also act as artificial reefs. They provide a surface
(substrate) for algae, coral, oysters, and barnacles. This artificial reef can attract fish
and marine mammals, and create a thriving ecosystem.
Until the 1980s, oil platforms were deconstructed and removed from the oceans, and
the metal was sold as scrap. In 1986, the National Marine Fisheries Association
developed the Rigs-to-Reefs Program. Now, oil platforms are either toppled (by
underwater explosion), removed and towed to a new location, or partially
deconstructed. This allows the marine life to continue flourishing on the artificial reef
that had provided habitats for decades.
The environmental impact of the Rigs-to-Reefs Program is still being studied. Oil
platforms left underwater can pose dangers to ships and divers. Fishing boats have
had their nets caught in the platforms, and there are concerns about safety
regulations of the abandoned structures.
Environmentalists argue that oil companies should be held accountable to the
commitment they originally agreed upon, which was to restore the seabed to its
original condition. By leaving the platforms in the ocean, oil companies are excused
from fulfilling this agreement, and there is concern this could set a precedent for
other companies that want to dispose of their metal or machinery in the oceans.
Petroleum and the Environment: Bitumen and the Boreal Forest

Crude oil does not always have to be extracted through deep drilling. If it does not
encounter rocky obstacles underground, it can seep all the way to the surface and
bubble above ground. Bitumen is a form of petroleum that is black, extremely sticky,
and sometimes rises to Earths surface.
In its natural state, bitumen is typically mixed with oil sands or tar sands, which
makes it extremely difficult to extract and an unconventional source of oil. Only about
20% of the worlds reserves of bitumen are above ground and can be surface
mined.
Unfortunately, because bitumen contains high amounts of sulfur and heavy metals,
extracting and refining it is both costly and harmful to the environment. Producing
bitumen into useful products releases 12% more carbon emissions than processing
conventional oil.
Bitumen is about the consistency of cold molasses, and powerful hot steam has to
be pumped into the well in order to melt the bitumen to extract it. Large quantities of
water are then used to separate the bitumen from sand and clay. This process
depletes nearby water supplies. Releasing the treated water back into the
environment can further contaminate the remaining water supply.
Processing bitumen from tar sands is also a complex, expensive procedure. It takes
two tons of oil sands to produce one barrel of oil.
However, we depend on bitumen for its unique properties: about 85% of the bitumen
extracted is used to make asphalt to pave and patch our roads. A small percentage
is used for roofing and other products.
Bitumen Reserves
Most of the worlds tar sands are in the eastern part of Alberta, Canada, in the
Athabasca Oil Sands. Other major reserves are in the North Caspian Basin of
Kazahkstan and Siberia, Russia.
The Athabasca Oil Sands are the fourth-largest reserves of oil in the world.
Unfortunately, the bitumen reserves are located beneath part of the boreal forest,
also called the taiga. This makes extraction both difficult and environmentally
dangerous.
The taiga circles the Northern Hemisphere just below the frozen tundra, spanning
more than 5 million square kilometers (2 million square miles), mostly in Canada,

Russia, and Scandinavia. It accounts for almost one-third of all of the forested land
on the planet.
The taiga is sometimes called the lungs of the planet because it filters tons of water
and oxygen through the leaves and needles of its trees every day. Every spring, the
boreal forest releases immense amounts of oxygen into the atmosphere and keeps
our air clean. It is home to a mosaic of plant and animal life, all of which depend on
the mature trees, mosses, and lichen of the boreal biome.
Surface mines are estimated to only take up 0.2% of Canadas boreal forest. About
80% of Canadas oil sands can be accessed through drilling, and 20% by surface
mining.
Refining Petroleum
Refining petroleum is the process of converting crude oil or bitumen into more useful
products, such as fuel or asphalt.
Crude oil comes out of the ground with impurities, from sulfur to sand. These
components have to be separated. This is done by heating the crude oil in a
distillation tower that has trays and temperatures set at different levels. Oils
hydrocarbons and metals have different boiling temperatures, and when the oil is
heated, vapors from the different elements rise to different levels of the tower before
condensing back into a liquid on the tiered trays.
Propane, kerosene, and other components condense on different tiers of the tower,
and can be individually collected. They are transported by pipeline, ocean vessels,
and trucks to different locations, to either be used directly or further processed.
Petroleum Industry
Oil was not always extracted, refined, and used by millions of people as it is today.
However, it has always been an important part of many cultures.
The earliest known oil wells were drilled in China as early as 350 CE. The wells were
drilled almost 244 meters (800 feet) deep using strong bamboo bits. The oil was
extracted and transported through bamboo pipelines. It was burned as a heating fuel
and industrial component. Chinese engineers burned petroleum to evaporate brine
and produce salt.

