Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Contributing authors:
Catherine Bleins
Matthieu Bourges
Jacques Deraisme
Franois Geffroy
Nicolas Jeanne
Ophlie Lemarchand
Sbastien Perseval
Jrme Poisson
Frdric Rambert
Didier Renard
Yves Touffait
Laurent Wagner
"...
Table of Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
1 About This Manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2. In Situ
3D Resource Estimation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
2.1 Workflow Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
2.2 Presentation of the Dataset & Pre-processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
2.3 Variographic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
2.4 Kriging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
2.5 Global Estimation With Change of Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
2.6 Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
2.7 Displaying the Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3. Non Linear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149
3.1 Introduction and overview of the case study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150
3.2 Preparation of the case study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152
3.3 Global estimation of the recoverable resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171
3.4 Local Estimation of the Recoverable Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
3.5 Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
3.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8. 2D Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .241
8.7 Workflow Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .242
8.8 Data From 3D to 2D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243
8.9 2D Estimations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .253
8.10 3D Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .273
8.11 2D-3D Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .281
Introduction
Note - The present document only contains case studies related to a specific field of application. The full Case
Studies Manual can be downloaded on Geovariances web site.
Case Studies
Young Fish Survey, Acoustic Fish Survey: polygons editor, global estimation.
Image Filtering: image filtering, grid or line smoothing, grid operator.
Boolean: boolean conditional simulations.
Note - All case studies are not necessarily updated for each Isatis release. Therefore, the last
update and the corresponding Isatis version are systematically given in the introduction.
2.
In Situ
3D Resource Estimation
This case study is based on a real 3D data set kindly provided by Vale
(Carajs mine, Brazil).
11
12
the first link opens the application description of the Users guide: this allows the user to
have a complete description of the application as it is implemented in the software;
the second link sends the user to the corresponding practical application example in the case
study.
Applications in bold are the most important for achieving kriging and simulation:
l
13
manual: the user chooses by himself the basic structures (with their types, anisotropy, ranges
and sills) entering the parameters at the keyboard or for ranges/sills interactively in the Fitting Window. This is used for modeling the variogramof the indicator of rich ore,
automatic: the model is entireley defined (ranges, anisotropy and sills) from the definition of
the types and number of nested structures the user wants to fit. This is used for modeling the
Fe grade of rich ore.
14
15
16
a simple 3D geological model resulting from previous geological work (block size: 75 m horizontally and 15 m vertically) is provided in a 3D grid file called block model_75x75x15m.asc.).
Firstly, a new study has to be created using the File / Data File Manager facility; then, it is advised
to verify the consistency of the units defined in the Preferences / Study Environment / Units window. In particular, it is suggested to use:
l
17
0.90
0.07
6
6
2
1400.00
-195.00
795.32
4.39
66.70
0.12
0.10
0.90
0.08
6
6
3
1400.00
-195.00
791.22
4.10
67.70
0.11
0.20
0.50
0.08
3
3
The samples are organized along lines and the file contains two types of records:
l
The header record (for collars), which starts with an asterisk in the first column and introduces a
new line (i.e borehole).
The file contains two delimiter lines which define the offsets for both records.
The dataset is read using the File / Import / ASCII procedure and stored in two new files of a new
directory called Mining Case Study:
l
The file Drillholes Header, which contains the header of each borehole, stored as isolated
points.
The file Drillholes, which contains the cores measured along the boreholes.
(snap. 2.2-1)
18
You can check in File / Data File Manager (by pressing s for statistics on the Drillholes file) that
the data set contains 188 boreholes, representing a total of 5766 samples. There are five numeric
variables (heterotopic dataset), whose statistics are given in the next table (using Statistics/Quick
Statistics...):
Number
Minimum
Maximum
Mean
St. Dev.
Al2 O3
3591
0.07
44.70
1.77
4.14
Fe
5069
4.80
69.40
60.51
14.19
Mn
5008
0.
30.70
0.58
1.75
5069
0.
1.
0.06
0.08
Si O2
3594
0.05
75.50
1.54
4.32
We will focus mainly on Fe variable. Also note the presence of an alphanumeric variable called
Lithological code Alpha.
In the Data area, select the file Mining Case Study/Drillholes, without selecting any variable as we are looking for a display of the boreholes geometry.
Click on Display, and OK. The Lines appear in the graphic window.
To change the View Point, click on the Camera tab and choose for instance:
m
Longitude = -46
Latitude = 20.
19
Using the Display Box tab, deselect the toggle Automatic Scales and stretch the vertical dimension Z by a factor of 3.
Click on Display.
You should obtain the following display. You can save this template to automatically reproduce
it later: just click on Application / Store Page as in the graphic window.
(fig. 2.2-1)
Maximum
0.009 km
3.97 km
-0.35 km
3.77 km
-54.9 m
+811.8 m
Most of the boreholes are vertical and horizontally spaced approximately every 150m. The vertical
dimension is oriented upwards.
the first one called rich ore corresponds to the lithological codes 1, 3 and 6,
the second one called poor ore corresponds to the lithological codes 10 and above
20
(snap. 2.2-1)
For creating Rich ore, Poor ore and Undefinedindices, you should give the name you want
(this has to be repeated three times). Then in the bottom part of the window you will define the
rules to apply. For each rule, you will have then to choose which variable it depends to, here Lithological Code Integer, and the criterion to apply among the list you get by clicking on the button
proposing Equals as default:
m
in the case of Poor ore you choose to match 2 rules (see snap shot on the previous page).
in the case of Undefined you choose to match any of two rules (see next snap shot).
21
(snap. 2.2-2)
22
(snap. 2.2-1)
When pressing the "Display as Points" button, the following graphic window opens representing by
a + symbol in green (according to the menu Preferences / Miscellaneous). the headers of all the
boreholes in a 2D XOY projection.
23
4000
Y (m)
3000
2000
1000
1000
2000
X (m)
3000
4000
(snap. 2.2-2)
By picking with the mouse left button the 4 boreholes, their symbols are blinking, they can then be
masked by using the menu button of the mouse and clicking on Mask, the 4 masked boreholes are
then represented with the red square (according to the menu Preferences / Miscellaneous).
In the Geographic Selection window the number of selected samples (i.e.boreholes) is appearing
(184 from 188). To store the selection you must click on Run.
24
4000
Y (m)
3000
2000
1000
1000
2000
X (m)
3000
4000
(snap. 2.2-3)
This selection is defined on the drillhole collars. In order to apply this selection to all samples of the
drillholes, a possible solution is to use the menu Tools / Copy Variable / Header Point -> Line.
(snap. 2.2-4)
25
example) as it does not make sense to combine data that does not represent the same amount of
material.
Therefore, if data is measured on different support sizes, a first, essential task is to convert the
information into composites of the same dimension. This dimension is usually a multiple of the size
of the smallest sample, and is related to the height of the benches, which is in this case 15m.
l
the boreholes are cut into intervals of same length from the borehole collar, or in intervals
intersecting the boreholes and a regular system of horizontal benches. It is performed with
the Tools / Regularization by Benches or by Length facility, consists in creating a replica of
the initial data set where all the variables of interest in the input file are converted into composites.
the boreholes are cut into intervals of same length, determined on the basis of domain definition. Each time the domain assigned to the assay is changed a new composite is created. The
advantage of that method is to get more homogeneous composites. It is performed with the
Tools / Regularization by Domains facility.
We will work on the 5 numerical variables Al203, Fe, Mn, P and SiO2.
The regularization by length is performed on 5 numerical variables Al203, Fe, Mn, P and
SiO2 and on the lithological code, in order to keep for each composite the information on the
most abundant lithology and the corresponding proportion. The new files are called:
- Composites 15m by length header for the header information (collars).
- Composites 15m by length for the composite information.
Regularization mode: By Length measured along the borehole: this is the selected option as
some boreholes are inclined, with a constant length of 15m.
Minimum Length: 7.5 m. It may happen that the first composite, or the last composite (or
both) do not have the requested dimension. Keeping too many of those incomplete samples
will lead us back to the initial problem of having samples of different dimensions being considered with the same importance: this is why the minimum length is set to 7.5 m (i.e. half of
the composite size).
26
(snap. 2.2-1)
m
Three boreholes are not reproduced in the composite file as their total length is too small
(less than 7.5m): boreholes 93, 163 and 171. There are 1282 composites in the new output
file.
The regularization by domain will calculate composites for two domains rich ore and poor
ore. The macro selection defining the domains in the input file is created with the same indices
in the output composites file. The selection mask drillholes outside is activated to regularize
only the boreholes within the orebody envelope. Only Fe, P, SiO2 are regularized. The new files
are called:
m
The Undefined Domain is assigned to the Undefined index. It means that when a sample is
in the Undefined Domain the composition procedure keeps on going (see on-line Help for
more information).
The option Merge Residual is chosen, which means that the last composite is merged with
the previous one if its length is less than 50% of the composite length.
27
(snap. 2.2-2)
There are 1485 composites on the 184 boreholes in the new output file. From now on all geostatistical processes will be applied on that regularized by domains composites file.
Using Statistics / Quick Statistics we can obtain different types of statistics, as for example:
The statistics on the Fe grades by domains. You note that after compositing there are no more Undefined composites.
28
(snap. 2.2-3)
(snap. 2.2-4)
l
Graphic representations with Boxplots by slicing according the main axes of the space.
29
(snap. 2.2-5)
30
(fig. 2.2-1)
31
(snap. 2.2-6)
(snap. 2.2-7)
The swathplots along OY shows for Fe rich ore a trend to decrease from South to North.
32
The file contains only one numeric variable named domain code which equals 0, 1 or 2:
l
1 means the grid node lies in the southern part of the orebody,
2 means the grid node lies in the northern part of the orebody.
Launch File/Import/ASCII... to import the grid in the Mining Case Study directory and call it 3D
Grid 75x75x15 m.
(snap. 2.2-1)
You have now to create a selection variable, called orebody, for all blocks where the domain code
is either 1 or 2, by using the menu File / Selection / Intervals.
33
(snap. 2.2-2)
In the Contents list, double click on the Raster item. A new Item contents for: Raster window
appears, in order to let you specify which variable you want to display and with which color
scale:
m
Grid File...: select orebody variable from the 3D Grid 75x75x15 m file,
In the Grid Contents area, enter 16 for the rank of the section XOY to display.
In the Graphic Parameters area below, the default color scale is Rainbow.
Click on OK.
34
Your final graphic window should be similar to the one displayed hereafter.
(fig. 2.2-1)
The orebody lies approximately north-South, with a curve towards the southwestern part. The
northern part thins out along the northern direction and has a dipping plane striking North with a
western dip of 15 approximately. This particular geometry will be taken into account during variographic analysis.
35
and on the rich ore Fe grade, which is defined on rich ore composites.
The Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA) will be used in order to perform Quality Control, check statistical characteristics and establish the experimental variograms. Then variogram models will be
fitted.
Calculations of directional variograms in horizontal plane. For simplification we keep 2 orthogonal directions East-West (N90) and North-South (N0).
Check that the main directions of anisotropy are swapped when looking to northern or southern
boreholes.
Save the Indicator variogram in the northern part (where are most of the data), with the idea
that the variogram in the Southern part is the same as in the North by inverting N0 and N90
directions of the anisotropy. In practice this will be realized at the kriging/simulation stage by
the use of Local Parameters for the variogram structures.
