CHAPTER 1

KINEMATICS OF PARTICLES
Kinematics of particles studies the geometric properties of the
motion of points: position, velocity, and acceleration. A point can
represent a particle, which has mass but negligible size and shape,
or a geometric point in a rigid body, in which the distance between
any two points is always constant.

1.1 Reference Systems for Motion

All motion is relative. Without a reference system, it is
impossible to say whether a point is moving or stationary, or how a
rigid body is oriented in the space. A spatial reference system as
shown in Fig. 1-1a includes:
(i) an origin O
(ii) a frame, i.e. a set of mutually orthogonal unit vectors
( i, j , k ), which follows the right hand rule
(iii) Cartesian (rectangular) coordinates (x, y, z)

k$

x
(a) Basic fixed reference system

The reference system can be represented by O- i$$jk$ /xyz, or for

short, O-xyz with the default frame ( i, j , k ).

A reference system attached to the earths surface is considered

to be a basic fixed reference system. Any motion
observed/measured based on this fixed reference system is called
absolute motion.

k$

i$

$j

i$

(1) Point-attached Translating Reference System

reference system can be represented by A- i$$jk$ /xyz, or for short,

k$

Any motion observed/measured relative to a well-defined

moving reference system other than the basic fixed one is called
relative motion. There are two types of moving reference systems.

A translating system attached to a particle or a point of a body

as shown in Fig. 1-1b is called a point-attached translating
reference system. This system moves together with the
particle/point A, which is its origin, keeping the orientation of its
frame the same as the basic fixed frame ( i, j , k ). This translating

$j

i$

$j

x
(b) Point-attached translating
reference system

Fig. 1-1

A-xyz with the default frame ( i, j , k ).

Chapter 1

Kinematics of Particles

z
z

(2) Body-attached Moving Reference System

k$"
y

A
k$
x
i$

$j "

i$"

A moving system attached to a rigid body with reference point

A of the body chosen as its origin is called a body-attached moving
reference system. This system can be in translation and/or rotation
according to the motion of the rigid body. As shown in Fig. 1-1c,
the moving reference system can be represented by
A- i$" $j " k$" /xyz, or for short, A-xyz with the default frame
( i$", $j ", k$" ).

$j

x
(c) Body-attached moving
reference system

In general, the motion of a point can be observed/measured in

either a fixed reference system or a moving reference system. The
absolute and relative motion of the point is different in path,
velocity, and acceleration. The principles governing the
relationship of absolute and relative motion will be the main topic
in Chapters 1 and 2.

Fig. 1-1

Example 1-1 Relative motion observed from moving frames

A truck with a boom is moving to the right, while the boom AB is rotating about the pin A and the length BC is
being decreased.
(i) If a basic fixed reference O-xy is defined as shown, what is the motion path of point A?
(ii) If a point-attached reference frames A-xy is attached at A, what is the motion path of point B observed
from the translating frame?
(iii) If a body-attached reference frame A-xy is attached at boom AB, what is the motion of point C
observed from A-xy?

Point A-attached
translating frame

y
B

Body AB-attached
reference frame

Basic fixed
reference frame

1.1 Reference Systems for Motion

Solution:
(i)

The absolute motion of point A observed from the basic fixed reference system O-xy is a horizontal
straight-line motion. However, the absolute motion paths of B and C cannot be easily determined as they
are general curvilinear lines when observed from the fixed frame.

(ii) If we observe the motion of B from a point A-attached translating reference system A-xy the relative
motion of point B is observed to be simply a circular path with radius AB. In short, the motion of point B
relative to point A is a circular path. It should be emphasized that the meaning of relative to point A is
indeed relative to a point-A attached translating reference system. As the observer is moving together
with the reference system, point A appears stationary and the boom AB is rotating about the fixed point
A.
(iii) If we observe the relative motion of point C from the point A-attached translating reference system
A-xy, the path is not circlar but curvilinear as the distance CB is being decreased while the boom AB
rotates. However, if we attach a reference system A-xy on body AB, the relative motion path of point
C observed from this is simply a straight line. In short, the motion of point C relative to body AB is a
straight line. As the observer is rotating together with the boom AB, the boom appears stationary. That is
why to the observer the point C is moving in a straight line.

Discussion:
In this example, different reference frames are defined to view the motion of different points such that their
relative motion observed from the chosen moving frame becomes very simple. That is why we use different
moving frames.
How do we define a moving frame? A 3D frame is a frame space on which a coordinate system can be
defined and used to measure the position of any point in that space. Any rigid body can be chosen as the core
of a frame space. For example, planet Earth is modeled as a rigid body in this universe. Using earth as the
core, a 3D frame space is spanned. It is an infinite space that includes the finite domain of the earth as its
core and the infinite extension of it. The frame moves together with the rigid core, the earth. The motion of
the stars we observe from earth are based on this frame. Let us return from the universe to earth. We define
this earth-attached frame as our basic fixed reference frame. Any other rigid body moving relative to the
earth can serve as the core for defining a new moving frame. In Example 1-1, the rigid boom is treated as the
core on which a body-attached frame A-xy is defined and used to observe the motion of point C.
Why do we introduce a point-attached translating frame and what is the difference between this and a bodyattached frame? A point or any object modeled as a particle is sizeless. A sizeless particle cannot serve as the
core of a frame because the orientation of the frame is out of control. To control the orientation of the
frame attached at a particle, we constrain it such that its orientation remains unchanged. For simplicity we
will define all point-attached translating frames that have the same orientation as the basic reference frame.
Note that in some cases, a point-attached translating frame may coincide with a body-attached frame if the
body is in translation. For example, the frame A-xy can also be treated as a truck-attached frame because the
truck is in translation.

Chapter 1

Kinematics of Particles

1.2 Position, Velocity, and Acceleration

1.2.1 Displacement Vector, Relative Position Vector

As shown in Fig. 1-2a, in the basic fixed reference system

O-xyz, points P1(x1, y1, z1) and P2(x2, y2, z2) are two geometric points
in the coordinate space. The displacement vector from P1 to P2 is
defined as:

P1(x1, y1, z1)

P1 P2 = ( x 2 x1 )i$ + ( y 2 y1 ) $j + ( z 2 z1 )k$

P1 P 2

P2(x2, y2, z2)

O
x

(1.1)

and the distance between points P1 and P2 is defined as:

d = P1 P2 = ( x 2 x1 ) 2 + ( y 2 y1 ) 2 + ( z2 z1 ) 2

(a)

(1.2)

If the position of P1 is given, the displacement vector P1 P2

determines the position of P2. Therefore, the displacement vector

P1 P2 can be said to be the position vector of point P2 with respect

to (relative to) point P1. With this interpretation, we now define the
r
relative position vector by rP2 P1 , which is an alternative notation
of the displacement vector P1 P2 . Bear in mind that in the notation
r
rP2 P1 , P1 serves as the reference point for P2, the point concerned,

r
rP1

Similarly, the position vectors of points P1 and P2 relative to

the origin O as shown in Fig. 1-2b are defined as:

r
rP2 P1
r
rP2

O
x

and hence, P2 should be written first.

P1(x1, y1, z1)

P2(x2, y2, z2)

y

r
rP1O = OP1 = x1i$ + y1 $j + z1 k$

(1.3a)

r
rP2 O = OP2 = x 2 i$ + y 2 $j + z 2 k$

(1.3b)

(b)
Fig. 1-2

The position vectors relative to the fixed origin are called

absolute position vectors. Since the fixed origin O is always the
r
r
default, the position vectors rP1O and rP2 O are simply denoted by

r
r
rP1 and rP2 , respectively.

According to the law of vector addition (Fig.1-2b), we have the

very useful relation as follows:

r
r
r
rP2 P1 = rP2 rP1
r
r
r
or rP2 = rP1 + rP2 P1
In some textbooks,

r
r
rP2 / P1 is used. We prefer to use rP2 P1

be explained in Section 1.5.

(1.4a)
(1.4b)

because here P1 represents a point instead of a reference frame. More will

1.2 Position, Velocity, and Acceleration

These say that the position vector of P2 is equal to the position

vector of P1 plus the position vector of P2 relative to P1 .

Let us now study the motion of a particle P, which traces a

curvilinear trajectory in the space with time (Fig. 1-3). At any
instant t, the location of the particle can be determined by one
position vector as a function of time:

r
r
rP = rP (t ) = x P (t )i$ + y P (t ) $j + z P (t ) k$

r
rP

(1.5)

Consider two particles P and Q which are moving

independently in the space shown in Fig. 1-4. The motion of
particle Q is defined by position vector function:
r
r
rQ = rQ (t ) = x Q (t )i$ + y Q (t ) $j + zQ (t ) k$

x
Fig. 1-3

(1.6)

Similar to Equations 1.4a and 1.4b, we can write:

or

r
r r
rQP = rQ rP
r
r r
rQ = rP + rQP

(1.7a)

(1.7b)

P
These say that at any instant t, the position vector of particle Q is
equal to the position vector of particle P plus the position vector of
particle Q relative to particle P. Note that in Equations 1.7a and
1.7b the position vector of the particles vary with time. This
relation will serve as the fundamental relation in the study of the
relative motion of particles (Section 1.5).

r
rQ
Q
r
rQ

Note also that

r
r r
r
rPQ = rP rQ = rQP

r
rP

(1.8)

Fig. 1-4

which shows that the relative position vector takes on the opposite
direction if the reference point is reversed from one to the other.