On the west coast of North America, indigenous people used bitumen as

an adhesive to make canoes and baskets water-tight, and as a binder for creating
ceremonial decorations and tools.
By the 7th century, Japanese engineers discovered that petroleum could be burned
for light. Oil was later distilled into kerosene by a Persian alchemist in the 9th
century. During the 1800s, petroleum slowly replaced whale oil in kerosene lamps,
producing a radical decline in whale-hunting.
The modern oil industry was established in the 1850s. The first well was drilled in
Poland in 1853, and the technology spread to other countries and was improved.
The Industrial Revolution created a vast new opportunity for the use of petroleum.
Machinery powered by steam engines quickly became too slow, small-scale, and
expensive. Petroleum-based fuel was in demand. The invention of the massproduced automobile in the early 20th century further increased demand for
petroleum.
Petroleum production has rapidly increased. In 1859, the U.S. produced 2,000
barrels of oil. By 1906, that number was 126 million barrels per year. Today, the U.S.
produces about 6.8 billion barrels of oil every year.
According to OPEC, more than 70 million barrels are produced worldwide every day.
That is almost 49,000 barrels per minute.
Although that seems like an impossibly high amount, the uses for petroleum have
expanded to almost every area of life. Petroleum makes our lives easy in many ways.
In many countries, including the U.S., the oil industry provides millions jobs, from
surveyors and platform workers to geologists and engineers.
The United States consumes more oil than any other country. In 2011, the U.S.
consumed more than 19 million barrels of oil every day. This is more than all of the
oil consumed in Latin America (8.5 million) and Eastern Europe and Eurasia (5.5
million) combined.
Petroleum is an ingredient in thousands of everyday items. The gasoline that we
depend on for transportation to school, work, or vacation comes from crude oil. A
barrel of petroleum produces about 72 liters (19 gallons) of gasoline, and is used by
people all over the world to power cars, boats, jets, and scooters.

Diesel-powered generators are used in many remote homes, schools, and hospitals.
During emergencies, when the power grid is interrupted, diesel generators save lives
by providing electricity to hospitals, apartment complexes, schools, and other
buildings that would otherwise be cold and in the dark.
Petroleum is also used in liquid products such as nail polish, rubbing alcohol, and
ammonia. Petroleum is found in recreational items as diverse as surfboards, footballs
and basketballs, bicycle tires, golf bags, tents, cameras, and fishing lures.
Petroleum is also contained in more essential items such as artificial limbs, water
pipes, and vitamin capsules. In our homes, we are surrounded by and depend on
products that contain petroleum. House paint, trash bags, roofing, shoes,
telephones, hair curlers, and even crayons contain refined petroleum.
Carbon Cycle
There are major disadvantages to extracting fossil fuels, and extracting petroleum is
a controversialindustry.
Carbon, an essential element on Earth, makes up about 85% of the hydrocarbons in
petroleum. Carbon constantly cycles between the water, land, and atmosphere.
Carbon is absorbed by plants and is part of every living organism as it moves
through the food web. Carbon is naturally released through volcanoes, soil erosion,
and evaporation. When carbon is released into the atmosphere, it absorbs and
retains heat, regulating Earths temperature and making our planet habitable.
Not all of the carbon on Earth is involved in the carbon cycle above ground. Vast
quantities of it aresequestered, or stored, underground, in the form of fossil fuels and
in the soil. This sequestered carbon is necessary because it keeps the Earths
carbon budget balanced.
However, that budget is falling out of balance. Since the Industrial Revolution, fossil
fuels have been aggressively extracted and burned for energy or fuel. This releases
the carbon that has been sequestered underground, and upsets the carbon budget.
This affects the quality of our air, water, and overall climate.
The taiga, for example, sequesters vast amounts of carbon in its trees and below the
forest floor. Drilling for natural resources not only releases the carbon stored in the
fossil fuels, but also the carbon stored in the forest itself.