36
(snap. 2.3-1)
37
(snap. 2.3-1)
Highlight the Indicator rich ore variable in the main EDA window and open the Base Map and Histogram:
38
(fig. 2.3-1)
39
(snap. 2.3-2)
40
(snap. 2.3-3)
After pressing OK you get the representation of the Variogram Map. In the Application Menu ask
Invert View Order to have variogram map and extracted experimental variograms in a landscape
view.
In the Application Menu ask Graphic Specific Parameters and change the Color Scale to Rainbow Reversed.
In the variogram map representation drag with the mouse a zone containing all directions. With the
menu button ask Activate Direction. You will then visualize the experimental variograms in the 18
directions of the horizontal plane. It exhibits clearly anisotropic behaviour.
41
(snap. 2.3-4)
We will now calculate the experimental variograms directly from the main EDA window by clicking on the Variogram bitmap at the bottom of the window. In the next figure we can see the parameters used for the calculation of 4 directional variograms in the horizontal plane and the vertical
variogram.
(snap. 2.3-5)
42
(snap. 2.3-6)
(snap. 2.3-7)
For sake of simplicity we decide to keep only 2 directions N0, showing more continuity and the
perpendicular direction N90.
The procedure to follow is:
43
In Regular Direction choose Number of Regular Directions 2 and switch on Activate Direction
Normal to the Reference Plane. Click Ok and go back to the Variogram Calculation Parameters
window.
(snap. 2.3-8)
You have then to define the parameters for each direction. Click the parameter table to edit:
l
You have then to define the parameters for each direction. Click the parameter table to edit. For
applying the same parameters on the 2 horizontal directions, you must highlight these directions
in the Directions list of the Directions Definition window.
The two regular directions choose the following parameters:
m
Number of lags: 15(so that the variogram will be calculated over 1350 m distance)
Lag Subdivision: 45m (so that we can have the variogram at short distance from the drillholes closely spaced).
Lag value: 15 m
Number of lags: 10
44
In the Application Menu ask for Graphic Specific Parameters and click on the toggle button
for the display of the Histogram of Pairs.
(snap. 2.3-9)
Because the general shape of the orebody is anisotropic, we will calculate the variogram restricted
to the northern part and to the southern part of the orebody.
To do so you will use capabilities of the linked windows of EDA, by masking samples in the Base
Map. Automatically the variograms will be recalculated with only the selected samples.
For instance in the Base Map you drag a box around data in the Southern part (as shown on the figure) and with the menu button of the mouse you ask Mask. You will then get the variogram calculated from the northern data.
45
(snap. 2.3-10)
In the next figure we compare the variograms calculated from the northern and the southern data.
The main directions of anisotropy are swapped between North and South.
46
(snap. 2.3-11)
47
(snap. 2.3-12)
We decide now to fit a variogram model on the northern variogram, which is calculated with the
most abundant data. Then we will apply the same variogram to the southern data by making the
main axes of anisotropy swapped. This will be realized by means of local parameters attached to the
variogram model and to the neighborhood.
In the graphic window containing the experimental variogram in the northern zone, click on Application / Save in Parameter File and save the variogram under the name Indicator rich ore North.
48
the Parameter File containing the set of experimental variograms: Indicator rich ore North.
Set the toggles Fitting Window and Global Window ON; the program displays automatically
one default spherical model. The Fitting window displays one direction at a time (you may
choose the direction to display through Application/Variable & Direction Selection...), and the
Global window displays every variable (if several) and direction in one graphic.
To display each direction in separate views, click in the Global Window on Application /
Graphic Specific Parameters and choose the Manual mode. Choose for Nb of Columns 3,
then Add, in turn for each Current Column, in the Selection by picking in the View Contents
area the First Variable, the Second Variable and the Direction.
(snap. 2.3-1)
49
(snap. 2.3-2)
l
The model is automatically defined with the same rotation definition as the experimental variogram. Three different structures have been defined (in the Model Definition window, use the Add
button to add a structure, and define its characteristics below, for each structure):
50
(snap. 2.3-3)
l
Nugget effect,
Anisotropic Exponential model with the following respective ranges along U, V and W: 700 m,
550 m and 70 m,
Anisotropic Exponential model with the following respective ranges along U, V and W: 500 m,
5000 m and nothing (which means that it is a zonal component with no contribution in the vertical direction).
Do not specify the sill for each structure at this stage, instead:
51
click Nugget effect in the main Variogram Fitting window, set the toggle button Lock the Nugget Effect Components During Automatic Sill Fitting ON and enter the value .065.
(snap. 2.3-4)
l
set the toggle Automatic Sill Fitting ON. The program automatically computes the sills and displays the results in the graphic windows.
A final adjustement is necessary, particularly to get a total sill of 0.25, which is the maximum
admissible for a stationary indicator variogram. Set the toggle Automatic Sill Fitting OFF from
the main Variogram Fitting window, then in the Model Definition window set the sill for the
first exponential to 0.14 and the sill for the second exponential to 0.045.
Enter the name of the Parameter File in which you wish to save the resulting model: Indicator
rich ore.
The final model is saved in the parameter file by clicking Run in the Variogram Fitting window.
52
(snap. 2.3-5)
53
(snap. 2.3-1)
You will calculate the variograms in 2 directions of dipping plane striking North with a western dip
of 15. In the Calculation Parameters you will ask in List of Options a Directional. Click then Regular Directions a new window Directions pops up where you will define the Reference Direction
and switch on Activate Direction Normal to the Reference Plane.
(snap. 2.3-2)
Click Reference Direction, in 3D Direction Definition window set the convention to User Defined
and define the rotation parameters as shown in the next figure.
54
(snap. 2.3-3)
The reference direction U (in red) correspond to the N121 main direction of anisotropy.
The calculation parameters are then chosen as shown in the next figure.
55
(snap. 2.3-4)
the anisotropy is not really marked, we will recalculate isotropic variogram in the horizontal
plane,
the second point of the variogram for the direction N121, calculated with 42 pairs, shows a peak
that we can explain by using the Exploratory Data Analysis linked windows.
56
(snap. 2.3-5)
For using the linked windows the following actions have to be made:
57
in the Graphic Specific Parameters of the graphic page containing the experimental variogram,
set the toggle button Variogram Cloud (if calculated) OFF, and click on the radio button Pick
from Experimental Variogram.
in the Calculation Parameters of the graphic page containing the experimental variogram, set
the toggle button Calculate the Variogram Cloud ON.
In the graphic page click on the experimental point with 33 pairs and ask in the menu of the
mouse Highlight. The variogram is then represented as a blue square, and all data making the
pairs represented the part painted in blue in the histogram.
(snap. 2.3-6)
The high variability due to pairs made of the samples with low values is responsible of the peak in
the variogram. It can be proved by clicking in the histogram on the bar of the minimum values and
clicking with the menu of the mouse on Mask, the variograms are automatically calculated and
dont show anymore the anomalous point as shown on the next figure.
(snap. 2.3-7)
58
We now re-calculate the variograms with 2 directions, omni-directional in the horizontal plane
and vertical, with the parameters shown hereafter you enter by clicking Regular Directions....
(snap. 2.3-8)
59
(snap. 2.3-9)
In the graphic containing this last variogram ask for the Application->Save in Parameter File to
save the variogram with the name Fe rich ore.
the Parameter File containing the set of experimental variograms: Fe rich ore
the Parameter File in which you wish to save the resulting model: Fe rich ore
In the Model Initialization section choose Spherical (Short + Long Range) and click on Add
Nugget.
(snap. 2.3-1)
60
(fig. 2.3-1)
Statistics / Domaining / Border effect calculates bi-point statistics from pairs of samples belonging to different domains. The pairs are chosen in the same way as for experimental variogram
calculations.
Statistics / Domaining / Contact Analysis calculates the mean values of samples of 2 domains as
a function of the distance to the contact between these domains along the drillholes.
61
(fig. 2.3-1)
Switch on the three toggle buttons for the Graphic Parameters and click on Run.
(snap. 2.3-1)
Three graphic pages corresponding to the three statistics are then displayed:
62
Transition Probability, that, in the case of only 2 domains, is not very informative.
(snap. 2.3-2)
70
60
Dir
50
40
Dir
30
20
Dir
10
0
0
500
1000
Mean [Z(x+h)|Z(x)], that shows that when going from Rich ore to Poor ore there is a border
effect (the grade of the new domain, i.e. Poor ore, is higher than the mean Poor ore grade which
means it is influenced at short distance by the proximity to Rich ore samples. Conversely when
going from Poor ore to Rich ore there is no border effect.
70
60
Dir
50
40
Dir
30
20
Dir
10
0
1500
500
Distance (m)
1000
1500
Distance (m)
70
70
60
Dir
50
40
Dir
30
20
Dir
10
0
63
60
Dir
50
40
Dir
30
20
Dir
10
0
500
1000
Distance (m)
1500
500
1000
Distance (m)
1500
(snap. 2.3-3)
64
40
30
Dir
20
10
Dir
0
-10
-20
Dir
-30
-40
0
500
1000
1500
Mean Diff[Z(x+h)-Z(x)], that shows that when going from Rich ore to Poor ore as well as
going from Poor ore to Rich ore the grade difference is influenced by the proximity of both
domains.
40
30
Dir
20
10
Dir
0
-10
-20
Dir
-30
-40
0
500
40
30
Dir
20
10
Dir
0
-10
-20
Dir
-30
-40
0
500
1000
Distance (m)
1000
1500
Distance (m)
1500
Distance (m)
40
30
Dir
20
10
Dir
0
-10
-20
Dir
-30
-40
0
500
1000
Distance (m)
1500
(snap. 2.3-4)
65
(snap. 2.3-1)
In the Application menu of the graphic pages we ask the Graphical Parameters, as shown
below, to display the Number of Points and the Mean per Domain.
(snap. 2.3-2)
66
(snap. 2.3-3)
67
Contact Analysis (Non-Oriented) displays the average of the two previous ones.
(snap. 2.3-4)
From these graphs it appears that the poor grades are influenced by the proximity to rich grades.
In conclusion we decide for the kriging and simulations steps to apply hard boundary when dealing
with rich ore.
68
2.4 Kriging
We are now going to estimate on blocks 75mx75mx15m the tonnage and Fe grades of Rich ore.
Therefore, we will perform two steps:
l
Kriging of the Indicator of Rich ore to get the estimated proportion of rich ore, from which the
tonnage can be deduced.
Kriging of the Fe grade of rich ore using only the rich ore samples. Each block is then estimated
as if it would be entirely in rich ore, by applying the estimated tonnage, we can then obtain an
estimate of the Fe metal content.
(snap. 2.4-1)
69
(snap. 2.4-2)
You need to specify the type of calculation to Block and the number of variables to 1, then:
l
Input File: Indicator rich ore (Composites on 15m with the selection None).
The names of the variables in the output file (3D Grid 75 x 75 x 15 m), with the orebody selection active:
m
Kriging indicator rich ore for the estimation of Indicator rich ore
Kriging indicator rich ore std dev for the kriging standard deviation
70
The variogram model contained in the Parameter File called Indicator rich ore.