Chapter 1

Kinematics of Particles

Example 1-2 Position vectors and relative position vectors

A mechanism of a four-bar linkage (with OA = CB = r and OC = AB = l) moves from position OABC to
position OABC as shown. Based on the basic reference frame O-xy, determine the position vectors of
v
v
points A, B, C, A and B, and the relative position vectors rA' A and rB ' B .

y
A

r
rA

r
P1

60

r
O

C
P

30

r
rA'

r
rA' A

r
B
rBA
r
rB r
r rBC
rC
Cr
rB 'C

r
rB 'B

r
rB ' A'

r
rB '

l
Fig. b

Fig. a

Solution:
Based on the frame O-xy as shown, the position vectors of A, C and A (Fig. b) are expressed as:

r
rA = r60 o = r (cos 60 o i + sin 60 o j )
1
3
= r i +
j
2
2

(1)

r
rC = l0o = l i

(2)

r
rA' = r 30 o = r cos( 30 o )i + sin( 30o ) j

3
1
i j
= r
2
2

(3)

Since OABC and OABC are both parallelograms, we have:

r
r
rBC = rA ,

r
r
r
r
r
rB 'C = rA' , rBA = rB ' A' = rC

(4)

Therefore, we have:

r r
r r r
rB = rA + rBA = rA + rC = (0.5r + l )i + (0.866r ) j

(5)

r
r
r
r r
rB ' = rA' + rB ' A' = rA' + rC = (0.866r + l )i (0.5r ) j

(6)

r
r
r
r
rB ' B = rA' A = rA' rA = 0.366r i 1.366r j = 1.414 r 75 o

(7)

1.2 Position, Velocity, and Acceleration

Discussion: Translation and rotation of a line

In this example, rod AB is said to be in translation in a circular track as line AB keeps parallel to a fixed
line OC. Any point P on rod AB is also traveling in a circular path as shown, which has an equal radius
center P1 as shown in Fig. a. On the other hand, the rods OA and CB are said to be in rotation. Any point Q
on rod OA is traveling in a circular path as shown in Fig. a, which has a different radius but the same center
O.

Example 1-3 Position vectors and relative position vectors

A disk of radius r is rolling without slipping on a horizontal surface. Based on the basic fixed frame O-xy,
point G, the center of the disk, is initially on the y axis, and point P on the periphery is at the origin O.
Determine:
(i) the position vector of the center G of the disk
(ii) the position vector of point P

when the disk has rotated clockwise through angle , which is measured clockwise from the vertical
line as shown in Fig a.

P2
r r
rG1G rP1G1 G
1

G
r
rG
P
O

Trajectory of P

P1

r
rG1
d

G2

x
r

Fig. a

Solution:
When the disk rolls without slipping on the horizontal surface, point G, the center of the circle, is moving in
a horizontal straight line. The path of motion of point P, shown as a dotted line is curvilinear. Let G1 and P1
be the position points of center of the disk G and point P, respectively, when the disk has rotated clockwise
through angle . The no-slip condition requires that the horizontal displacement d equals the circular arc,
that is,

d = CP1 = r

(1)

where is in radian.

Chapter 1

Kinematics of Particles

Therefore, we have:
(i) the position vector of G1:

r
r r
r r
rG1 = rG + rG1G = rG + rC = rj + di = rj + ri

(2)

(ii) the position vector of P1:

r
r
r
rP1 = rG1 + rP1G1
= rj + ri + ( r sin i r cos j )
= r ( sin )i + r (1 cos ) j

(3)

The trajectory of point P thus obtained in Fig. a is called a cycloidal curve.

Discussion:
If a disk is rolling without slipping on the floor, why do we have Equation 1? Consider that the floor is
covered with wet blue paint. If a disk is placed on the floor vertically, only one point, that which is in
contact with the floor surface will turn blue. When the disk rolls, the points on the periphery of the disk will
come into contact with points on the floor one by one and turn blue in sequence. Because of the nonslipping, the length of the arc that turns blue must equal the length of the portion on the floor that has been
touched by the disk.
The constraint of rolling without slipping occurs in many situations, for example, cable-pulley systems
(Fig. b). The relation d = r holds true for this case as the pulley rolls without slipping along the cable.

r
r

Fig. b

1.2 Position, Velocity, and Acceleration

1.2.2 Velocity Time Derivative of Position Vectors

Assume that at the instant t, the instantaneous position of
particle P is defined by the position vector: (Fig. 1.5a)

r r
r = r (t ) = x(t )i + y (t ) j + z (t )k

r r
r ' = r (t + t ) = x (t + t )i$ + y (t + t ) $j + z(t + t ) k$

(1.9)

In the time interval t (from t to t +t), the particle moves from

point P to point P as given by:

r
r
t
r
r'
r
r

P
r
r
P

(1.10)

(a) Average velocity

The displacement vector from P to P is:

r r r
r = r ' r = xi + yj + zk
where

(1.11)

x = x (t + t ) x (t )
y = y (t + t ) y (t )
z = z (t + t ) z (t )

Then, the average velocity of the particle traveling from P to P in

the time interval t is defined as:

r r
r
r
r ' r r x y z
v avg =
=
=
i+
j+
k
(1.12)
t t
t
t
t
r
The unit is m/s and the direction follows that of r , as shown in
Fig. 1-5a. When the time interval t becomes smaller and

r
dr
dt

approaches zero, point P approaches P. Thus the instantaneous

velocity at that instant is given by the vector:

r
r
x
y
z
r
$j + Lim k$
v (t ) = Lim
= Lim i$ + Lim
t 0 t
t 0 t
t 0 t
t 0 t
r
dr
=
= x&(t )i$ + y&(t ) $j + z&(t ) k$
dt

r
r

O
(1.13)

This is the tangent to the path at point P, as shown in Fig. 1-5b. The
magnitude of velocity is usually called speed.
From the above, we can draw two conclusions:
(1) The time derivative (time rate of change) of the position
r
vector function r (t ) gives the velocity vector function

x
(b) Instantaneous velocity
Fig. 1-5

r
v (t ) , which is always tangent to the trajectory of the

particle.

Chapter 1

Kinematics of Particles

(2) The time derivative of a position vector expressed in terms of the basic fixed Cartesian
coordinate system can be obtained by simply differentiating the scalar components with
respect to time (Equation 1.13). As the unit vectors ( i, j , k ) in Equation 1.9 are constant
vectors, their time derivative is zero.

Example 1-4 Velocity of a point/particle

If the disk in Example 1-3 rotates at a constant rate , i.e. = t, express the velocities of points G and
P as functions of the variable .

r
vP

P
r
vP
G

G
P

P
O

r
vG

Trajectory of P

r
vG

x
r

Solution:
From Example 1-3, the position vectors of moving points G and P at any time can be expressed in the
Cartesian coordinate system as:

r
rG = rj + r i
r
rP = r ( sin )i + r (1 cos ) j

(with = t)

(1)

(with = t)

(2)

By definition, the velocity of point G is:

r
d r d
vG =
rG =
rj + r i = ri
dt
dt

(3)

which shows that point G has a constant speed r to the right.

The velocity of point P is:

r
d r d
vP =
rP = r ( sin )i + r (1 cos ) j
dt
dt
= r (1 cos )i + r sin j
r

It can be seen that when = 0, v P = 0 , and when = , v P = 2r i .

10

(4)

1.2 Position, Velocity, and Acceleration

1.2.3 Acceleration Time Derivative of Velocity Vectors

Unlike the position vector r (t ) , the velocity vector v (t ) does

not start from the origin O, but from the instantaneous position of
the particle. The velocity vectors at instant t and ( t + t ) attached
to P and P, respectively, are:

r r
v = v (t ) = x&(t )i$ + y&(t ) $j + z&(t ) k$
r r
v ' = v (t + t ) = x& (t + t )i + y& (t + t ) j + z& (t + t )k

r
v'

z
P
r
r

(1.14)
(1.15)

P
y

O
x

as shown in Fig. 1-6a.

r
v

(a)

In order to study the change of velocity in magnitude as well as

in direction during the time interval t , without a change of the

vectors, we bring v and v ' to the origin Ov of a newly defined

coordinate space Ov- x&y& z& as shown in Fig. 1-6b. This mathematical

velocity space shares the same frame ( i, j , k ) as O-xyz.