Combusting gasoline, which is made from petroleum, is particularly harmful to the

environment. Every 3.8 liters (1 gallon) of ethanol-free gas that is combusted in a
cars engine releases about 9 kilograms (20 pounds) of carbon dioxide into the
environment. (Gasoline infused with 10% ethanol releases about 8 kilograms (17
pounds.)) Diesel fuel releases about 10 kilograms (22 pounds) of carbon dioxide,
while biodiesel (diesel with 10% biofuel) emits about 9 kilograms (20 pounds).
Gasoline and diesel also directly pollute the atmosphere. They emit toxic compounds
and particulates, including formaldehyde and benzene.
People and Petroleum
Oil is a major component of modern civilization. In developing countries, access to
affordable energy can empower citizens and lead to higher quality of life. Petroleum
provides transportation fuel, is a part of many chemicals and medicines, and is used
to makecrucial items such as heart valves, contact lenses, and bandages. Oil
reserves attract outside investment and are important for improving countries
overall economy.
However, a developing countrys access to oil can also affect the power relationship
between a government and its people. In some countries, having access to oil can
lead government to be less democratica situation nicknamed a petro-dictatorship.
Russia, Nigeria, and Iran have all been accused of having petro-authoritarian
regimes.
Peak Oil
Oil is a non-renewable resource, and the worlds oil reserves will not always be
enough to provide for the worlds demand for petroleum. Peak oil is the point when
the oil industry is extracting the maximum possible amount of petroleum. After peak
oil, petroleum production will only decrease. After peak oil, there will be a decline in
production and a rise in costs for the remaining supply.
Measuring peak oil uses the reserves-to-production ratio (RPR). This ratio compares
the amount of proven oil reserves to the current extraction rate. The reserves-toproduction ratio is expressed in years. The RPR is different for every oil rig and every
oil-producing area. Oil-producing regions that are also major consumers of oil have a
lower RPR than oil producers with low levels of consumption.
According to one industry report, the United States has an RPR of about nine years.

The oil-rich, developing nation of Iran, which has a much lower consumption rate,
has an RPR of more than 80 years.
It is impossible to know the precise year for peak oil. Some geologists argue it has
already passed, while others maintain that extraction technology will delay peak oil
for decades. Many geologists estimate that peak oil might be reached within 20
years.
Petroleum Alternatives
Individuals, industries, and organizations are increasingly concerned with peak oil
and environmentalconsequences of petroleum extraction. Alternatives to oil are
being developed in some areas, and governments and organizaions are encouraging
citizens to change their habits so we do not rely so heavily on oil.
Bioasphalts, for example, are asphalts made from renewable sources such as
molasses, sugar, corn, potato starch, or even byproducts of oil processes. Although
they provide a non-toxic alternative to bitumen, bioasphalts require huge crop yields,
which puts a strain on the agricultural industry.
Algae is also a potentially enormous source of energy. Algae oil (so-called green
crude) can be converted into a biofuel. Algae grows extremely quickly and takes up
a fraction of the space used by other biofuel feedstocks. About 38,849 square
kilometers (15,000 square miles) of algaeless than half the size of the U.S. state of
Mainewould provide enough biofuel to replace all of the U.S.s petroleum needs.
Algae absorbs pollution, releases oxygen, and does not require freshwater.
The country of Sweden has made it a priority to drastically reduce its dependence on
oil and other fossil fuel energy by 2020. Experts in agriculture, science, industry,
forestry, and energy have come together to develop sources of sustainable energy,
including geothermal heat pumps, wind farms, wave and solar energy, and domestic
biofuel for hybrid vehicles. Changes in societys habits, such as increasing public
transportation and video-conferencing for businesses, are also part of the plan to
decrease oil use.