The neighborhood: open the Neighborhood... definition window and specify the name (Indicator rich ore for instance) of the new parameter file which will contain the following parameters,
to be defined from the Edit... button nearby. The neighborhood type is set by default to moving:
(snap. 2.4-3)
m
The moving neighborhood is an ellipsoid with No rotation, which means that U,V,W axes
are the original X,Y,Z axes;
Set the dimensions of the ellipsoid to 800 m, 600 m and 60 m along the vertical direction;
Block discretization: as we chose to perform Block kriging, the block discretization has to be
defined. The default settings for discretization are 5 x 5 x 1, meaning each block is subdivided by 5 in each X and Y direction, but is not divided in Z direction. The Block Discret-
71
ization sub-window may be used to change these settings, and check how different discretizations influence the block covariance Cvv. In this case study, the default parameters 5x5x1
will be kept.
m
l
The Local Parameters: open the Local Parameters Loading... window and specify the name of
the Local Parameters File (3D Grid 75x75x15m). Fore the Model All Structures and Neighborhood tabs switch ON Use Local Rotation (Mathematician convention) then 2D and define as
Rotation/Z the variable Rot Z.
(snap. 2.4-4)
72
It is possible to check both the model and the neighborhood performances when processing on a
grid node, and to display the results graphically: this is the purpose of the Test option at the bottom
of the (Co-)Kriging main window. When pressing it, a graphic page opens where:
l
By pressing once on the left button of the mouse, the target grid is shown (in fact a XOY section of
it, you may select different sections through Application/Selection For Display...). The user can
then move the cursor to a target grid node: click once more to initiate kriging. The samples selected
in the neighborhood are highlighted and the weights are displayed. We can see here that the nearest
samples get the higher weights. It is also important to check that the negative weights due to screen
effect are not too important. The neighborhood can be changed sometimes to avoid this kind of
problem (more sectors and less points by sector...).
You can also select the target grid node by giving the indices along X, Y and Z with the Application
menu Target Selection (for instance 6, 11, 16). You can figure out how the local parameters used
for the neighborhood are applied.
(snap. 2.4-5)
73
(snap. 2.4-6)
Note - From Application/Link to 3D viewer, you may ask for a 3D representation of the search
ellipsoid if the 3D viewer application is already running (see the end of this case study).
Close the Test Window and press RUN.
7814 grid nodes have been estimated. Basic statistics of the variables are displayed below.
(fig. 2.4-1)
The kriging standard deviation is an indicator of the estimation error, and depends only on the geometrical configuration of the data around the target grid node and on the variogram model. Basically, the standard deviation decrease as an estimated grid node is closer to data.
Some blocks have the kriged indicator above 1. These values will be changed into 1 by means of
File / Calculator.
74
(snap. 2.4-7)
Note - In the main Kriging window, the optional toggle Full set of Output Variables allows to
store in the Output File other kriging parameters: slope of regression, weight of the mean,
estimated dispersion variance of estimates etc...
Input File: Fe (Composites on 15m with the selection final lithology{rich ore}).
The names of the variables in the output file (3D Grid 75 x 75 x 15 m), with the orebody selection active:
m
Kriging Fe rich ore std dev for the kriging standard deviation.
75
The variogram model contained in the Parameter File called Fe rich ore.
The neighborhood: open the Neighborhood... definition window and specify the name (Fe rich
ore for instance) of the new parameter file which will contain the following parameters, to be
defined from the Edit... button nearby. The neighborhood type is set by default to moving:
The moving neighborhood is an ellipsoid with No rotation, which means that U,V,W axes
are the original X,Y,Z axes;
Set the dimensions of the ellipsoid to 800 m, 300 m and 50 m along the vertical direction;
Block discretization: as we chose to perform Block kriging, the block discretization is kept to
the default 5 x 5 x 1.
Apply Local Parameters but only for the Neighborhood, where you use Rot Z variable for 2D
Rotation /Z.
(snap. 2.4-8)
76
After Run you can calculate the statistics of the kriged estimate by asking in Statistics / Quick Statistics to apply as Weight the weight variable Kriging indicator rich ore. 7561 blocks from 7814
have been kriged. By using a weight variable you will obtain the statistics weighted by the proportion of the block in rich ore.
(snap. 2.4-9)
(fig. 2.4-2)
77
The mean grade is close to the average of the composites grade (65.84). Therefore in the next steps,
carrying out non linear methods which require the modeling of the distribution, we will not apply
any declustering weights.
78
Note - When kriging too small blocks with a high error level, applying a cut-off to the kriged
grades will induce biased tonnage estimates due to the high smoothing effect. It is then
recommended to use non-linear estimation techniques, or simulations (see the Non Linear case
study). For global estimation, an other alternative is to use the Gaussian anamorphosis modeling,
as described here below.
Note - From a support size point of view, composites will be considered as points compared to
blocks.
The technique will not be mathematically detailed here: the reader is referred to the Isatis on-line
help and technical references. Basically, the anamorphosis transforms an experimental dataset to a
gaussian dataset (i.e. having a gaussian histogram). The anamorphosis is bijective, so it is possible
to back transform gaussian values to raw values. A gaussian histogram is often a pre-requisite for
using non linear and simulation techniques. The anamorphosis function may be modelled in two
ways:
l
by a discretization with n points between a negative gaussian value of -5 and a positive gaussian
value of +5.
by using a decomposition into Hermite polynomials up to a degree N. This was the only possibility until the Isatis release V10.0. It is still compulsory for some applications, as will be
explained later on.
79
(snap. 2.5-1)
l
In Input... choose the Composites 15 m file with the selection final lithology{Rich ore};
choose Fe for the raw variable.
In Interactive Fitting... choose the Type Standard and switch ON the toggle button Dispersion
with the Dispersion Law set to Log-Normal Distribution. In this mode the histogram will be
modelled by assigning to each datum a dispersion, that accounts for some uncertainty that is
80
globally reflected by an error on the mean value. The variability of the dispersion is controlled
by the Variance Increase parameter, related to the estimation variance of the mean. By default
that variance is set to the statistical variance of the data divided by the number of data.
(snap. 2.5-2)
l
Click on the Anamorphosis and Histogram bitmaps. You will visualize the anamorphosis function and how the experimental histogram is modelled (black bars are for the experimental histogram and the blue bars for the modelled histogram).
81
(snap. 2.5-3)
Press RUN in the Gaussian Anamorphosis window: because you have not asked for Hermite
Polynomials, the following error message window is displayed to advise you on the applications
requiring these polynomials.
(snap. 2.5-4)
82
(snap. 2.5-5)
The Selective Mining Unit (SMU) size has been fixed to 25 x 25 x 15 m. Therefore, the correction
will be calculated for a block support of 25 x 25 x 15 m. Each block is discretized by default in 3x3
for the X and Y direction (NX = 3 and NY = 3); no discretization is needed for the vertical direction
(NZ = 1) as the composites are regularized accordingly to the bench height (15 m). Changing the
discretization along X and Y may allow to study the sensitivity on change of support coefficients.
Switch ON the toggle button Normalize Variogram Sill. As the variogram sill is higher than the
variance, the consequence is to reduce a little bit the support correction (r coefficient a bit higher
than without normalization).
83
Press Calculate at the bottom of the window. The block support correction calculations are displayed in the message window:
(snap. 2.5-6)
The block variogram value Gamma (v,v) is calculated and is the base for calculating the real
block variance and the real block support correction coefficient r. We can see that the support correction is not very important (r not very far from 1), it is because of the variogram model whose
ranges are rather large compared to the smu size. The calculation is made at random, so different
calculations will give similar results, but different. If the differences in the real block variance are
too large, the block discretization should be refined by increasing NX and NY. By pressing Calculate... several times, we statistically check if the discretization is fine enough to represent the variability inside the blocks. Press OK.
Save the Block Anamorphosis under the name Fe rich ore block 25x25x15 and press RUN.
84
Kriged Fe rich ore on the panels 75mx75mx15m, the Histogram modelled after support correction on blocks 25mx25mx15m
.
For each curve you have to click Edit and Fill the parameters.
For the first curve on kriged panels:
(snap. 2.5-7)
85
(snap. 2.5-8)
86
(snap. 2.5-9)
After clicking the bitmaps at the bottom of the Grade Tonnage Curves window (M vs. z, T vs z, Q
vs. z, Q vs.T, B vs z) you get the graphics like for instance T(z), M(z):
87
100
90
80
Total Tonnage
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
50
55
60
65
Cutoff
(snap. 2.5-10)
70
69
68
Mean Grade
67
66
65
64
63
62
61
60
50
55
60
Cutoff
65
(snap. 2.5-11)
These curves show as expected that the selectivity is better from true blocks 25x25x15 than from
kriged panels 75x75x15, that have a lower dispersion variance.
The legend is displayed in a Separate Window as was asked in the Grade Tonange Curves window. By clicking Define Axes you switch OFF Automatic Bounds to change the Axis Minimum and
Axis Maximum for Mean Grade to 60 and 70 respectively.
88
(snap. 2.5-12)
(snap. 2.5-13)
89
2.6 Simulations
This chapter aims at giving a quick example of conditional block simulations in a multivariate case.
Simulations allow to reproduce the real variability of the variable.
We will focus on the Fe-P-SiO2 grades of rich ore of blocks 25mx25mx15m. Two steps will then be
achieved:
l
simulation of the rich ore indicator. Sequential Indicator method will be applied to generate simulated model where each block has a simulated code 1 for rich ore blocks and 2 for poor ore
blocks. A finer grid would be required to be more realistic, for sake of simplicity we will make
the indicator simulation on the same blocks 25mx25mx15m.
simulation of rich ore Fe grade, as if each block would be entirely in rich ore. By intersecting
with the indicator simulation, we will get the final picture.
(snap. 2.6-1)
90
To create in the grid file the orebody selection we use the migration capability (Tools/Migrate/Grid
to Point...) from the 3D Grid 75x75x15 m file to 3D Grid 25x25x15 with maximum migration distance of 55 m.
(snap. 2.6-2)
Open the menu Interpolate / Conditional Simulations / Sequential Indicator / Standard Neighborhood.
91
(snap. 2.6-3)
For defining the two facies 1 for rich ore and 2 for the complementary you have to click on
Facies Definition and enter the parameters as shown below.
92
(snap. 2.6-4)
You may use the same variogram model, the same neighborhood and the same local parameters as
used for the kriging. The only additional parameter is the Optimum Number of Already Simulated
Nodes, you can fix to 30 (the total number being 5 for 12 sectors, i.e. 60). Save the simulation in
SIS indicator rich ore.
You ask 100 simulations, then press on Run.
transform the raw data to gaussian values by anamorphosis. For the case of P grade the anamorphosis will take into account the fact that many samples are at the detection limit, that
produces an histogram with a significant zero effect.
93
do a multivariate variographic analysis on the gaussian data in order to have a gaussian variogram
perform the simulations using the discrete gaussian model framework, that allows to condition block simulated values to gaussian point data.
94
(snap. 2.6-1)
By clicking on Interactive Fitting, the Fitting Parameters window pops up, you will have to choose
parameters for the three variables in turn, by clicking on the arrow on the side of the area displaying
Parameters for Fe/P/SiO2. For Fe and SiO2 you choose the Standard Type with a Dispersion
using a Log Normal Distribution and the default Variance Increase (as was made before for Fe
alone).
For P many samples have values equal to the detection limit of 0.01. The histogram shows a spike
at the origin, that will be modelled by a zero-effect. You must choose the type Zero-effect and click
on Advanced Parameters to enter the parameters defining the zero effect. In particular we will put
in the atom all values equal to 0.01 with a precision of 0.01, i.e. all samples between 0 and 0.02.