Comparing Fig. 1-6b with Fig. 1-5a, the velocity vectors in the
velocity coordinate space Ov- x&y& z& appear similar to the position
vectors, and the tip of the varying velocity vector traces out a path,
which is called hodograph. The change of the velocity vector from
r
instant t to ( t + t ) is now the displacement vector v from Q to
Q. Similarly, we define the average acceleration in the time
interval as:

r
r
v
aavg =
t

(1.16)

r
v
t

z&

r
r dv
a=
= &&
xi$ + &&
yj$ + &&
zk$
dt

Q
r r Q
v ' v
r
v Hodograph

x&

y&

Ov
(b)

and the instantaneous acceleration

r
dv
v
x t )i$ + &&(
y t ) $j + &&(
z t ) k$
a (t ) =
= &&(
dt

(1.17)

This is tangent to the hodograph at point Q.

Now we return to the space coordinate system O-xyz. The
instantaneous acceleration vector at instant t is attached to the
instantaneous position P of the particle (Fig. 1-6c). Note that the
velocity vector is always tangential to the trajectory of the particle,
however, the acceleration vector in general is not (why?).

r
r

Remark: Time Derivative and Velocity

From the above discussion we can see that acceleration is indeed
the velocity of velocity, and the time derivative of velocity gives
acceleration. The time derivative of some varying vector represents
the velocity of it. We can always bring the vector to the origin of

r
v

r
a

(c)
Fig. 1-6

11

Chapter 1

Kinematics of Particles

its own mathematical coordinate space and treat it as a position vector in the space. In this way, the
trajectory of the tip of the position vector can also be seen as a hodograph. Thus, the velocity of the
tip of the vector traveling along the hodograph gives the time derivative of the vector. We shall use this
method to determine the time derivative of rotating unit vectors in the following sections.

Example 1-5

Acceleration of a point/particle

If the disk in Example 1-3 rotates at a constant rate , , i.e. = t, express the accelerations of points G and
P as functions of the variable .

y
P

Trajectory of P

r
aP

r
aP G

G
P

P
O

x
r

Solution:
From Example 1-4, the velocity vectors of moving points G and P at any time can be expressed in the
Cartesian coordinate system as:

r
v G = ri
r
v P = r (1 cos )i + r sin j

(1)
(2)

By definition of acceleration, we have:

r
aG = 0
r
d
aP =
r (1 cos )i + r sin j
dt
2
= r sin i + cos j

(3)

]
(4)

It can be seen that the acceleration of P has a constant magnitude r 2 and always points to the center
point G.

12

1.3 Simple Plane Motion of a Particle

1.3 Simple Plane Motion of a Particle

Rectilinear and circular motion are two types of simple motion
of a particle. General curvilinear plane motion is a combination /
integration of simple motion.
1.3.1 Rectilinear Motion

When a particle P is moving along the x-axis, (Fig. 1-7), the

position, velocity and acceleration vector functions are:

r
r (t ) = x (t )i$
r
v (t ) = v (t )i$ = x&(t )i$
r
a (t ) = a (t )i$ = &&(
x t )i$

r
&$
v = xi
( x& > 0 )

(1.18)

The algebraic scalar functions x, v and a represent the

r r
r
respective projections of vectors r , v and a in direction i$ . The
magnitude of the vectors are defined to be the positive values x ,
v , and a respectively. However, the scalar functions x, v, and a
are signed magnitudes; their signs indicate the senses of the
vectors. It is convenient to use scalar functions directly in the study
of the rectilinear motion of particles.

P
r
r = xi$
( x > 0)

r
a = &&
xi$
(&&
x < 0)

The two fundamental equations for rectilinear motion of a

particle are the definitions of velocity and acceleration:

dx
dt
dv
a=
dt
v=

dx = vdt

or

(1.19)
Fig. 1-7

dv = adt

or

(1.20)

from which all formulas can be derived for any rectilinear motion
problems. A few approaches are briefly reviewed below:
(1)

If x = x(t) is given, the velocity v and acceleration a can be

obtained directly from these definitions

(2)

If v = v(t) is given, the acceleration can be obtained by

differentiation. To determine the position x, we integrate
Equation 1.19:

i.e.

dx =

x0

t0

x ( t ) x0 =

t0

v ( t )dt
v ( t )dt

(1.21)

Here the initial position x0 should be prescribed.

13

Chapter 1

(3)

Kinematics of Particles

If a(t) is known, integration should be used to determine v and x:

v ( t ) v0 =

x ( t ) x0 =

t0

t0

a( t )dt
v ( t )dt

(1.22)

where both initial position x0 and initial velocity v0 should be specified. If a = constant, and t0 =0,
we simply have:

v = v0 + at
x = x0 + v0 t +

(4)

(1.23)

1 2
at
2

(1.24)

If either a = a ( x ) or a = a (v ) is given, an additional relation:

vdv = adx

(1.25)

is always used for integration. This equation is simply a combination of Equations 1.19 and 1.20:

vdv = v (adt ) = a (vdt ) = adx

(1.26)

With some necessary information (boundary conditions) given at t 0 and t, the integration:

v0

or

v0

vdv = a ( x )dx ,

given a = a ( x )

(1.27a)

v
dv = x x0 ,
a(v)

given a = a (v )

(1.27b)

x0

can be used to study the motion in the period ( t0 , t ).

If a = constant, the integration of Equations 1.27a and 1.27b leads to:

v 2 v02 = 2a ( x x0 )

(1.28)

Note that only two out of the three equations: Equations 1.23, 1.24 and 1.28 are independent.
(Why?)

14

1.3 Simple Plane Motion of a Particle

Example 1-6 Rectilinear motion with constant acceleration

A ball of mass m, subjected to gravity force only, has an initial velocity v0 >0 upward when it is at the initial
position y = h > 0 as shown in the figure. Set up the governing equation for the motion of the ball and
determine:
(i) the position of the ball when it has reached the highest position
(ii) the velocity of the ball when y = 0.5h
(iii) the time when y = 0.5h

y1

t = t1
v0

t=0

r
r = yj
t = t2

0.5h

mg

Solution:
r

r
r
The position vector of the ball is simply r = yj . Using Newtons Second Law F = ma , we have the
governing equation for motion of the ball:
r
r
F = mgj = ma = m( &y&j )

(1)

where g is the gravitational acceleration and &y& is the signed magnitude of the acceleration. Hence, we get:
&y& = g
(2)
which is the governing equation for the motion of the particle.
(i)

Using Equation 1.25 we have:

vdv = &y&dy = gdy

(3)

Integrating (3) over the corresponding domain v (v0, 0) and y (h, y1):

v0

y1

vdv = ( g )dy
h

(4)

15

Chapter 1

Kinematics of Particles

yields:

1
v02 = g ( y1 h )
2

So,

1 v02
y1 =
+h
2 g

(5)

(ii) Integrating (3) over the corresponding domain v (v0, v2) and y (h, 0.5h):

v2
v0

vdv =

0.5 h
h

( g )dy

yields:

1 2 1 2
v 2 v0 = g (0.5h h) = 0.5gh
2
2

(6)

So,

v 2 = gh + v02

(7)

There are two possible solutions for the velocity at y = 0.5h. Since we are only interested in t > 0, the
solution we want should have a negative sign. Hence,

v 2 = gh + v02

(8)

(iii) Using Equation 1.23 when t = t2, we have:

v 2 = v0 gt 2
Hence,

v 0 + gh + v 02
v0 v 2
t2 =
=
g
g

Discussion:
(i) In this solution, the scalars y, v, and a are treated as signed magnitudes based on the upward positive
direction of the coordinate 0-y. For example, the negative sign of the scalar v2 in Equation 8 implies the

downward direction of the vector v 2 =

gh + v02 j .

(ii) For solving problems of rectilinear motion of a particle with a constant acceleration, Equation 1.28 can
always be used to relate the velocity with the position. The relations are in forms of Equations 5 and 6.
Multiplying both sides of (6), for example, by the mass of the particle m gives:

1 2 1 2
mv 2 mv0 = mg (0.5h h) = mg (0.5h)
2
2
which implies that the difference of kinetic energy from y = h to y = 0.5h equals to the work done by
the gravitational force (mg) through the displacement 0.5h, (See Chapter 3, Section 3.3).

16

1.3 Simple Plane Motion of a Particle

Example 1-7 Rectilinear oscillation motion Mass-spring system

A block of mass m, which is considered a particle, is attached to a spring of stiffness k, and is allowed to
move on a frictionless horizontal surface as shown in the figure. The origin of coordinate x is chosen such
that when x = 0, the spring is at its unstretched length. Set up the governing equation for the motion of the
block. If the block is released from rest at x = l when t = 0, determine:
(i)

the velocity of the block when it reaches x = 0

(ii) where and when the velocity becomes zero again?

r
F = kx i

t = t2

r
r = xi
0

t = t1

t=0

Solution:
r

r
r
The position vector of the block is simply r = xi . Using Newtons Second Law F = ma , we have the
governing equation for the motion of the block:
kxi = m&x&i

(1)

Hence, the acceleration is a function of x:

&x& =

k
x
m

(2)

which is the governing equation for the motion of the particle.