Vocabulary

Term

Part of
Speech

adhesive

Noun

Definition

Encycloped
ic Entry

sticky substance.
air pollution

Noun

harmful chemicals in the atmosphere.

anesthetic

Noun

substance that reduces the awareness of

physical sensation.
API gravity

Noun

measure of how light a petroleum liquid

is compared to water.
asphalt

Noun

chemical compound made of dark, solid

rocks and minerals often used in paving
roads.
ballast

Noun

heavy material, usually water, used to

provide stability for large ships or other
oceangoing vessels.
bioaccumulat
ion

Noun

process by which chemicals are absorbed

by an organism, either from exposure to a
substance with the chemical or by

Encyclopedi
c Entry: air
pollution

Term

Part of
Speech

Definition

Encycloped
ic Entry

consumption of food containing the

chemical.
biofuel

Noun

energy source derived directly from

organic matter, such as plants.
bitumen

Noun

black, sticky, tar-like organic liquid.

carbon cycle

Noun

series of processes in which carbon (C)

atoms circulate through Earth's land,
ocean, atmosphere, and interior.
catagenesis

Noun

process by which organic compounds

(kerogens) are broken down into
hydrocarbons.
climate

Noun

all weather conditions for a given location

over a period of time.
coal

Noun

dark, solid fossil fuel mined from the

earth.
combust

Verb

to burn.
consequence

Noun

result or outcome of an action or

situation.
contaminate

Verb

to poison or make hazardous.

Encyclopedi
c Entry:
climate

Term

Part of
Speech

controversial

Noun

Definition

Encycloped
ic Entry

questionable or leading to argument.

corrode

Verb

to erode or wear away by chemical

action.
crucial

density

Adjectiv
e

very important.

Noun

number of things of one kind in a given

area.
development
al drilling

Noun

directional
drilling

Noun

distillation
tower

Noun

drill bit

Noun

searching for oil reserves in an area where

reserves have already been found.

searching for underground oil using nonvertical well shafts. Also called horizontal
drilling.

equipment that separates (distills) a

mixture into different parts based on their
different volatilities (conditions at which
the substance vaporizes and condenses).
Also called a fractionating column.

hard end of a cutting tool used to create a

circular hole.
economy

Noun

system of production, distribution, and

consumption of goods and services.
engineer

Noun

person who plans the building of things,

such as structures (construction engineer)

Encyclopedi
c Entry:
density

Term

Part of
Speech

Definition

or substances (chemical engineer).

ethanol

Noun

type of grain alcohol used as biofuel.

exploratory
drilling

Noun

export

Verb

searching for underground oil where there

are no known reserves. Also called
wildcatting.

to transport goods to another place for

trade.
extract

Verb

to pull out.
fossil fuel

Noun

coal, oil, or natural gas. Fossil fuels

formed from the remains of ancient plants
and animals.
gas drive

Noun

oil drilling process where the well is

intentionally dug deeper than the oil
reservoir, hitting a natural gas reservoir,
whose high-pressure gas forces the oil
out.
generator

Noun

machine that converts one type of energy

to another, such as mechanical energy to
electricity.
geologist

Noun

person who studies the physical

formations of the Earth.
geothermal
heat pump

Noun

heating or cooling system that pipes water

Encycloped
ic Entry

Term

Part of
Speech

Definition

Encycloped
ic Entry

(GHP)

in a continuous loop from wells drilled

into the Earth through the space being
heated or cooled, and back again.
greenhouse
gas

Noun

hydrocarbon

Noun

gas in the atmosphere, such as carbon

dioxide, methane, water vapor, and ozone,
that absorbs solar heat reflected by the
surface of the Earth, warming the
atmosphere.

chemical compound made entirely of the

elements hydrogen and carbon.
hypothermia

Noun

potentially deadly condition in which an

organism's body temperature drops.
iceberg

Noun

large chunks of ice that break off from

glaciers and float in the ocean.
impermeable

impurity

Adjectiv
e

not allowing liquids or gasses to pass

through.

Noun

minute substance that differs from the

chemical composition of the main
compound in which it is found.
indigenous

Industrial
Revolution

Adjectiv
e

characteristic to or of a specific place.