95
(snap. 2.6-2)
After Run the transformed values of Fe and SiO2 have a gaussian distribution, while for P the
gaussian transform has a truncated gaussian distribution. The gaussian values assigned to the samples concerned by the zero effect are all equal to the same value (gaussian value corresponding to
the frequency of the zero effect).
Gibbs Sampler to generate the gaussian transform with a true distribution and honouring the
spatial correlation.
Using EDA we calculate the histogram and the experimental variogram on the variable Gaussian
P rich ore (activating the selection final lithology{Rich ore}). In the Application menu of the histogram you ask the Calculation Parameters and switch off the Automatic mode to the values shown
below:
(snap. 2.6-1)
96
For the variogram you choose the same parameters as used for Fe (omnidirectional in the horizontal
plane and vertical), by asking in the Application Menu / Calculation Parameters, in the Variogram
Calculation Parameters window click Load Parameters from Standard Parameter File and select
the experimental variogram Fe rich ore.
On the graphic display you see the truncated distribution with about 35% of samples concerned by
the zero effect, the gaussian truncated value is -0.393. The variance displayed as the dotted line on
the variograms is about 0.5. In the Application / Save in Parameter File menu of the graphic containing the variogram you save it under the name Gaussian P rich ore zero effect.
(snap. 2.6-2)
(snap. 2.6-3)
97
In the Variogram Fitting window you choose the Experimental Variograms Gaussian P rich ore
zero effect and you create a New Variogram Model, called Gaussian P rich ore. Note that the variogram model refers to the gaussian transform (with the true gaussian distribution), it is transformed
by means of the truncation to match the experimental variogram of the truncated gaussian variable.
(snap. 2.6-4)
Click Edit, in the Model Definition window you must first click Truncation.
98
(snap. 2.6-5)
In the Other Options section, click on Advanced options then on Truncation. Cick Anamorphosis V1 to select the anamorphosis Fe-SiO2-P rich ore[P].
(snap. 2.6-6)
99
(snap. 2.6-7)
Coming back to the Model Definition window you enter the parameters of the variogram model as
shown below. It is important to choose sill coefficients summing up to 1 (dispersion variance of the
true gaussian) and not 0.5 the dispersion variance of the truncated gaussian.
(snap. 2.6-8)
100
You will now generate gaussian values for the zero effect on P rich ore by using Statistics / Statistics
/ Gibbs Sampler. Note that the gaussian values not concerned by the zero effect are kept unchanged.
l
The Input Data are the variogram model you just fitted Gaussian P rich ore and the Gaussian
P rich ore variable stored after the GaussainAnamorphosis Modelling.
The Output Data are a new variogram model Gaussian P rich ore no truncation (which is in
fact the same as the input one without the truncation option) and a new variable in the Composites 15m file Gaussian P rich ore (Gibbs).
(snap. 2.6-9)
You can check how the Gibbs Sampler has reproduced the gaussian distribution and the input variogram. You just have to recalculate the histogram and the variograms on the variable Gaussian P
rich ore (Gibbs). After saving in the Parameter File that experimental variogram, you can superimpose to it the variogram model with no truncation using Variogram Fitting menu. For the first distance the fit is acceptable.
101
(snap. 2.6-10)
117
1.5
148
183
1.0
D-9
223
266 1120
1155
11081222
1373 1196
900
325
1195
472
688
92
0.5 157
78
N0
6
1
0.0
500
1000
Distance (m)
1500
(snap. 2.6-11)
102
(snap. 2.6-1)
In Statistics/Variogram Fitting..., choose the experimental variogram you just saved. Create the new
variogram model with the same name Gaussian Fe-SiO2-P rich ore. Set the toggles Global Window and ask to display the number of pairs in the graphic window (Application/Graphic Parameters...).
103
(snap. 2.6-2)
104
enter the name of the new variogram model Gaussian Fe-SiO2-P rich ore and Edit it.
in the Manual Fitting tab click on Load Model and choose the model made for Gaussian P
rich ore no truncation. The following window pops up:*
(snap. 2.6-3)
Clck on Clear button, then move the mouse to the second line Gaussian P rich ore, click on Link
and on OK in the Selector window to put the variogram made on Gaussian P alone for the same
variable in the three variate variogram. Then you click on OK in the Model Loading window.
l
in the Manual Fitting tab click on Automatic Sill Fitting. The Global Window shows the
model that has been fitted. Press Run to save it in the parameter file.
105
(snap. 2.6-4)
106
You first have to launch Statistics / Modeling / Variogram Regularization. You will store in a
new experimental variogram Gaussian Fe-SiO2-P rich ore block 25x25x15 3 directional variograms using a discretization of 5x5x1. You will also ask to Normalize the Input Point Variogram.
(snap. 2.6-1)
l
Then you model the regularized variogram using Variogram Fitting and the Automatic Sill Fitting mode, after having loaded the model made on the point samples Gaussian Fe-SiO2-P rich
ore. You note that the Nugget effect is put to zero. When you save the variogram model the
Nugget effect is not stored in the Parameter file
107
(snap. 2.6-2)
108
(snap. 2.6-3)
109
(snap. 2.6-1)
110
The simulated variables are created with the following names Simu block Gaussian Fe rich
ore ...in the 3D Grid 25x25x15. We store the gaussian values before transform to allow a check
of the experimental variograms on gaussian simulated values with the input variogram model,
that is defined on the gaussian variables.
The Block Anamorphosis and the Block Gaussian Model are those obtained from the Gaussian
Support Correction.
The Neighborhood used for kriging Fe rich ore is modified into a new one called Fe rich ore
simulation changing the radius along V to 800m. The reason is just because the Local Parameters for the neighborhood are not implemented in the application Direct Block Simulation.
We ask to not Perform a Gaussian Back Transformation, for the reason explained above. The
back transform will be achieved afterwards.
111
(snap. 2.6-1)
You can compare the experimental variograms calculated from the 100 simulations in up to 3 directions with the input variogram model. The directions are entered by giving the increments (number
of grid mesh) of the unit directional lag along X, Y, Z. For instance for the direction 1, the increments are respectively 1, 0, 0, which makes the unit lag 25m East-West.
112
(snap. 2.6-2)
Three graphic pages (one per direction) are then displayed. The average experimental variograms
are displayed with a single line, the variogram model with a double line. On the next figure the variograms in the direction 3 show a good match up to 100m. For the cross-variogram P-SiO2 where
the correlation is very low, some simulations look anomalous, further analysis could be made to
exclude these simulations for the next post processing steps.
113
1.25
1.00
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.00
25
50
75
100
125
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
-0.01
-0.02
0
25
50
75
100
125
1.00
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.00
25
0.0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
25
50
75
100
Distance (m)
50
75
100
125
Distance (m)
125
Distance (m)
0.0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
0
25
50
75
100
Distance (m)
125
-0.03
Distance (m)
1.25
1.00
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.00
25
50
75
100
Distance (m)
125
(snap. 2.6-3)
It is then necessary to transform the simulated gaussian values into raw values, using Statistics /
Data Tranformation / Raw Gaussian Transformation. For transforming the three grade you will
have to run that menu three times. You should choose as Transformation Gaussian to Raw Transformation. The New Raw Variable will be created with the same number of indices with names like
Simu block Fe rich ore...
The transform is achieved by means of the block anamorphosis Fe-SiO2-P rich ore block
25x25x15, do not forget to choose on the right side of the Anamorphosis window the right variable.
114
(snap. 2.6-4)
We can now combine the simulations of the rich ore indicator and the grades simulations, by changing to undefined (N/A) the grades when the block is simulated as poor ore (simulated code 2).
These transformations have to be applied on the 100 simulations using File / Calculator. It is compulsory to create beforehand new macro variables, with 100 indices, called Simu block Fe ... with
Tools / Create Special Variable.
115
(snap. 2.6-5)
116
(snap. 2.6-6)
If you complete this Case Study by simulating also the grades of poor ore, you will get valuated
grades for all blocks in the orebody. The displays will be presented in the last chapter.
117
One run will calculate a macro-variable Tonnage rich ore, by storing the number of smus of
rich ore (i.e. where Fe simulated grade is defined) within each panel. With File / Calculator that
number is divided by 9 (number of smus in the panel) to get a proportion. By multipying by the
panel volume and the density (constant equal to 4) we get the real tonnage in tons.
(snap. 2.6-1)
118
(snap. 2.6-2)
119
three runs will be necessary to calculate the quantities of metal for the three elements. We store
with Tools / Copy Grid Statistics to Grid the mean grade of the smus of rich ore within the panel,
the variable is then called Metal Fe ... rich ore. With File / Calculator by multiplying those
mean values by the tonnage macro-variable we get the metal quantity in Tons.
(snap. 2.6-3)
120
(snap. 2.6-4)
121
(snap. 2.6-1)
(snap. 2.6-2)
The mean tonnage may be compared to the kriged indicator (after multiplication by the panel tonnage).
122
Iso-Frequency Maps to calculate the quantile at the frequencies of 25%-50%-75% of the Tonnage of rich ore. In the previous Simulation Post-Processing window, click the Toggle button
Iso-Frequency Maps, the following window pops up and you define a New Macro Variable
Quantile Tonnage rich ore[xxxxx].
(snap. 2.6-3)
then click Quantiles and choose for Step Between Frequencies 25%. You get a macro-variable with
3 indices, one per frequency: for each panel the tonnage such that 25%, 50%, 75% of the simulations is lower than the corresponding quantile value.
(snap. 2.6-4)
123
Iso-Cutoff Maps to calculate the probability for the Metal P rich ore to be above 0, 50, 100,
150, 200.
(snap. 2.6-5)
In the previous Simulation Post-Processing window, click the Toggle button Iso-Cutoff Maps, the
following window pops up and you define a New Macro Variable for Probability to be Above Cutoff (T), i.e. Proba P rich ore above[xxxxx].
124
(snap. 2.6-6)
then click Cutoff and click Regular Cutoff Definition and choose the parameters as shown below.
You get a macro-variable with 4 indices, one per cutoff: for each panel the probability to be above
0.02,0.03 ...
(snap. 2.6-7)
125
Risk Curves to calculate the distribution of 100 simulations of Fe metal quantities of rich ore
over the orebody.
(snap. 2.6-8)
Click Risk Curves then Edit and fill the parameters in the Risk Curves & Printing Format window,
as shown. Only the Accumulations are interesting. For a given simulation the accumulation is
obtained by multiplying the simulated block value (here the Fe metal in tons) by the volume of the
block. It means that the average grade of the block is multiplied twice by the block volume. That is
why in order to get the metal in MTons we have to apply a scaling factor of 75x75x15 (84375) and
multiply it by 106. That scaling is entered in the box just on the left of m3*V_unit of the Accumulations sub-window. By asking Print Statistics the 100 accumulations will be output in the Isatis message window. The order of the printout depends of the option Sorts Results by, here we ask
Accumulations.
126
(snap. 2.6-9)
Coming back to the Simulation Post-processing window and press Run. The following graphic is
then displayed.
127
(snap. 2.6-10)
With the Application / Graphic Parameters you may Highlight Quantiles with the Simulation Value
on Graphic.