(i) Using Equation 1.25 we have:

vdv = &x&dx =

k
xdx
m

(3)

With initial position x0 = l and initial velocity v0 = 0 known, integrating (3) over the corresponding
domain v (0, v1) and x (l, 0) yields:

1 2
k 2
v1 =
l
2
2m
So

(4)

k
l
v1 =

17

Chapter 1

Kinematics of Particles

Since in the moment concerned the block is approaching the origin from the right, our solution should be

k
l
v1 =

(i)

(5)

Integrating (3) over the corresponding domain v (0, v) and x (l, x) yields:

1 2
k 2
(
v 0=
l x2 )
2
2m

(6)

So the velocity can be expressed as a function of x:

v( x) =

k 2
(
l x2 )
m

(7)

before it becomes zero again. It is seen that when x = l, the velocity becomes zero again.
In order to determine t2 when the block reaches x = l, we use Equation 1.19 in the form:

dt =

dx
v (x )

(8)

Integrating (8) over the corresponding domain t (0, t2) and x (l, -l) gives

t2 =

m l
k l

(l

dx
2

m l
k l

(l

dx
2

m
k

(9)

Discussion:
(i) For problems of rectilinear motion of a particle with acceleration given as a function of x, Equation 1.27a
can always be used to relate velocity with the position. In this example, acceleration is a linear function
of x. Thus the relation is in a form of Equation 6. Multiplying both sides of (6) by the mass of the block
m gives:

1 2
k
mv 0 = (l 2 x 2 )
2
2

(10)

which implies that the difference of the kinetic energy of the block from x = l to x equals to the work
done by the spring force through the displacement (see Chapter 3, Sections 3.3. and 3.5.3).
(ii) The general solution of the second order differential equation (2) can be easily obtained mathematically
as:

x = A cos t + B sin t , with frequency =

k
m

(11)

Using the initial conditions x0 = l and v0 = 0, the solution is simply:

x = l cos t

which is a harmonic oscillation of the simple mass-spring system.

18

(12)

1.3 Simple Plane Motion of a Particle

1.3.2 Circular Motion

The second type of simple motion of a particle is circular
motion, in which the path of the motion is a circle of radius ro as
shown in Fig. 1-8a. A circular motion can also be the motion of a
geometric point P on a rigid body, say a disk, rotating about the
fixed axis z passing through the center of the disk and perpendicular
to its plane as seen in Fig. 1-8b.

r
v = (r0&)e$
e$

A fixed reference coordinate system O-xyz is attached to the

fixed center of the circle as shown in Fig. 1-8a and Fig. 1-8b. In the
study of the circular motion of a particle P or the rotation of a rigid
disk, the polar coordinate system is preferred. The position vector
of point P can be expressed as:
(1.29)

e$r
P

r
r

(1) Angular Coordinate, Angular Velocity, and Angular

Acceleration

r
r = xi$ + yj$ = r0 cosi$ + r0 sin $j = r0 (cosi$ + sin $j )

&

&&

r0

(a)

Since r = r0 is a constant, the angular coordinate of the

concerned point is the only variable needed to describe the position
of P. The angle , measured from the positive x-direction and
positive in the counterclockwise direction, is the angular
coordinate of the point and is a function of t.

r
= &&$k

Denoting the radial unit vector:

e$r = cos i$ + sin $j

(1.30)

we rewrite the position vector as:

r
r = r0 e$r

(1.31)

Hence, the circular motion of the particle, the rotation of the rigid
r
disk, and the rotation of the position vector r , as well as the
rotation of e$r are all determined by the function (t ) . The angular
velocity and angular acceleration of the rotation are defined as:

d
dt
d
=
dt

r
= &$k
z
r
r
o

r0

y
r r r
v = r

(1.32)

(b)
Fig. 1-8

i.e. = & and = && , respectively (Fig. 1-8a). The dot indicates
the differentiation with respect to t.
Based on the right-hand rule, the angular velocity vector and the
angular acceleration vector are respectively denoted as:

r
= k$ = &$k
r
= k$ = &&$k

(1.33)

Here, and are the signed magnitudes of the vectors. In

Fig. 1-8b, & and && are assumed to be positive.

19

Chapter 1

Kinematics of Particles

Note that any problem on circular motion concerning t, , , and can be mathematically treated as a
rectilinear motion of a representative point moving on the axis . As a result, all approaches in solving
rectilinear motion problems concerning t, x, v, and a in Section.1.3.1. can be used here.

Example 1-8 Circular motion Angular coordinate

g
A pendulum as shown is released from rest at = 0. Knowing that = && = cos (see Example 3-5), derive
r

the angular velocity = & in terms of ( 0 ).

Fig. b

Fig. a

Solution:
Based on the coordinate system O-xy, the angular displacement is measured from the positive x-direction
and is positive in a clockwise direction as shown in Fig. a. Thus the angular velocity and acceleration of
the circular motion are both signed magnitudes with the same sign convention.
The circular motion of the pendulum P in Fig. a can be mathematically treated as a rectilinear motion of the
representative point A moving on the coordinate -axis as shown in Fig. b. Thus, the problem is similar to
Example 1-7. The acceleration of point A ( && =

g
cos ) is given as a function of coordinate . Therefore, we
r

can use Equation 1.25 in the form:

d = d = cos d
r

(1)

Since the initial values of and are both zero, we can integrate (1) over the corresponding domains
(0, ) and (0, ) and have:
g
1 2
g
0 = cos d = sin
0 r
2
r

So,

20

2g
sin
r

(2)

1.3 Simple Plane Motion of a Particle

(2) Velocity in Circular Motion

By definition, the velocity vector of a point is:

r
de
r
dr
v=
= r0 r
dt
dt

(1.34)

The time derivative of e$r can be obtained by differentiating

Equation 1.30:

where

der
= & ( sin i + cos j ) = e
dt

(1.35)

e = sin i + cos j

(1.36)

is a transverse unit vector, which is perpendicular to e$r and is in

the direction of increasing (Fig. 1-8a).
Substituting Equation 1.35 in Equation 1.34 gives:

Here,

r
v = (r0 )$e = ve$

(1.37)

v = r0

(1.38)

is the signed magnitude of the velocity v , which is tangent to the

circle, and its sense depends on the sign of v.
Using the rule of vector cross product, we can simply write
Equations 1.34 and 1.37 as:

r
r r
r dr
v=
= r
dt

(1.39)

Remarks:

r r
r
v P = rP

(1) Equation 1.39 is a general formula for calculating velocity of

any point in any rigid slab that is rotating about O at angular
r
velocity (Fig. 1-9).

o
(2) Equation 1.39 is a general formula for calculating the time
r
derivative of any vector c of constant magnitude, which is
r
rotating at angular velocity :
x

d r
r r
(c ) = (c )
dt

(1.40)

r
rP
r
rQ
Q

r r
r
vQ = rQ

Fig. 1-9

21

Chapter 1

Kinematics of Particles

For example, unit vectors e$r and e$ at point P in Fig.1-8a can

be seen as two vectors of constant magnitude 1, rotating
together with the disk, so we can have:

y
r
e&$ = e$
e$

r
d
( e$r ) = e$r = e$
dt
r
d
( e$ ) = e$ = e$r
dt

r
e&$r = e$r
e$r

(1.41a)
(1.41b)

e$

As shown in Fig.1-10, the unit vectors e$r and are brought to

the origin, and their time derivative are seen as the velocities of
the tips of the vectors moving along the unit circle.
(See Remark in Section 1.2.3.)

Fig. 1-10

Example 1-9 Circular motion Velocity

A wheel is rotating about a fixed point O. Two particles E and B are attached on the hub and the outer rim of
the wheel, respectively, and initially are at the positions shown. A cable is wrapped around the central hub of
the wheel and point A on the cable has a constant velocity v = 0.1m/s to the left.

r
vB

v
A

A
d

0.3m

E r
rB
E
0.6m

Determine:
(i) the speed of E and B at the position shown
(ii) the position vector and the velocity vector of B when t = 2

22

B
B

1.3 Simple Plane Motion of a Particle

Solution:
As discussed in Example 1-3, the motion constraint between the cable and the hub is called rolling without
slipping. Assume point A moves to A through displacement d. The wheel rotates counterclockwise (ccw)
through an angle , and point E on the hub moves to E as shown. We then have the constraint condition:

d = EE = 0.3

(1)

Differentiating (1) with respect to time gives:

d& = v = 0.3 & = 0.3

(2)

which relates v, the velocity of A, to , the angular velocity of rotation of the wheel. Hence, the wheel
rotates with a constant angular velocity:

v
0.1 1
=
rad/s (ccw)
=
0.3 0.3 3

(3)

(i) Since particles E and B are both on the rotating wheel, each travels in a circle at the same angular
velocity but at different radii, 0.3m and 0.6m, respectively. Therefore, the speed of particles E and B
are:

v E = 0.3 = 0.1 m/s

v B = 0.6 = 0.2 m/s
(ii)

The angular displacement of the wheel in t = 2 is:

= t =

Thus,

2
rad = 38.2
3

(4)

r
rB = 0.638.2 o m

r
v B = 0.2(38.2 o + 90 o ) = 0.2128.2o m/s

Discussion:
Angular displacement and angular velocity are used to characterize the rotation of the wheel. Any point
or any particle on the wheel moves in a circular motion with radius r. However, all the points on the wheel
have the same angular velocity in the relation v = r .