Noun

change in economic and social activities,

beginning in the 18th century, brought by
the replacement of hand tools with

Encyclopedi
c Entry:
iceberg

Term

Part of
Speech

Definition

Encycloped
ic Entry

machinery and mass production.

insulate

Verb

to cover with material to prevent the

escape of energy (such as heat) or sound.
investment

Noun

money or another good devoted to a

particular purpose.
kerogen

Noun

type of rock that, when heated, breaks

down into hydrocarbons such as
petroleum or natural gas.
LNG

Noun

(liquified natural gas) natural gas that has

been cooled and liquified for ease in
storage and transportation.
mud pump

Noun

equipment used to circulate drilling fluid

(mud) in an oil rig.
natural gas

Noun

type of fossil fuel made up mostly of the

gas methane.
oil

Noun

fossil fuel formed from the remains of

marine plants and animals. Also known as
petroleum or crude oil.
oil barrel

Noun

unit of measurement for oil and other

petroleum products in the United States
equal to 159 liters or 42 gallons.
Abbreviated bbl.

Encyclopedi
c Entry:
natural gas

Term

Part of
Speech

oil field

Noun

Definition

region with a large number of oil wells or

other extractive technologies.
oil-in-place

Noun

total amount of hydrocarbons in a

petroleum reservoir.
oil platform

Noun

large, elevated structure with facilities to

extract and process oil and natural gas
from undersea locations.
oil reserve

Noun

petroleum from a specific reservoir that

can be successfully brought to the
surface.
oil rig

Noun

complex series of machinery and systems

used to drill for oil on land.
OPEC

Noun

Organization of the Petroleum Exporting

Countries.
particulate

peak oil

adjectiv
e, noun

microscopic solid or liquid particle, often

suspended in the atmosphere as pollution.

Noun

point in time when oil extraction has

reached its maximum level, after which
all production will decline.
peat

Noun

layers of partially decayed organic

material found in some wetlands. Peat can
be dried and burned as fuel.

Encycloped
ic Entry

Term

Part of
Speech

petroleum

Noun

Definition

fossil fuel formed from the remains of

ancient organisms. Also called crude oil.
petroleum
reservoir

Noun

plankton

Plural
Noun

porosity

pool of hydrocarbons (oil or gas) trapped

between rock formations (strata). Also
called an oil reservoir.

(singular: plankton) microscopic aquatic

organisms.

Noun

the ratio of the volume of all the pores, or

holes, in an object and the object's total
mass.
power grid

Noun

network of cables or other devices

through which electricity is delivered to
consumers. Also called an electrical grid.
pumpjack

Noun

above-ground part of a piston-pump oil

well, noted for its regular up-and-down
movement. Also called a nodding donkey,
thirsty bird, rocking horse, or grasshopper
pump.
refine

Verb

to make more pure or clean.

RPR

Noun

(reserves-to-production ratio) measure of

the remaining amount of a non-renewable
resource. The ratio is the amount of
proven reserves to the current extraction
rate, expressed in years.

Encycloped
ic Entry

Term

Part of
Speech

secondary
recovery

Noun

sedimentary
basin

Noun

seismic
reflection

Noun

sequester

Verb

Definition

process of extracting petroleum from a

reservoir after the inital pumping is
complete.

depression in the Earth's surface that has

slowly been filled with layers of sand,
rock, and other debris (sediment).

process of determining properties of

underground rock formations by
analyzing reflected sound waves as they
bounce off the rocks. Also called
reflection seismology.

to isolate or remove.
stratigraphic
trap

Noun

structural
trap

Noun

substrate

Noun

rock formation that may create a

petroleum reservoir, formed by
differences in the thickness, texture,
porosity or other physical characteristics
of the reservoir rock.

rock formation that may create a

petroleum reservoir, formed by tectonic
activity (folding and faulting).

base of hard material on which a nonmoving organism grows. Also called

substratum.
sustainable
energy

Noun

power from a source that will not reduce

the energy available for future

Encycloped
ic Entry

Term

Part of
Speech

Definition

Encycloped
ic Entry

generations.
taiga

Noun

evergreen forest in cool, northern

latitudes. Also called boreal forest.
tar pit

Noun

natural pool of tar or asphalt that has

seeped to the surface.
tar sands

Noun

geologic area that contains sand, clay, and

a form of petroleum called bitumen. Also
called oil sands.
tether

Verb

to tie or fasten an object to something else

by a long rope (tether).
transportatio
n

Noun

vapor

Noun

movement of people or goods from one

place to another.

visible liquid suspended in the air, such as

fog.
vulnerable

wreak

Adjectiv
e

capable of being hurt.

Verb

to inflict or bring about something

painful.

Encyclopedi
c Entry:
taiga