(snap. 2.6-11)
128
(snap. 2.6-12)
In the message window we get the 100 simulated metal quantities by increasing order. The column
Macro gives the index of the simulation for each outcome: for instance the minimum metal is
obtained for the simulation #72, the next one for the simulation 97 ...
Volume
72 1.00
1140.90MT 3442162500.00m3
97 2.00
1156.65MT 3442162500.00m3
38 3.00
1171.82MT 3442162500.00m3
15 4.00
1179.91MT 3442162500.00m3
91 5.00
1181.25MT 3442162500.00m3
41 6.00
1185.01MT 3442162500.00m3
30 7.00
1191.53MT 3442162500.00m3
45 8.00
1191.71MT 3442162500.00m3
57 9.00
1194.86MT 3442162500.00m3
10
59 10.00
1195.80MT 3442162500.00m3
11
35 11.00
1196.15MT 3442162500.00m3
12
6 12.00
1196.37MT 3442162500.00m3
13
48 13.00
1197.58MT 3442162500.00m3
14
62 14.00
1199.70MT 3442162500.00m3
15
40 15.00
1201.25MT 3442162500.00m3
16
1 16.00
1201.90MT 3442162500.00m3
17
86 17.00
1204.47MT 3442162500.00m3
18
33 18.00
1206.65MT 3442162500.00m3
19
93 19.00
1206.83MT 3442162500.00m3
20
11 20.00
1210.44MT 3442162500.00m3
129
...
We will calculate for each panel the mean grade, tonnage and metal quantitiy of rich ore and the
quantity of rich ore Fe-P-SiO2 by using Statistics / Processing / Grade Reblocking, that applies
directly on the macro-variables. The Grade Reblocking is designed to calculate local grade tonnage
curves on panel grid (Q,T,M variables) from simulated grade variables on block grid. The grade
variables can be simulated using the panel Turning bands, Sequential Gaussian Simulation or any
kind of simulation that generates continuous variables.
The Block Grid usually corresponds to the S.M.U. (Selective Mining Unit). It has to be consistent
with the Panels, in other words the Block Grid must make a partition of this Panel Grid.This
appli-cation handles multivariable cases with a cuttof on the main variable.
Make sure to give a different name for each output variables: Simu Fe, Simu P and Simu SiO2.
130
(snap. 2.6-13)
131
132
(snap. 2.6-14)
133
First, give a name to the template you are creating: Kriging Fe rich ore. This will allow you to
easily display again this template later.
In the Contents list, double click the Raster item. A new window appears, in order to let you
specify which variable you want to display and the color scale:
m
Select the Grid file, 3D Grid 75x75x15m with selection orebody active, select the variable
Kriging Fe rich ore
Specify the title for the Raster part of the legend, for instance Kriging Fe rich ore
In the Grid Contents area, enter 16 for the rank of the section XOY to display
In the Graphic Parameters area, specify the Color Scale you want to use for the raster display. You may use an automatic default color scale, or create a new one specifically dedicated to the Fe variable. To create a new color scale: click the Color Scale button, doubleclick on New Color Scale and enter a name: Fe, and press OK. Click the Edit button. In the
Color Scale Definition window:
- In the Bounds Definition, choose User Defined Classes.
- Choose Number of Classes 22,
- Click on the Bounds... button, enter 60 and 71 as the Minimum and Maximum values.
Press OK.
- Switch on the Invert Color Order toggle in order to affect the red colors to the large Fe
values.
- Click Undefined Values button and select Transparent.
- In the Legend area, switch off the Display all tick marks button, enter 60 as the reference
tickmark and 2 as the step between the tickmarks. Then, specify that you do not want
your final color scale to exceed 7 cm. Switch off the Automatic Format button, and specify that you want to use integer values of Length 7. Ask to display the Extreme Classes.
Click OK.
134
(snap. 2.7-1)
In the Item contents for: Raster window, click Display current item to display the result.
Click OK.
Double-click on the Isolines item. A new Item contents window appears. In the Data area, select
the Kriging Fe rich ore variable from the 3D Grid file with the same selection. In the Grid Contents area, select the rank 16 for the XOY section. In the Data Related Parameters area, switch
on the C1 line, enter 60 and 71 as lower and upper bounds and choose a step equal to 2. Switch
135
off the Visibility button. Click on Display Current Item to check your parameters, then on Display to see all the previously defined components of your graphic. Click on OK to close the Item
contents window.
l
In the Item list, you can select any item and decide whether or not you want to display its legend, by setting the toggle Legend ON. Use the Move Front and Move Back buttons to modify the
order of the items in the final Display.
Close the Contents window. Your final graphic window should be similar to the one displayed
hereafter.
2000
Y (m)
70
68
1000
66
64
0
62
60
500
1000
1500
X (m)
2000
N/A
(fig. 2.7-1)
You can also visualize your 3D grid in perspective. Open again the Contents window of the previous graphic display (Application/Contents...). Switch the Representation Type from Projection to
Perspective:
136
just click on Display: the previous section is represented within the 3D volume. Because of the
extension of the grid, set the vertical axis factor to 3 in the Display Box tab (switch the toggle
Automatic Scales OFF). In the Camera tab, modify the Perspective Parameters: longitude=60,
latitude=40.
70
68
735
635
535
435
335
5
27
75
12
64
62
163
3
116
75
22
66
60
N/A
(fig. 2.7-2)
137
Representing the whole grid as a solid: this is obtained by setting the 3D Grid contents to 3D
Box, both in the Raster and Isolines item contents windows.
Representing the 3G grid as a solid and penetrating into the solid by digging a portion of the
grid. For each item content window (for raster and isolines), set the 3D Grid contents to Excavated Box. Then define the indices of the excavation corner (for instance: cell=17, 21, 15).
70
68
735
635
535
435
335
5
27
5
27
64
62
163
116
75
22
66
60
N/A
(fig. 2.7-3)
In the Contents window, the Camera tab allows you to animate (animate tab from the main contents
window) the graphic in several ways:
l
by animating one item property at a time, for instance the grid raster section. To interrupt the
animation, press the STOP button in the main Isatis window.
Fe grade
m
Create a raster image of the Fe simulated macro variable: choose the first simulation (index
1). Display rank 16 of the 25x25x15 m 3D grid file, so you can compare simulations with
the kriging) and choose the grade Fe color scale. Ask to display the legend.
Create a Base map of the composite data from the Composites 15 m with the selection final
lithology{Rich ore} active and no variable in order to use the same Default Symbol a full
circle of 0.15cm.
138
(snap. 2.7-1)
In the Display Box tab from the contents window, set the mode to Containing a set of items and
click the Raster item: set the toggle Box Defined as Slice around Section ON and set the Slice
Thickness to 45 m.
139
(snap. 2.7-2)
Press Display:
140
Fe rich ore
2000
Y (m)
70
68
1000
66
64
0
62
60
500
1000
1500
2000
X (m)
N/A
(fig. 2.7-1)
From the Animate tab, select the raster item and choose to animate on the macro index. Set the
Delay to 1s and press Animate. The different simulations appear consecutively: the animation
allows to sense the differences between the simulations. Check that the simulations tend to be similar around boreholes.
l
Display of the probability for the Metal P of rich ore in panels to be above cut-off = 50T:
m
Create a new page and display the macro variable Proba P rich ore above from the 3D
Grid 75x75x15m file: choose the macro index n 2 (i.e. cutoff = 50)
=Make a New Color scale named Proportion as explained before for Fe, but with 20 classes
between 0 and 1.
press OK
141
Probability
Proba P rich ore above{50.000000}
3000
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
2000
Y (m)
0.60
0.50
1000
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
500
1000
1500
2000
X (m)
N/A
(fig. 2.7-2)
Drag the Fe variable from the Composites 15 m file in the Study Contents and drop it in the
display window;
Magnify by a factor of 2 the scale along Z by clicking the Z Scale button at the top of the
graphic page.
Click Toggle the Axes in the menu bar on the left of the graphic area.
From the Page contents, click right on the 3D Lines object to open the 3D Lines properties
window. In the 3D Lines tab
142
(snap. 2.7-1)
m
In the File menu click Save Page as and give a name (composites rich ore) in order to be
able to recover it later if you wish.
143
(snap. 2.7-2)
Click Compass in the menu bar on the left of the graphic area.
Drag the Kriging indicator rich ore variable from the 3D Grid 75 x 75 x 15 m file in the Study
Contents and drop it in the display window;
Click right on the 3D Grid 75x75x15m file in the Page Contents to open the 3D Grid Properties:
144
In the 3D Grid tab, tick the selection toggle, choose the orebody selection;
(fig. 2.7-1)
l
open the clipping plane facility from Toggle the Clipping Plane in the menu bar on the left of
the graphic area: the clipping plane appears across the block model;
Click the clipping plane rectangle and drag it next by the block model for better visibility;
Click one of the clipping planes axis to change its orientation (be careful to target precisely
the axis itself in dark grey, not its squared extremity nor the center tube in white)
Add the drill holes (Fe rich ore) as you did for the previous graphic page
Open the Line Properties window of the Composites 15 m file: set the Allow Clipping toggle ON;
145
Click on the clipping planes center white tube and drag it in order to translate the clipping
plane along the axis: choose a convenient cross section, approximately in the middle of the
block model. You may also benefit from the clipping controls parameters available on the
right of the graphic window in order to clip a slice with a fixed width and along the main
grid axes.
Click on one block of particular interest: its information is displayed in the top right corner:
(snap. 2.7-1)
146
Edit the 3D Grid 75x75x15m attributes, go in the Slicing tab and set the properties as follow:
(snap. 2.7-2)
Set the toggle Automatic Apply ON, and move the slices to visualize interactively the slicing.
l
Save the graphic as a New Page with the name Composites and kriged indicator rich ore.
147
(fig. 2.7-1)
148
Non Linear
3.Non Linear
This case study, dedicated to advanced users, is based on the Walker
Lake data set, which has been first introduced and analyzed by Mohan
SRIVASTAVA and Edwards H. ISAAKS in their book Applied Geostatistics (1989, Oxford University Press).
Geostatistical methods applicable to perform global and local estimation of recoverable resources in a mining industry context are
described through this case study:
Non linear methods, including four methods used to estimate local
recoverable resources: indicator kriging, disjunctive kriging, uniform
conditioning and service variables.Conditional simulations of grades,
using the two main methods applicable: turning bands and sequential
gaussian.
The efficiency of these methods will be evaluated by comparison to
the reality, which can be considered as known in this case because
of the origin of the data set.
Reminder: while using Isatis, the on-line help is accessible anytime by
pressing F1 and provides full description of the active application.
Important Note:
Before starting this study, it is strongly advised to read the Beginner's
Guide book. Especially the following paragraphs: Handling Isatis,
Tutorial Familiarizing with Isatis basic and batch Processing & Journal Files.All the data sets are available in the Isatis installation directory (usually C:\program file\Geovariances\Isatis\DataSets\). This
directory also contains a journal file including all the steps of the case
study. If case you get stuck during the case study, use the journal file to
perform all the actions according to the book.