23

Chapter 1

Kinematics of Particles

(3) Acceleration, Tangential and Normal Components

By definition, the time derivative of the velocity vector v in

Equation 1.37 gives the acceleration vector:

dv
d
r d r d
a = v = ( ve$ ) =
e$ + v ( e$ )
dt
dt
dt
dt

where the first term represents the rate of change in the magnitude
of the velocity and the second term represents the rate of change in
the direction of the velocity. Substituting Equation 1-41b in the
second term of Equation 1.42 gives:

r
at

r
a

e$
r
an

(1.42)

e$r

r dv
a=
e$ v e$r = r0 e$ 2 r0 e$r
dt

Referring to Fig. 1-11a, the first term is called tangential

acceleration and is denoted by:

r
at = a t e$
dv
at =
= r0
dt

(a)

(1.43)

(1.44)

and the second term pointing to the center of the circle is called
normal acceleration and is denoted by:

r
a n = a n ( e$r )

= && k$
r
= & k$

(b)
Fig. 1-11

a n = v = 2 r0 =

y
r r
r
at = r
P
x
r
r r
r
a n = ( r )

v2
r0

(1.45)

Note that although a t is always tangent to the circle, its sense

depends on the sign of = && , that is, it depends on the direction
r
r
of . In Fig. 1-11a and b, is assumed to be positive. As for an ,
since its signed magnitude an is always positive, it implies that the
rate of change of direction of the velocity of the point is always
pointing toward the center of the circle, that is, in e$r direction,
regardless of the sense of rotation. That is why normal acceleration
is usually called centripetal acceleration.
For intuitive physical interpretation, we denote:

e$t = e$ ,

24

e$n = e$r

(1.46)

1.3 Simple Plane Motion of a Particle

as the tangential and normal unit vector, respectively. The

acceleration is then expressed as:

dv
v2
r r r
a = at + an =
e$t +
e$
dt
r0 n

(1.47)

Applying the rule of vector cross product, we can rewrite

Equations 1.44 and 1.45 as:

r r
r
at = r

r
r r
r
r
a n = ( r ) = 2 r

(1.48)

as shown in Fig. 1-11b. Therefore, Equation 1.47 can also be

expressed using the vector cross-product operation:
2r
r r
r r
r d r r r r
r
a = 2 = r + ( r ) = r 2 r
dt

(1.49)

which is the general formula for calculating the acceleration of a

particle traveling in a circular path, or of a point on a rigid body
rotating about a fixed axis.

Example 1-10 Uniform Circular Motion

Consider a particle moving at constant speed in a circle of radius r. Use a graphical vector approach to
derive expressions for the velocity and acceleration of the particle.

Fig. a

Solution:
Consider the position vector of the particle. It is spinning round with an angular velocity .
Take any small time interval, t, during the motion. The position vector rotates by an angle .

= t
25

Chapter 1

Kinematics of Particles

The displacement, or change in the position vector, is r.

r
Fig. b

For small interval, the displacement is approximately equal to the arc length. The arc length is equal
to the angle, (in radian), times the radius, r.

r r = t r
Now divide by the time to get the rate of change of the displacement. This is the magnitude of the
average velocity during the interval.

r
r
t
Turn this into a derivative by shrinking the time interval. The result is the magnitude of the
instantaneous velocity.

v=

dr
= r
dt

As 0, the direction of the average velocity vector tends to be perpendicular to the position vector.
So the instantaneous velocity vector is tangential to the circle, and has a magnitude equal to times r.
In general, this result applies to any spinning vector. Its rate of change is times the length of the
vector, perpendicular to it, and pointing in the same direction as the rotation.
Now consider the velocity vector. It too is spinning around at the same angular velocity, .

v
v

Velocity vector

Position vector
Fig. c

26

1.3 Simple Plane Motion of a Particle

So the rate of change of the velocity vector, i.e. the acceleration, is times v, and perpendicular to v.
This is called the centripetal acceleration. It is always directed towards the centre of the circle.

a = v
= v2 r

v
v
a

Velocity vector

Position vector
Fig. d

Example 1-11 Circular motion Acceleration

In Example 1-9, if point A on the cable has a constant acceleration a = 0.05m/s2 and initial velocity v0 =
0.1m/s, both to the left, determine the acceleration of point B at time t = 2s.

y
a

et

a Bt

A
0.3m

v0

O
0.6m

Fig. a

57.3
r
aB

en
B

a Bn
57.3
Fig. b

Solution:
Using the constraint condition of rolling without slipping (Example 1-9):
d = EE = 0.3

(1)
27

Chapter 1

Kinematics of Particles

and differentiating it twice with respect to time gives:

d&& = a = 0.3 && = 0.3

(2)

which relates a, the acceleration of A, to , the angular acceleration of the rotation of the wheel. Hence, the
wheel rotates with a constant angular acceleration:

a
0.05 1
=
rad/s2 (ccw)
=
0.3
0.3 6

(3)

Using Equations 1.23 and 1.24 in form:

= 0 + t
1
= 0 + 0 t + t 2
2
1
rad/s, when t = 2 we have:
3
1 1
2
= 0 + t = + (2) = rad/s (ccw)
3 6
3

with 0 = 0 and 0 =

1
1
11 2
= 0 + 0 t + t 2 = ( 2) +
2 = 1 rad = 57.3
2
3
26

(4)
(5)

The tangential and normal components of acceleration of particle B can be calculated respectively as:

a Bt = 0.6 = 0.1m/s2

and

a Bn = 0.6 2 = 0.267m/s2

Therefore, the magnitude of the acceleration of point B when t = 2 is

aB =

(a ) + (a )
t 2
B

n 2
B

= 0.285m/s2

and

v
a B = a Bt et + a Bn en
with

et = ( + 90o ) = 147.3
en = ( + 180o ) = 237.3

as shown in Fig. b.

28

(6)

1.3 Simple Plane Motion of a Particle

Using:

a Bn
= tan t
aB
1

0.267
= tan 1
= 69.5
0.1

we can express the acceleration vector of point B as:

r
a B = 0.285 (147.3+69.5) = 0.285216.8 m/s2
Discussion:
For simple planar problems such as the above example, we may directly calculate the magnitude of the two
components of acceleration by using scalar equations a t = r and a n = r 2 . However, we should keep in
mind that the direction of the tangential acceleration depends on the actual direction of the angular
r
acceleration , as shown in Fig. c. The normal acceleration always points to the center of rotation.

at = r
an = 2 r

Fixed point

an = 2 r

r
Fixed point

a t = r

Fig. c

Like and , the angular acceleration is used to characterize the rotation of the wheel. All points on the
wheel move in a circular motion and have the same angular acceleration in the relation at = r.

It should also be emphasized that for point D on the wheel (Fig. a), we always have v D = v A , but the
acceleration of D is not equal to the acceleration of A. Only its tangential component equals the acceleration
r
r
of A: aDt = a A .

29

Chapter 1

Kinematics of Particles

r
a

r
v

r
r
O

1.4.1

Curvilinear Motion Described in the Cartesian

Coordinate System
- Combination of Rectilinear Motion

r r
r = r (t ) = x (t )i$ + y (t ) $j

r
ay

r
ax

Py

Planar Curvilinear Motion of Particles

In the 2D Cartesian coordinate system, the planar motion of a

particle P is described by the position vector:

y
r
vy

1.4

Px

r
vx
x

(1.50)

It shows that a curvilinear motion can be decomposed into two

rectilinear motions: that of a point Px and a point Py moving along
the x-axis and the y-axis, respectively. The velocity and
acceleration of particle P can also be obtained by vectorial addition
of the corresponding vectors of the rectilinear motions, Fig. 1-12a:

(a)

r
r r
v (t ) = v x + v y = v x i$ + v y $j

(1.51)

r
r
r
a (t ) = a x + a y = a x i$ + a y $j

(1.52)

where:

v x = x&(t ) , a x = x&&(t ) for the rectilinear motion on the x-axis

v y = y&(t ) , a y = &&(
y t ) for the rectilinear motion on the y-axis

v x = constant

g
x

O
(b)
Fig. 1-12

30

Thus, any planar curvilinear motion described in Cartesian

coordinates can be treated as a combination of two rectilinear
motions in the x and y directions, and all the approaches studied in
Section 1.3.1. can be used.
Projectile problems are a type of curvilinear motion in which the
particle moves with constant velocity in the horizontal direction,
and with constant acceleration (g) in the vertical direction
(Fig. 1-12b).