149
150
the support effect, that makes the recovered ore depending on the volume on which the ore/
waste decision is made. In this case the size of the selective mining unit (SMU or blocks) has
been fixed to 5m x 5m. When performing the local estimations we will calculate the ore tonnage
and grade after cut-off in panels of 20m x 20m. It is important to keep these terms of block for
the selective unit and panel for the estimated unit (e.g.: tonnage within the panel of the ore consisting of blocks with a grade above the cut-off). These terms are systematically used in the Isatis interface.
the information effect, that makes the mis-classification between selected ore and waste depending on the amount of information used in estimating the blocks. At this stage two notions are
important. Firstly the recovered ore is made of true grades contained in blocks whose estimated
grade is above the cut-off. Secondly the decision between ore and waste will be made with an
additional information (blast-holes...) in the future of the production. The question is then what
can we expect to recover tomorrow, if we assume a future pattern blast-holes for instance.
the constraint effect, that leads for any technical/economical reason to ore dilution or ore left in
place. The two previously mentioned effects are assuming a free selection of blocks within the
panels, only the distribution of block grades is of importance. When their spatial distribution has
to be considered (the recovered ore will be different if rich blocks are contiguous or spread
throughout the panel), only geostatistical simulations provide an answer.
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151
by non linear kriging techniques (developed in 3.4): the main advantage of these methods is
their swiftness, but no information on the location of the ore blocks within the panels is given.
Four methods will be described: Indicator kriging, Disjunctive kriging, Service variables and
Uniform Conditioning.
by simulation techniques (developed in 3.5): the main advantages of simulations is the possibility to derive simulated histograms and estimate the constraint effect, but the method is quite
heavy and time consuming for big block models. Two methods will be described: Turning
Bands (TB) and Sequential Gaussian Simulations (SGS).
Comparison to reality through a specific analysis of the 600 ppm cut-off will be done through
graphic displays and cross plots of the ore tonnage and mean grade above cut-off.
Note - If you wish to compare the local estimates with reality you will need first to calculate the
real tonnage variables from the real grades for the specific cut-off 600 (this is done in 3.4.1
Calculation of the true QTM variables based on the panels).
152
(snap. 3.2-1)
By visualizing the Sample set data (using Display / Basemap/ Proportional), we immediately see
the preferential sampling pattern of high grade zones:
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153
X (m)
0
100
300
200
V
Y (m)
200
100
0
0
100
200
X (m)
(fig. 3.2-1)
In order to correct the bias of preferential sampling of high grade zones, it is necessary to decluster the data. To do so you can use Tools / Declustering: it performs a cell declustering with a moving window centered on each sample. We store the resulting weights in a variable Weight of the
sample data set: this variable will be used later to weight statistics for the variographic analysis in
the EDA and the gaussian anamorphosis modeling. The moving window size for declustering has
been fixed here to 20m x 20m, accordingly to the approximative sampling loose mesh size outside
the clusters.
Note - A possible guide for choosing the moving window dimensions is to compare the value of the
resulting declustered mean to the mean of kriged estimates (kriging has natural declustering
capabilities).
The statistics before and after declustering are the following:
154
(snap. 3.2-2)
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155
(snap. 3.2-3)
156
(fig. 3.2-2)
From these three histograms we clearly see that the declustering process will allow to better represent the statistical behavior of the phenomenon.
Note - This short scale anisotropy is not clearly visible on the variogram map below: to better
visualize it, you may re-calculate the variogram map on 5 lags only and create a customized color
scale through Application / Graphic Specific Parameters...
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157
In the variogram map area you can activate a direction using the mouse buttons, the left one to
select a direction, and the right one for selecting Activate Direction in the menu. Activating both
principal axes (perpendicular directions N160 and N70) displays the corresponding experimental
variograms below. When selecting the variogram, click right and ask for Modify Label... to change
N250 to N70:
(snap. 3.2-4)
The short scale anisotropy is visible on the experimental variogram; it is then saved in a parameter
file Raw V from the graphic window (Application / Save in Parameter File...).
We now have to fit a model based on these experimental variograms using the Statistics / Variogram Fitting facility. We fit the model from the Manual Fitting tab.
158
(snap. 3.2-5)
Non Linear
159
(snap. 3.2-6)
160
(snap. 3.2-7)
Press Print to check the output variogram and then save the variogram model in the parameter file
under the name of Raw V. It should be noted that the total sill of the variogram is slightly above the
dispersion variance and the low nugget value has been chosen.
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161
(snap. 3.2-1)
Using this configuration we have exactly 25 samples from the exhaustive data set for each block of
the new grid. Edit the graphic parameters to display the auxiliary file.
162
(snap. 3.2-2)
(fig. 3.2-1)
Now we need to average the real values on this Grid 5*5 file, using Tools / Copy Statistics / Points
-> Grid. We will call this new variable True V.
Note - Using a moving window equal to zero for all the axes, we constrain the new Mean variable
to a calculation area of 5m x 5m (1 block).
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163
(snap. 3.2-3)
True V
300
250
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
N/A
Y (m)
200
150
100
50
50
100
150
X (m)
200
250
(fig. 3.2-2)
164
The above figure is a result of two basic actions of the Display Menu: a display grid raster of the
true block grade is performed, then isolines are overlaid. Isolines range from 0 to 1500 by steps of
250 ppm, 1000 ppm isoline has been represented with a bold line type. The color scale has been
customized to cover grades between 0 and 1000 ppm, even if there are values greater than this
upper bound. Each class has a width of 62.5 ppm, the extreme values are represented using the
extreme colors.
Note - Keep in mind that V variable has primarily been deduced from elevation data: we clearly
see on the above map a NW-SE valley responsible of the anisotropy detected during variography.
The Walker Lake itself (consequently with zero values...) is in this valley. One could raise
stationarity issues, as the statistical behavior of elevation data differs from valleys (with a lake) to
nearby ranges. This is not the subject of this case study.
X and Y mesh: 20 m,
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165
(snap. 3.2-1)
The graphic check with the Grid 5*5 shows that the 5m x 5m blocks describe a perfect partition of
the 20m x 20m panels. This allows to use the specific Tools / Copy Statistics / Grid to grid... for calculating the true panel values True V for the Mean Name:
166
(snap. 3.2-2)
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167
168
Model: Raw V
Neighborhood: create a moving neighborhood named octants without any rotation and a constant radius of 70 m, made of 8 sectors with a minimum of 5 samples and the optimum number of samples by sector set to 2. This neighborhood will be used extensively throughout the
case study.
(snap. 3.2-3)
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169
(snap. 3.2-4)
For comparison purposes, it is interesting to do also the same kriging on the small blocks (Grid 5*5)
to quantify the smoothing effect of linear kriging.
170
Comparing the true V values for the three different supports (punctual, block 5x5 and panel 20x20):
l
the variance decreases with the support size: this is the support effect
Comparing estimated values vs. true values for one same support:
l
punctual: the estimation by declustering is satisfactory because the mean and the variance are
comparable. The bias (279.7 compared to 278.0) is negligible
block 5x5: ID2 shows an overestimation. For kriging, the bias is negligible and, as expected, the
variance of the kriged blocks (44013) is smaller than the real block variance (52287); this is the
smoothing effect caused by linear interpolation. Beside, there are some negative estimates; the
5m x 5m blocks are too small for a robust in situ estimation.
panel 20x20: The bias of ID2 is less pronounced, but the variance is not realistic; this is because
strong local overestimation of high grade zones. The variance of the kriged panels is smaller
than the real panel variance, but the difference is less pronounced. Moreover, there is only one
negative panel estimate.
Note - 72 SMU blocks have negative estimates indicating that the 5 m x 5 m block size is too small
in this case.
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171
(snap. 3.3-1)
172
(snap. 3.3-2)
The Interactive Fitting... gives access to specific parameters for the anamorphosis (intervals on the
raw values to be transformed, intervals on the gaussian values, number of polynomials etc...): the
default parameters will be kept. The distribution function is modeled by specific polynomials called
Hermite polynomials; the more polynomials, the more precise is the fit. There are also QC graphic
windows allowing to check the fit between experimental (raw) and model histograms:
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173
1500
1000
500
0
-3 -2 -1
Gaussian values
(fig. 3.3-1)
the block variance, which can be calculated using the Krige's relationship giving the dispersion
variance as a function of the variogram.
The gaussian discrete model provides then a consistent change of support model.
Use the Statistics/Support Correction... panel with the Point anamorphosis and the Raw V variogram model as input. The 5mx5m block will be discretized in 4x4. At this stage no information
effect is considered, so the corresponding toggle is not activated.
174
(snap. 3.3-3)
Press Calculate to calculate the Gamma(v,v), and the corresponding Real Block Variance and Correction are displayed in the message window:
_________________________________________________
|
|
|
|
| V
|
|--------------------------------------|----------|
| Punctual Variance (Anamorphosis)
| 63167.25 |
| Variogram Sill
| 66500.00 |
| Gamma(v,v)
| 9431.85 |
| Real Block Variance
| 53735.40 |
| Real Block Support Correction (r)
|
0.9293 |
| Kriged Block Support Correction (s) |
0.9293 |
| Kriged-Real Block Support Correction |
1.0000 |
| Zmin Block
|
0.00 |
| Zmax Block
| 1528.10 |
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175
|______________________________________|__________|
Note - Gamma (v,v) is calculated using random procedures; hence, different results are generated
when pressing the Calculate button. Gamma (v,v) and the resulting Real Block Variance should not
vary too much between different calculations.
By clicking on the anamorphosis and on the histogram bitmaps we can check that, after the support
effect correction, the histogram of blocks is smoother (smaller variance) than the punctual histogram model:
12.5
Frequencies (%)
10.0
7.5
5.0
2.5
0.0
500
1000
150
(fig. 3.3-2)
Histograms (punctual in blue and block in red): the block histogram model is smoother
The anamorphosis function will be saved under the name Block 5m * 5m and press RUN to save it.
176
(i.e. the selection between ore and waste is made on the future estimated grades, and not on the real
grades), we should calculate 2 coefficients:
l
a coefficient that transforms the point anamorphosis in the kriged block one.
a coefficient that allows to calculate the covariance between true and kriged blocks.
Therefore, the variance of the kriged block and the covariance between real and kriged blocks are
needed: they can be automatically calculated in the same Support Correction panel through the
Information Effect optional calculation sub-panel (... selector next to the toggle):
(snap. 3.3-4)
The final sampling mesh corresponds to the final sampling pattern to be considered: 5x5 m. Press
OK and create a new anamorphosis function Block 5m*5m with information effect. Click on Run
button; two extra support correction coefficients are calculated and are displayed when pressing
RUN from the main panel:
Block Support Correction Calculation:
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
|
|
|
|
| V
|
|--------------------------------------|----------|
| Punctual Variance (Anamorphosis)
| 63167.25 |
| Variogram Sill
| 66500.00 |
| Gamma(v,v)
| 9431.85 |
| Real Block Variance
| 53735.40 |
| Real Block Support Correction (r)
|
0.9293 |
| Kriged Block Support Correction (s) |
0.9117 |
| Kriged-Real Block Support Correction |
0.9859 |
| Zmin Block
|
0.00 |
| Zmax Block
| 1528.10 |
|______________________________________|__________|
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177
(snap. 3.3-5)
178
(snap. 3.3-6)
Non Linear
179
(snap. 3.3-7)
Press OK then repeat the procedure for the other 4 data with the same cut-off definition and specifying different curve parameters for distinguishing them:
m
curve 3: choose histogram model and the Block 5m * 5m with information effect anamorphosis
curve 4: choose grade variable and select the True V variable from the Grid 5*5 file
curve 5: choose grade variable and select the Kriging V variable from the Grid 5*5 file
Once the 5 curves have been edited, click on the graphic bitmaps to display the Total tonnage vs.
cut-off and the Mean grade vs. cut-off curves:
180
(fig. 3.3-3)
Total tonnage vs. cut-off - the block histograms are close to the true tonnages.