1.4 Planar Curvilinear Motion of Particles

Example 1-12 Curvilinear motion in the Cartesian coordinate system a Projectile

Consider a ball thrown at speed v =10 m/s in the direction as shown. Its motion is influenced by
gravitational force only. Determine:
(i) the distance d to where the ball strikes the inclined surface at B
(ii) when and where the velocity of the ball is parallel to the inclined surface
y
v = 10 m/s

v0 y

45

r
v

v0 x

5
4

Solution:
In the Cartesian coordinate system as shown the initial velocity of the ball is given by:

r
v0 = 1045o = v0 x i + v0 y j = 5 2i + 5 2 j m/s

(1)

The curvilinear motion of the projectile can then be treated as a combination of a horizontal motion
with constant velocity v0 :
x = x 0 + v0 x t = 5 2 t

(2)

and a vertical motion with a constant acceleration g:

y = y 0 + v0 y t

1 2
gt = 5 2 t 0.5gt2
2

(3)

(i) Assume that the ball hits the surface at point B, we then have the relation:

x B : y B = 4 : (3)

(4)

Substituting (2) and (3) into (4) yields:

3( 5 2 t ) = 4 (5 2 t 0.5gt2 )
Thus,

t1 = 0,

t2 =

35 2
= 2.52s
2g

31

Chapter 1

Kinematics of Particles

x B = 5 2 t2 =

Therefore, we have

d=

175
m, and
g

5
x B = 22.3 m
4

r
(ii) Assume that the ball reaches point A while its velocity v is parallel to the inclined surface, we then
have the relation:

v x : v y = 4: (3)

(5)

r
v = v x i + v y j = x&i + y&j = 5 2i + (5 2 gt ) j

(6)

we have:

3(5 2 ) 4(5 2 gt ) = 0

(7)

and:

t=

Since:

35 2
= 1.26s
4g

So, the point A is at:

xA = 5 2 t =

175
= 8.92m
2g

yA = 5 2 t 0.5gt2 =

175
= 1.11m
16 g

Discussion:
We can also determine the time and the position when the ball reaches its highest altitude by using the
condition vy = 0.

Example 1-13 Curvilinear motion in the Cartesian coordinate system - a Circular motion
The motion of a particle P is described in the Cartesian coordinate system by:

x = 15 cos( t )
4

{ y = 15sin( t)
4

Determine:
(i) the equation for the trajectory of the motion
(ii) the equation for the velocity hodogragh

32

(a)
(b)

1.4 Planar Curvilinear Motion of Particles

Solution:
(i) Eliminating t from (a) and (b) gives:

x 2 + y 2 = 152

(1)

which is the equation of the circle of radius 15 as shown below.

y

Py
15

r
r

15 x

Px

Fig. a
From motion equations (a) and (b), the circular motion can be seen as the combination of two
r
oscillatory motions: Px on the x-axis and Py on the y-axis. The position vector r is:

r
r = 15 cos i + 15 sin j

with

( = t =

t)
4

(2)

which rotates counterclockwise at an angular velocity =/4 while the point P travels along the
circular path.
(ii) Differentiating equations (a) and (b) with respect to t yields:

15

sin( t )
4
4
15

y& =
cos( t )
4
4

x& =

(3)
(4)

Eliminating t from (3) and (4) gives:

x& 2 + y& 2 = 11.82

(5)

which shows that the velocity hodograph is a circle of radius 11.8 (Fig. b).

33

Chapter 1

Kinematics of Particles

The velocity can be expressed as:

v = 11.8 cos + i + 11.8 sin + j

2
2

= t =

with

t
4

(6)

Comparing the position vector (2) and the velocity (6), we can see that the two vectors are rotating at
the same angular velocity . However, the phase angle of the velocity vector is /2 ahead that of the
position vector (Fig. b).
y

r
v
P

Py
O

r
r
Px

r
a
15 x

y&

&y&

r
v

11.8

Ov

9.25

x&
Q

r
a

Oa

&x&

Fig. b

Discussion:
Differentiating (6) once again gives the acceleration of the particle P:

r
a = 9.25 cos( + ) i + 9.25 sin( + ) j

with

= t =

t
4

(7)

Comparing acceleration (7) with position vector (2) and the velocity (6), we can see that the three
vectors are rotating at the same angular velocity . However, the phase angle of the acceleration is
ahead that of the position vector (Fig. b).

34

1.4 Planar Curvilinear Motion of Particles

1.4.2

Curvilinear Motion Described in the Path

Coordinate System
- Integration of Circular Motion

Assume a given plane curve is located in the fixed reference

system O-xy as shown in Fig. 1-13a. If a particle P moves along the
curvilinear path, the position of the particle may be determined by a
path coordinate s, which is the arc length measured from the chosen
origin o on the curve, and with the positive direction prescribed.
The motion of the particle can then be described by the scalar
position function s = s(t).

y
+s
r
&$t
v = se

e$t

As s = s(t) here plays a similar role as x = x(t) in rectilinear

motion, the speed and the rate of change of speed of the particle in
curvilinear motion are s& and &s& , respectively. Therefore, the scalar
approach used in rectilinear motion (Section 1.3.1) can also be
applied here for relating t, s, s& and &s& . However, the direction of
the velocity varies along the curve, and so does the direction of its
acceleration.

O
(a)

(1) Velocity Tangential to the Path

With the position function s(t) known, the time derivative of
s(t) is the signed magnitude of the velocity:

v=

ds
= s&
dt

(1.53)

The positive direction of velocity is the tangential unit vector:

et = cos i + sin j

(1.54)

where is measured by rotating a radial vector from the i$ direction

counterclockwise to the tangential line with the sense toward the +s
direction as shown in Fig. 1-13a and Fig. 1-13b.

+s
r
&$t
v = se
s
e$t
O

(b)

Thus, the velocity of the particle is:

r
&$t
v = ve$t = se

(1.55)

Fig. 1-13

Here, both s& and e$t are functions of t.

35

Chapter 1

Kinematics of Particles

(2) Curvature and Radius of Curvature

+s

e$n
P

e$t '

e$n '

e$t

s
ds
=
0
d

= Lim

With regards to a smooth curve, how curved is it at a point

P? To measure the curvature, we introduce an osculating circle,
which is the closest circle tangential to the curve at P
(Fig. 1-14a). To determine this circle, consider that a particle moves
from P to the neighboring point P through s along the curve, and
the angular displacement of the tangent line during this motion is
in radian. The circle passing through points P and P and
tangential to the curve at both points has the radius = | s/ |.
When P approaches P, the limitation:

is the radius of the osculating circle, which is the largest among all
the circles tangent to the curve at P. Thus, we define as the radius
of curvature of the curve at P. The center C of the osculating circle
is called the center of curvature (Fig. 1-14a). The curvature of the
curve at P is defined to be:

(a)

d
=
= 1/
0 s
ds

= Lim

<0 (convex) B
=0 (inflexion)

e$t
+s

e$n

(1.57)

Note that the curvature can be positive, negative, or zero. Its

sign represents the direction of curvature and depends on the
direction of the normal vector e$n , which must point to the center of
curvature:

sign() = (et en ) k

(1.57a)

e$t

e$n

A >0 (concave)
O

(1.56)

(b)
Fig. 1-14

For example, at point A in Fig. 1-14b, e$n is reached by rotating e$t

90 in a counterclockwise direction. Then > 0 , the curve is
considered concave at A. At point B, e$n is reached by rotating e$t
90 in a clockwise direction. Then < 0 , and the curve is
considered convex at B. At the inflexion point D, we have = 0 .
Like any point on a straight line, at point D = .
(3) Acceleration, Tangential and Normal Components
Consider a curve being cut into a series of small segments.
Each segment can be approximately treated as a small arc of a
circle. When the segments become smaller and smaller, we say that
a curvilinear motion of a particle is a series of infinitesimal
segments of circular motion.
So, at any instant, the motion of a particle passing through a
point P may be thought of as if it is traveling on the osculating
circle (Fig. 1-14c). With both the center of curvature C and the
radius of curvature known, the acceleration of the instantaneous
circular motion can be obtained in the form of Equation 1.47:

36

1.4 Planar Curvilinear Motion of Particles

dv
v2
s& 2
r r r
a = at + an =
e$t +
e$n = &&$
set + e$n

dt

(1.58)

y
where the unit vectors e$t and e$n are determined by the location of
the instantaneous osculating circle at P as shown in Fig. 1-14c.
With e$t defined by Equation 1.54, e$n can be expressed as:

en = sign() k et = sign() ( sin i + cos j )

+s

v2
r
an =
e$n

r
a t = &&$
set

(1.59)

which is perpendicular to the tangent line, and the sense depends on

the sign of the curvature (). For example, in Fig. 1-14c, the
curvature at point P is positive. Thus in Equation 1.59, the positive
sign should be adopted.

(c)

Fig. 1-14

So far we have successfully extended the study of simple

circular motion to the study of general curvilinear motion. In simple
circular motion, the center of the circle is fixed and the radius r0 is
a constant. But, in a general curvilinear motion, the position of the
instantaneous center of curvature C varies, and so does the radius of
curvature .