The ordinary kriging curve under-estimates the total tonnage for high cut-offs, showing the danger
to apply cut-offs on linear estimates for recoverable resources.
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181
(fig. 3.3-4)
|
|
|
|
|
|
77.954|
87.738|
76.103|
61.082|
|
10.385 |
11.351|
10.084|
8.077|
M
750.67
772.934
754.699
756.258
In 3.2.5 we have seen that linear kriging is well adapted to in situ resource estimation on panels.
But when mining constraints are involved (i.e applying the 600 cut-off on small blocks), the kriging
predicts a tonnage of 8.08% instead of 10.38%: the mine will have to deal with a 29% over-production compared to the prediction.
On the other hand, the global estimation using the point model over-estimates the reality. The
global estimation with change of support (block 5*5 no info) gives a prediction of good quality.
Because we know the reality from the exhaustive dataset, it is possible to calculate the true block
grades taking the true information effect into account and compare it to the Block 5x5 with infor-
182
mation effect anamorphosis. The detailed workflow to calculate the true information effect will not
be detailed here, only the general idea is presented below:
l
Sample one true value at the center of each block from the exhaustive set (representing the
blasthole sampling pattern with real sampled grades V)
krige the blocks with these samples: this is the ultimate estimated block grades on which the
ultimate selection will be based
select blocks where ultimate estimates > 600 and derive the tonnage
We can now compare the Block 5x5 with info to the real QTM variables calculated with the true
information effect (info):
True block 5x5
True block 5x5 (info)
Block 5*5 with info
|
|
|
|
Q
77.95
67.92
71.83
|
|
|
|
T
10.38
9.01
9.66
|
|
|
|
750.67
754.11
743.40
As expected, the information effect on the true grades deteriorates the real recovered tonnage and
metal quantity because the ore/waste mis-classification is taken into account: the real tonnage
decreases from 10.38% to 9.01%. The estimation from the Block 5x5 with info anamorphosis
(9.69%) is closer to this reality.
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183
the total Tonnage T: the total tonnage is expressed as the percentage or the proportion of SMU
blocks that have a grade above the given cut-off in the panel. Each panel is a partition of 16
SMU blocks, i.e when T is expressed as a proportion, T = 1 means that all the 16 SMU blocks of
the panel have an estimated grade above the cut-off.
the metal Quantity Q (also referred sometimes as the metal tonnage) is the quantity of metal
relative to the tonnage proportion T for a given cut-off (according to the grade unit);
the Mean grade M is the mean grade above the given cut-off.
In Isatis, QTM variables for local estimations are calculated and stored in macro-variables (1 index
for each cut-off) with a fixed terminology:
l
184
In Grid 5*5, create a constant 600 ppm variable named Cut-off 600 ppm: this is done through
File / Calculator window:
(snap. 3.4-1)
Tools / Copy Statistics / Grid -> Grid: in the input area we will select the true block grades
True V from the Grid 5*5 file and the Cut-off 600 ppm as the Minimum Bound Name, i.e only
cells for which the grade is above 600 will be considered. In the output area we will store the
true tonnage above 600 under Number Name and the true grade above 600 under Mean Name
in the Grid 20*20 file. If inside a specific panel no SMU block has a grade greater than 600,
then the true tonnage of this panel will be 0 and its true grade will be undefined:
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185
(snap. 3.4-2)
In order to get the true total tonnage T relevant for future comparisons (i.e the ore proportion above
the cut-off 600), we have to normalize the number of blocks contained in each panel by the total
number of blocks in one panel (16):
(snap. 3.4-3)
186
The metal quantity Q is calculated as Q = T x M. When the true grade above 600 is defined, the
metal quantity is equal to M x T otherwise it is null. A specific ifelse syntax is needed to reflect
this:
(snap. 3.4-4)
if this specific ifelse syntax was not used, the metal quantity in the waste would be undefined
instead of being null.
Now, we have the true tonnage, the true mean and the true metal quantity above 600 ppm to base
our comparisons in the Grid 20*20 file.
Note - Beware that the true grade above 600 is not additive as it refers to different tonnages.
Therefore, it is necessary to use the true tonnage above 600 as weights for computing the global
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187
mean of the grade over the whole deposit. Another way to compute the global mean of the grade
above 600 is to divide the global metal quantity by the global tonnage after averaging on the whole
deposit.
Multiple indicator (co-)kriging: performs the kriging of the indicator variables with their own
variograms, independently or not, for the different cut-offs.
Median indicator kriging: supposes that all the indicator variables have the same variogram; that
is, the variogram of the indicator based on the median value of the grade.
Multiple indicator kriging is preferable because of the de-structuring of the spatial correlation with
increasing cut-offs (the assumption of an unique variogram for all cut-offs does not hold for the
whole grade spectrum), but problems of consistency must be corrected afterwards. Besides it has
the disadvantage to be quite tedious because it requires a specific variographic analysis for each
cut-off. Incidentally it is the reason why median indicator kriging has been proposed as an alternative. One other possibility is to calculate the variogram using the intrinsic correlation hypothesis,
that simplifies the variograms fitting by assuming the proportionality of all variograms and crossvariograms.
In this case study we will use the median indicator kriging of the panels 20m x 20m; using Statistics
/ Quick Statistics..., with the declustering weights, the median of the declustered histogram is found
to be 223.9.
188
(snap. 3.4-1)
We then calculate the experimental variogram of this macro indicator variable Indicator V [xxxxx]
with the EDA (make sure that the Weight variable is activated). When selecting the IndicatorV[xxxxx] macro variable from the EDA, you will be asked to specify the index corresponding to
the median indicator: we have chosen the index 5 corresponding to the cut-off 250 which is close
enough to 223.9. If the same calculations parameters of the Raw V variogram are used, the anisotropy is no more visible; hence, the experimental variogram will be omnidirectional and calculated
with 33 lags of 5 m. It is stored in a parameter file Model Indicator, and used through Statistics /
Variogram fitting... to fit a variogram model with the following parameters detailed below the
graphic:
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189
0.3
1411 2140
2237
2717
3016
2496
2661
2999
2882
2914
2742
2530
2222 2546
2912
2053 1941
2829 2405
2596
3093
2346
2549
3243
1774 1875 2659
1208
0.2
928
1520
863
244
0.1
13
0.0
50
100
150
Distance (m)
Isatis
Sample set/Data
- Variable #1 : Indicator V{250.000000}
Experimental Variogram : in 1 direction(s)
D1 :
Angular tolerance = 90.00
Lag = 5.00m, Count = 33 lags, Tolerance = 50.00%
Model : 2 basic structure(s)
Global rotation = (Az=-70.00, Ay= 0.00, Ax= 0.00)
S1 - Nugget effect, Sill =
0.035
S2 - Exponential - Scale = 45.00m, Sill =
0.21
(fig. 3.4-1)
It should be noted that the total sill is close to 0.25, which is the maximum authorized value for an
indicator variogram. The model is fit using the tab Manual Fitting. The variogram is saved in the
parameter file under the name Model Indicator.
190
(snap. 3.4-2)
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191
(snap. 3.4-3)
192
(snap. 3.4-1)
l
We ask to calculate a Block estimate: we are estimating the proportion of points above the cutoffs within the panel.
As Indicator Definition we define the same cut-offs as previously. In the Cut-off definition window, by clicking on Calculate proportions we get the experimental probabilities of the grade
being above the different cut-offs. These values correspond to the mean of the indicators and are
used if we perform a simple kriging. In this case because a strict stationarity is not likely, we
prefer to run an ordinary kriging, which is the default option.
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193
rebuild the cumulative density function (cdf) of tonnage, metal and grades above cut-off for
each panel,
Apply a volume correction (support effect) to take into account the fact that the recoverable
resources will be based on 5m * 5m blocks.
These two actions are done through Statistics / Processing / Indicator Post-processing... with the
Indicator V[xxxxx] variable from the panels as input:
(snap. 3.4-1)
Basename for Q.T.M variables: IK. As the cut-offs used for kriging the indicators and the cutoffs used here for representing the final grade tonnage relationships may differ (an interpolation
is needed), three different macro-variables will be created:
m
194
Cut-off Definition... for the QTM variables: 50 cut-offs from 0 by a step of 25.
Volume correction: a preliminary calculation of the dispersion variance of the blocks within the
deposit is required. A simple way to achieve this consists in using the real block variance calculated by Statistics/support Correction... choosing the block size as 5 m x 5 m (cf. 3.3.2). The
Volume Variance Reduction Factor of the affine correction is calculated by dividing the Real
Block Variance (53842) by the Punctual Variance (63167). But the real block variance is calculated from the variogram sill (66500), which is superior to the punctual variance, the difference
being 3333; the real block variance needs to be corrected according to this value:
Corrected Real Block Variance = Real Block Variance - 3333 = 53842 - 3333 = 50509
Thus, the Volume Variance Reduction Factor is:
Volume Variance Reduction Factor = 50509 / 63167 = 0.802
Therefore, enter 0.802 for the Volume Variance Reduction Factor.
two volume corrections may be applied: affine or indirect lognormal correction. As the original
distribution is clearly not lognormal we prefer to apply the affine correction, which is just
requiring the variance ratio between the 5m * 5m blocks and the points
Parameters for Local Histogram Interpolation: we keep the default parameters for interpolating
the different parts of the histogram (linear interpolation) including for the upper tail, which is
generally the most problematic. A few tests made with other parameters (hyperbolic model with
exponent varying from 1 to 3) showed great impact on the resources. We need now to define the
maximum and minimum block values of the local block histograms: the Minimum Value
Allowed is 0; the Maximum Value Allowed may be simply approximated by applying the affine
correction by hand on the maximum value from the weighted point histogram and transpose it to
the block histogram with the Volume Variance Reduction Factor (0.8) calculated above: the
obtained value is 1391.
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195
300
1.000
250
0.875
200
0.625
250
0.750
0.500
150
0.375
100
0.250
50
0.000
N/A
200
Y (m)
Y (m)
300
IK_T{600.000000}
100
0.125
50
150
50
50
X (m)
IK_M{600.000000}
ppm
300
300
1000
250
900
850
800
150
750
100
700
650
50
600
N/A
50
200
Y (m)
200
Y (m)
250
950
150
100
50
50
1.0
rho=0.906
196
0.5
0.0
0.0
0.5
IK_T{600.000000}
1.0
1000
rho=0.683
900
800
700
600
600
700
800
900
1000
IK_M{600.000000}
(fig. 3.4-3)
Scatter diagram of the IK estimates vs. the true panel values above 600 ppm
(the black line is the first bisector)
At this stage of the case study we can consider that globally the indicator kriging gives satisfactory
results. At the local scale noticeable differences exist with a tendency to overestimate the grade,
especially in the upper tail of the histogram.
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197
198
Isatis offers then the possibility of using that intrinsic assumption in the variogram fitting window,
through the Constraints of the Automatic Fitting function.