Example 1-14

Curvilinear motion in the path coordinate system

A particle P is traveling with a constant speed v along the given path y =

1 2
x as shown. Determine the
2

acceleration of the particle when it passes point (2, 2) and the radius of curvature of the path at this point.

et

1
y = x2
2
en

a
2

P (2, 2)
s

x
2

37

Chapter 1

Kinematics of Particles

Solution:
Since the motion trajectory of the particle is known, we have at point (2, 2):

dy
dx

tan =

= 2 and then = 63.4

(1)

x =2

So, the tangential and normal unit vectors of the curve at the point are respectively:

et = 63.4 o = cos 63.4 o i + sin 63.4 o j

(2)

en = 153.4o = sin 63.4o i + cos 63.4 o j

(3)

The position vector of particle P can be expressed in the Cartesian coordinate system as:

r
1
r = xi + yj = xi + x 2 j
2

(4)

Differentiating (4) with respect to t gives the velocity vector:

r
r dr
v=
= x&i + y&j = x&i + xx&j
dt

(5)

Defining the path coordinator s as shown, we have:

r
s& = v =
At x = 2:

x& 2 + x 2 x& 2 = v

(6)

x& 2 = 0.2v 2

(7)

Differentiating (5) with respect to t once again yields the acceleration:

r
r d 2r
a = 2 = &x&i + &y&j = &x&i + (x& 2 + x&x&) j
dt

(8)

Since the tangential acceleration is zero, we have:

) ][

r
&s& = a t = a et = &x&i + x& 2 + x&x& j cos 63.4o i + sin 63.4o j = 0

(9)

Substituting x = 2, and (7) into (9) gives:

&x& = 0.08v 2

(10)

Hence, at point (2, 2), we have the acceleration:

r
a = 0.08v 2 i + (0.2 0.16)v 2 j = 0.0894v 2 153.4

38

(11)

1.4 Planar Curvilinear Motion of Particles

This is indeed normal acceleration a = a n en .

Consequently, using a n =

v2

, we can calculate the radius of curvature of the path at point (2, 2):

v2
= 11.18
an

(12)

Discussion:
(1) Mathematical formulas of and
Since the path of motion is given, the curvature and the radius of curvature at any point on the curve
can be determined by the following mathematical formulas:

d2y
dx 2

dy
1 +
dx

3
2

(13)

In this example, we may use the above formula to obtain at point (2, 2) directly.
(2)

Use of the relation v = &

For instantaneous circular motion, we may use the relation v = & at position P (2, 2). Then, how do we
determine & ?
Differentiating both sides of equation tan =

dy
= x gives:
dx

d
(tan ) = sec 2 & = x&
dt
Using x& = v cos, we have:

& = v cos 3
At point P, = 63.4.
Thus,

v
1
=
= 11.18
& cos 3

39

Chapter 1

Kinematics of Particles

1.4.3

Bead sliding
on OB

In the preceding sections, we analyzed the curvilinear motion of

a particle by either decomposing it into two rectilinear motions in
the Cartesian coordinate system (Section 1.4.1), or treating it as an
integration of a series of infinitesimal segments of circular motion
in the path coordinate system (Section 1.4.2). The third way to
study curvilinear motion is to consider it as a combination of
rectilinear motion and circular motion in the polar coordinate
system.

P
Rigid wire rotating
about O

As shown in Fig. 1-15a, a bead P is sliding along a rigid

straight wire OB. At the same time the wire is rotating about a
fixed point O. The bead then traces out a curvilinear trajectory.

(a)

The position vector of the bead in the polar coordinate system

(Fig. 1-15b) is denoted by:

r
rP = rP e$r

B
e$r

rP
O

r
rP

Fig. 1-15

(1.60)

where

(b)

40

Curvilinear Motion Described in the Polar Coordinate

System
- Combination of Rectilinear and Circular Motion

e$r = cos i$ + sin $j

Similar to x = x (t ) in rectilinear motion, the scalar function
rP = rP (t ) determines the rectilinear motion of the bead on the
wire if the wire is stationary ( = constant). The rotation of the wire
is then described by the varying angular coordinate . If the bead
stops sliding ( rP = constant), it goes through a circular motion as
the wire rotates. However, if both coordinates rP and are varying,
the bead may trace out a general curvilinear path.

1.4 Planar Curvilinear Motion of Particles

(1)

Combination of Velocities (Relative and Entrained Velocities)

By definition, the time derivative of the position vector of a

particle (Equation 1.60) gives the velocity of the particle:

r
r
drP d
vP =
= (rP er ) = r&P er + rP e&r = r&P er + rP& e
dt
dt

r
vP
B

rP& e
(1.61)

r&P e$r

r
rP
which consists of two components: the first term r&P er is known as

the radial component and the second term rP& e is the transverse
component (Fig. 1-15c). The physical meaning of the two
components can be further discussed as follows:

(c)

Let P be the geometric point on the wire that coincides with

the particle P at the instant t 0 (Fig. 1-15d). During the small time
interval t ( t = t1 t0 ), the particle P moves to P1 , but the point

Path of P

'
1

P moves to P , so we have:

PP1 = P' P' 1 + P' 1 P1

P1 at t1
Path of P

(1.62)

P1 at t1
P at t0
P at t0

As t is gets smaller and smaller, the velocity of P is expressed as:

PP1
P' P'1
P' P
r
= Lim
+ Lim 1 1
v P = Lim
t 0 t
t 0
t 0
t
t

(1.63)

(d)

Since P is in a circular motion, its absolute velocity is:

r
r r
P ' P'1 r r
v P ' = Lim
= rP ' = rP = rP& e
t 0
t

(1.64)

Path of P

which says that the physical meaning of rP& e is the velocity of

P. We shall call P the entraining point for P, and v P' the

entrained velocity of particle P. Of course, point P belongs to the
r
r
wire, and at the instant t 0 , rP ' = rP (Fig. 1-15d).
Next, let a body-attached reference system O-xy be attached
on the rigid wire OB (Fig. 1-15e). For the observer on this rotating
reference system, the bead P is in rectilinear motion. The position
vector of P can be expressed in O-xy as:

r
rP = x" i$"

(1.65)

Path of P

$j"

r
v P'
r
rP

r
vP
r
vP/f

P
P

B x
i$"

(e)
Fig. 1-15 (contd)

41

Chapter 1

Kinematics of Particles

It is important to emphasize that the position vector rP in

r
Equation 1.65 is the same position as vector rP in Equation 1.60.
r
Equation 1.65 is only an alternative expression of rP in the moving
reference O-xy. Therefore, we have the following coordinate
transformation relations:

x"= rP
i$" = e$r = cos i$ + sin $j

(1.66)

where i$" is rotating and is a function of .

However, for the observer on O-xy, i$" is stationary. Therefore,
the velocity of the bead observed from O-xy is the relative
velocity and it is expressed as:

P' P
r
v P / O x " y " = Lim 1 1 = x&" i" = r&P er
t 0
t

(1.67)

This implies that r&P er is the sliding velocity of the bead, i.e. the
relative velocity of the bead observed from O-xy.
Thus, we can rewrite Equation 1.61

as:

r
vP
r
vP

=
=

r&P er
r
v P/ O x "y "

+
+

rP& e
r
v P' (1.68)

Absolute velocity = Relative velocity + Entrained velocity

This is the Principle of Velocity Combination and we will study it
in Section 2.4.2.

r
v P/ O x " y " is the relative velocity of particle P observed from the

moving reference O-xy. As a body-attached moving reference

system is always attached to a rigid body (Section 1.1), the lengthy
notation O-xy in Equation 1.68 can be replaced by the label of
the body, e.g. f, for compactness:

y&
r
v P'

r
vP

r
v P/ f
Ov

(f)

Fig. 1-15 (contd)

42

r
r
r
vP = vP/f + vP '
x&

(1.69)

Notice that any label that may appear after the slash / always
represents a reference frame or a body to which the reference frame
is attached.
Equation 1.69 can be illustrated by a vector loop (Fig. 1-15f).

1.4 Planar Curvilinear Motion of Particles

Remark: Absolute and Relative Time Differentiations

The absolute velocity of point P is a time differentiation of
r
position vector rP based on the basic reference frame O-xy. The
relative velocity of P is also a time differentiation of the position
r
r
vector rP . However, the position vector rP should be expressed
using:
(i) x y coordinates
r
(ii) unit vectors i$" , $j" as rP = x" i$"
In the time differentiation based on the moving frame O-xy,
unit vectors i$" and $j" are treated as stationary.
Let the relative time differentiation for the particular moving
frame O-xy be denoted by:

t O x"y "

or

t f

Using this operator, the relative velocity Equation 1.67 can be

derived as follows:

r

v P / O x " y" =
t O x"y "
r
rP = x"i" = x&"i"
t f

( )

(1.70)

For compactness, we can simply write:

r
r
v P / f = rp
t

(1.71)

Using Equations 1.61, 1.71 and 1.64 in Equation 1.69, we have:

d r
r
r r
rP ) = ( rP ) + ( rP )
(
dt
t

(1.72)

where is the angular velocity of the moving frame f.

Note that Equation 1.72 is generally valid for any vector

function R (t). To prove it, let R be expressed in the moving

frame:
r
R = R x"i" + R y" j"
(1.73)
According to the rule of vector differentiation:

d r d
di$" & $
dj$"
R=
Rx "i$"+ R y " $j" = R& x "i$"+ Rx "
+ R y " j"+ R y "
dt
dt
dt
dt
(1.74)
43

Chapter 1

Kinematics of Particles

Since i$" and $j" are rotating at angular velocity , we have:

di$" r $
= i"
dt
dj$" r
= $j"
dt

(1.75)

Using Equation 1.75 in Equation 1.74

( ) (R& i" + R& j") + R (r i") + R (r j")

(R& i" + R& j") + r (R i" + R j")

d r
R =
dt
=

i.e.

x"

y"

x"

y"

x"

y"

x"

y"

d r
r
r r
R) = ( R) + ( R)
(
dt
t

(1.76)

This is the general formula relating absolute and relative time

differentiation. We shall use it in the following sections:
Combination of Acceleration
(Relative, Entrained and Coriolis Acceleration)
The time differentiation of the velocity vector of a particle
(Equation 1.61) gives the acceleration of the particle:

d r
r
a P = (v P ) = (&r&P rP& 2 )er + (rP&& + 2r&P&)e
dt
e

=
r
aP

(a)
Fig. 1-16

44

a P e

(1.77)

This consists of two components: the first term, which is the radial
component, and the second term, which is the transverse
component (Fig. 1-16a).

aP

a Pr e r

a Pr

er
x

To understand the physical meaning of these terms, we may

rearrange them into three components:

) (

r
a P = (&r&P er ) + rP& 2 er + rP&& e + 2r&P& e

(1.78)

Obviously, the first term represents the sliding acceleration of

the bead, i.e. the relative acceleration of P observed in O-xy.
The relative acceleration can be defined as the relative time
r
derivative of the relative velocity v P/ f (Fig. 1-16b):

1.4 Planar Curvilinear Motion of Particles

r
r

a P/f = (v P/f ) = (r&P er ) = r&&P er

t
t

(1.79)

The second term represents the absolute acceleration of point

P in the circular motion due to the rotation of the rigid wire (refer
to Equation 1.43), which is defined as the entrained acceleration
r
a P' (Fig. 1-16b):

r
a P ' = rP& 2 er + rP&& e

The third term is the most subtle. It is called Coriolis

acceleration. Using the rule of vector cross product, we designate:

r
= & k$ )

(with

(1.81)

as the Coriolis acceleration (Fig. 1-16b). Clearly, the existence of

the Coriolis acceleration is due to the coupling of the rotation of the
r
moving coordinate system and the relative velocity v P/f .

x
B

r
a PC

(1.80)

r r
r
a PC = 2 v P / f = 2r&P& e$

r
r
r
r
a P = a P / f + a P ' + a PC

r
a P'
O

r
a P/ f
P
P

(b)

Now we can rewrite vector Equation 1.78:

as

r
aP

(r&&P er )

( r & e

r
aP

r
a P/ f

r
a P'

Absolute =

Relative +

+ rP&& e

Entrained

(2r& & e$ )
P

r
+ a PC

(1.82)

+ Coriolis

r
a PC

r
a P'

This is known as the Principle of Acceleration Combination, which

will be further discussed in Section 2.4.3.
Vector Equation 1.82 can be illustrated by a vector loop
diagram (Fig. 1-16c).

Note that Coriolis acceleration a PC is always perpendicular to

the relative velocity v P/f . This term disappears from Equation 1.82

when either = 0 or v P/f = 0 .

r
a P/ f
Oa
r
r
r
r
a P = a P/f + a P ' + a PC
(c)
Fig. 1-16 (contd)

(If we take time differentiation of

r
v P'

in Equation 1.64, we will find that

d r
r
v a P ' as in Equation 1.80. Why? Skip this question in
dt P '

your first reading.)

45

Chapter 1

Kinematics of Particles

Example 1-15

Curvilinear motion in polar coordinates

The motion of a particle in curvilinear motion in an x-y plane can be represented by a bead
sliding along a straight wire that is rotating about a fixed point O. The distance of the bead
from O is r and the angle of the wire is . Consider the case when the bead is sliding along
the wire at a constant speed, r , and the wire is rotating at a fixed angular rate, . Use a
graphical vector approach to derive an expression for the acceleration of the bead.
Solution:

The velocity of the bead consists of a radial component,

r , and a transverse component, v = re .

vr = re

Consider a small time interval, t , during which it

moves from P to P1 . The radial and transverse velocity
components will change in the following ways.
r
re
re

Magnitude
Unchanged

Direction
Rotated by

Changed by r

Rotated by

Fig. a

Lets look at one component at a time.

r :
Radial component, re
The radial velocity vector has a constant magnitude and rotates
at a constant rate of . We know that the rate of change of a
rotating vector has a magnitude that is equal to the rotational
speed times the length of the vector, and a direction that is
perpendicular to the vector. Thus,
d
r = re
re
dt

Fig. b

Transverse component, e :
y
P1 at t1

r
O

P at t0

Fig. c
46

Fig. d

1.4 Planar Curvilinear Motion of Particles

The change in the transverse velocity vector, v , comprises of two components. The first is

( )

due to the rotation of the wire, and is approximately equal to r .

The second component is due to a change in position r of the bead along the wire, and is
equal to

( r + r ) ( r ) = r
The magnitude of the average rate of change of each component is obtained by dividing by
t , and is equal to

( r ) t

and

r
, respectively.
t

Turning these into derivatives as t 0 , we obtain the components of the instantaneous

acceleration,

r 2 and r , respectively.
Note that the direction of the r 2 component is er , and that of the r component is e .
Combining all the components, the total acceleration of the bead is given by

a = r 2 er + 2re
The first term on the right hand side is the centripetal acceleration. The second term is the
Coriolis acceleration.

47

Chapter 1

Kinematics of Particles

Example 1-16

Rectilinear Motion described in the polar coordinate system

A collar that slides along a horizontal rod has a pin P, which is guided to move in the slot of arm OB as shown.
The arm OB oscillates at an angular position =
t = 5, determine:
(i)

+ sin 1.5t , where is in radian and t is in seconds. For
2 6

the position vector of r

(ii) the radial and transverse components of velocity of P and verify the direction of the velocity
(iii) the radial and transverse components of acceleration of P

Solution:
When t = 5, we have:
B

500 mm

(i)

+ sin 1.5t = 2.062 rad = 118.14
2 6

(1)

& = (1.5) cos 1.5t = 0.2722 rad/s

6

(2)

&& = (1.5) 2 sin 1.5t = 1.1051 rad/s2

6

(3)

Using the constraint condition for P:

r sin = 500
gives

er

500
sin

(4)

Thus the position vector of point P is a function of :

y
P

where

r 500
r=
e r
sin
er = cos i + sin j

(5)

When t = 5, we have

118.14

r
r = 567.02er
x

O
Fig. a

48

r=

where e r = cos 118.14 o i + sin 118.14 o j

= 0.4716i + 0.8818 j

(6)
(Fig. a)
(7)

1.4 Planar Curvilinear Motion of Particles

(ii)

Approach 1: Polar coordinate system

The time differentiation of position vector (2) yields:

r
r dr
500 cos &
500 &
v=
= r&er + r& e =
er +
e
2
dt
sin
sin

(8)

Using (1) and (2), the radial component of the velocity at t = 5 is:

vr =

500 cos &

= 82.54 mm/s
sin 2

(9)

and the transverse component of the velocity at t = 5 is:

v =

500&
= 154.37 mm/s
sin

(10)

Both components are signed magnitudes and the velocity of P at t = 5 is:

v
v = v r e r + v e

(11)

= 82.54 (cos 118.14 o i + sin 118.14 o j ) +154.37 ( sin 118.14 o i + cos 118.14 o j )
= 175.05 i mm/s
which directs to minus x direction (Fig. b).

v r er
r
v

P
v e
r

118.14

Fig. b

49

Chapter 1

Kinematics of Particles

Approach 2: Path coordinate system

y
v r er
r
v

Since the path of motion of P is known, we use path

coordinate s as shown. Thus:

s = 500 cot

v e
500 mm

s& = 500

&
sin 2

(13)

&s& = 500

&&sin 2 & 2 sin 2

sin 4

(14)

0.2722
= 175.03 mm/s
sin 2 118.14 o

(15)

O
Fig. c

(12)

At t = 5,

s& = 500
Therefore,

r
v = 175.03i

and

r
v r = v er = 82.54 mm/s
r
v = v e = 154.37 mm/s

(iii)

At t = 5, substituting (1)-(3) into (14):

er

a e

P
e

&s& = 659.65 mm/s2

Hence,

r
a

So,

a r er
500 mm

r
a = &s&i = 659.65i
r
a r = a er = 311.11 mm/s
r
a = a e = 581.68 mm/s

O
Fig. d

Discussion:
For calculating acceleration in (iii), we can also use Equation 1.77 in polar coordinates, however this requires
more work. In this example, since the path of the motion is given, it is preferable to use both the path
coordinate and polar coordinate systems.
50