(snap. 3.4-2)
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199
Create a macro variable on the grid 20*20 that will contain the 11 results indicators, Tools / Create
Special Variable as follows:
(snap. 3.4-3)
200
We now perform the kriging of the indicators in the classical (Co)-Kriging window using the intrinsic model. The resulting indicator macro variable can be processed using the Indicator Post-Processing as for the Bundled Indicator Kriging.
(snap. 3.4-4)
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201
the variogram model of the block gaussian variable. To determine this model we need first to
calculate an experimental block gaussian variogram using the Raw V variogram model and the
block anamorphosis. For mathematical reasons, the sill of Raw V should not exceed the punctual variance of the anamorphosis, which is unfortunately the case here. Therefore, we need first
to compute another block anamorphosis including a sill normalization (cf. 3.3.2 With support
effect correction) using Statistics / Support Correction... and ask for Normalize Variogram
Sill. Store the anamorphosis in a new parameter file Block 5m * 5m (normalized) to avoid
overwriting the existing block anamorphosis Block 5m * 5m.
Open Statistics / Modeling / Block Gaussian Variogram... to calculate the experimental block
gaussian variogram:
202
(snap. 3.4-1)
m
Number of directions: 2. It is convenient to make these directions coincide with the main
directions of anisotropy of the raw variogram (N160E and N70E) by setting a rotation of 70 around positive z axis
We fit this variogram in Statistics / Variogram Fitting...; as expected the nugget effect has disappeared. Two anisotropic structures (cubic + spherical, details below the graphic) combine to a total
sill of 1, and we store the resulting model in a parameter file Block Gaussian V:
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1.00
0.75
N70
0.50
N16
0.25
0.00
25
50
75
100
125
Distance (m)
Isatis
Model : 2 basic structure(s)
Global rotation = (Az=-70.00, Ay= 0.00, Ax= 0.00)
S1 - Cubic - Range = 42.00m, Sill =
0.4
Directional Scales = (
42.00m,
60.00m)
S2 - Spherical - Range = 40.00m, Sill =
0.6
Directional Scales = (
100.00m,
40.00m)
(fig. 3.4-1)
We are now ready to perform the Disjunctive Kriging with Interpolate / Estimation / Disjunctive
Kriging...:
204
(snap. 3.4-2)
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205
Input: Gaussian V
Number of Kriged Polynomials: we use the same number as during the modeling of the anamorphosis function, i.e. 30.
Cut-off definition...: we choose 21 cut-offs from 0 by steps of 50. It is compulsory to include the
zero cut-off, which should give the in situ grade estimate.
the Auxiliary Polynomial File will contain experimental values of the different Hermite polynomials for the data points, that will be also put at the center of the closest block 5m x 5m. They
are calculated before the RUN, as soon as the output grid is defined (it may take a little time).
Output Grid File...: in the panels Grid 20*20, store the error DK variable
in the Panel Grid file we will also store the Q.T.M. values for each cut-off from the Basename
DK.
we choose for the Block Gaussian Variogram Model the variogram model previously fitted
Block Gaussian V.
Graphic displays of the panels for comparison with reality (proportion of SMU above 600 ppm):
true tonnage above 600
300
DK_T{600.000000}
1.000
0.875
250
300
250
0.750
0.625
0.500
150
0.375
0.250
100
200
Y (m)
Y (m)
200
150
100
0.125
50
0.000
N/A
50
50
50
206
Graphic displays of the panels for comparison with reality (grade above 600 ppm):
true grade above 600
DK_M{600.000000}
ppm
300
250
250
950
900
200
200
850
150
800
100
700
Y (m)
Y (m)
300
1000
150
750
100
650
50
50
600
N/A
50
50
X (m)
X (m)
(fig. 3.4-3)
1000
rho=0.925
1.0
rho=0.753
900
800
0.5
700
600
0.0
0.0
0.5
DK T{600.000000}
1.0
500
Scatter diagram of the DK estimates vs. the true panel values above 600 ppm
(the black line is the first bisector)
The results on tonnage look very comparable to those obtained with indicator kriging; but the
grades show a better correlation between Disjunctive kriging estimates and true values.
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207
two anamorphosis functions, one for the panel and one for the block support (Block 5m * 5m).
The calculation of the panel anamorphosis requires the value of the kriged panel dispersion variance. The two anamorphosis models must be consistent, that is, created from the same samples.
(snap. 3.4-1)
208
Set to Block mode and activate the Full set of Output Variables option
Output: in Grids / Grid 20*20. Because we have asked for the Full set of Output Variables,
we are able to store the local estimated dispersion variance Variance of Z* for V under a
new variable Local dispersion Var Z*
Neighborhood: octants
300
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
250
200
Y (m)
ppm
150
100
50
50
N/A
(fig. 3.4-1)
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209
(snap. 3.4-1)
300
UC_no info_T{600.000000}
300
1.000
0.875
250
250
0.750
200
0.625
0.500
150
0.375
0.250
100
0.125
50
0.000
N/A
50
Y (m)
Y (m)
200
150
100
50
50
(fig. 3.4-1)
210
UC_no info_M{600.000000}
ppm
300
1000
250
950
250
900
200
200
850
150
800
100
700
750
650
50
600
N/A
50
Y (m)
Y (m)
300
150
100
50
50
X (m)
(fig. 3.4-2)
rho=0.928
1000
True Grade above 600
1.0
0.5
0.0
rho=0.785
900
800
700
600
0.0
0.5
1.0
UC_no info_T{600.000000}
600
700
800
900
1000
UC_no info_M{600.000000}
(fig. 3.4-3)
Scatter diagram of the UC estimates vs. the true panel values above 600 ppm
(the black line is the first bisector)
The quality of local estimation is satisfying.
Moreover, UC allows to take the information effect into account by changing the block anamorphosis to the Block 5*5 with information effect instead of block 5*5.
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211
Note - Some grade inconsistencies may appear when taking the information effect into account,
because the cut-off have to be applied on a histogram of kriged values. These grade inconsistencies
affect low grades for small tonnages, therefore it may be corrected by suppressing the lowest
tonnage values (as done here with a minimum tonnage fixed at 0.5%).
Do not forget to change the Basename for Output Variables to UC_with info and press RUN:
(snap. 3.4-2)
212
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213
The different correction types and the associated corrections are detailed in the help menu.
214
(snap. 3.4-1)
Note: the same method can be used in the multivariate case, the metal of other elements are
assigned according to the ranking of the main variable kriged smus.
After Run we get the following Error message:
(snap. 3.4-2)
It is due to the fact that it is compulsory that for the highest cutoff the tonnage represents less than
the tonnage of one smu.
The solution consists in Re-running Uniform Conditioning with 41 cutoffs from 0 with a step of 50.
Then running Localized Uniform Conditioning does not produce anymore error message.
The statistics and the displays show that after Localized Uniform Conditioning the variability of
actual block grades is much better reproduced compared to the true smu grades.
With Tools / Grade Tonnage Curve we can also check that the QTM values obtained from Uniform
Conditioning (with Tonnage Variables option) are the same as those obtained from grades estimated using Localized Uniform Conditioning method.
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215
Variable
Count
Minimum
Maximum
Mean
Std. Dev.
Variance
True V 5x5
3120
1378.12
277.98
228.66
52287.30
KrigingV
5x5
3120
-50.92
1361.13
275.36
209.79
44013.25
LUC V 5x5
3120
1435.18
275.79
229.66
52745.83
Kriging V
LUC V
300
300
V
2000
1900
1800
1700
1600
1500
1400
1300
1200
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Y (m)
200
150
100
50
250
200
Y (m)
250
150
100
50
N/A
50
50
(fig. 3.4-1)
216
(snap. 3.4-3)
The scatter diagram between the Ore and the Metal above 600 ppm shows a very strong (non linear)
correlation.
rho=0.987
1000
500
0
0.0
0.5
1.0
(fig. 3.4-2)
Non Linear
217
60000
91
3972
1524
50000
5035 5224
40000
3696
4885
5254
5579
5578 5627
5319
3124
30000
5390
5537
2572
20000
10000
0
50
100
Distance (m)
150
Consequently, we will perform independently the kriging of both variables. The experimental variograms are omnidirectional and calculated with 16 lags of 10 m (with the declustering weights
active). They have been fitted as shown below:
0.10
91
0.09
0.08
1524
3972
0.07
5035 5224
0.06
3124
3696
0.05
5319
4885
5390
5254
5579
5578 5627
5537
0.04
2572
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
50
100
150
Distance (m)
Isatis
Isatis
Model : 2 basic structure(s)
Model : 2 basic structure(s)
Global rotation = (Az=-70.00, Ay= 0.00, Ax= 0.00)
Global rotation = (Az=-70.00, Ay= 0.00, Ax= 0.00)
S1 - Nugget effect, Sill =
8100
S1 - Nugget effect, Sill =
0.01
S2 - Spherical - Range = 53.00m, Sill = 2.876e+004
S2 - Spherical - Range = 53.00m, Sill =
0.0462
(fig. 3.4-3)
The declustering weights have great impact on the short scale structure; the variograms at short
scale are not satisfactory.
Then, the kriging of Ore and Metal is performed, with the usual octants neighborhood; the variables
Service Var Ore Tonnage T > 600 and Service var Metal Q > 600 are created.
218
(snap. 3.4-4)
Non Linear
219
(snap. 3.4-5)
220
Because a linear kriging is performed, some panels have negative or unacceptable low Tonnage T
values: for all panels having a tonnage T < 0.02 (i.e 2%), T and Q are set to 0 (this is done using
File / Calculator...).
(snap. 3.4-6)
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221
Using the Calculator once more, we derive from the kriged variables
Service var Metal Q > 600 and Service Var Ore Tonnage T > 600 the variable Service var
grade M > 600 using the same relation M = Q / T.
(snap. 3.4-7)
222
1000
rho=0.924
1.0
0.5
0.0
rho=0.644
900
800
700
600
0.0
0.5
1.0
600
700
800
900
1000
(fig. 3.4-4)
The scatter diagrams show that some grades overestimation, and a slight under-estimation of high
tonnage values.
Non Linear
223
3.5 Simulations
After having reviewed the non linear estimation techniques, we can also perform simulations to
answer the same questions on the recoverable resources. Because we are in a 2D framework, we
can perform 100 simulations within a reasonable computation time.
Two techniques, both working under multigaussian hypothesis, will be described: Turning Bands
(TB) and Sequential Gaussian (SGS). This multigaussian hypothesis requires that the input variable
is gaussian: the Gaussian V variable, calculated previously ( 3.3.1 Punctual Histogram Modeling), will be used.
Simulations will be performed on the SMU blocks of 5 m x 5 m (Grid 5*5): this will allow to compare results with the non linear estimation techniques. Therefore, block simulations require a gaussian back transformation and a change of support from point to block: this implies specific remarks
discussed hereafter.
Note - In Isatis the default block discretization is 5 x 5 and may be optimized, as explained later (
3.5.4.1).
from the input gaussian data, simulate gaussian point grades according to the block discretization parameters as discussed above;
gaussian back transformation (gaussian -> raw) of the point grades using a point anamorphosis
the averaging is done automatically at the end of the simulation run. Hence the required anamorphosis function to perform the gaussian back transformation is the Point anamorphosis based on the
sample (point) support, which has already been calculated during the 3.3.1 Punctual Histogram
224
Modeling. The block anamorphosis Block 5m*5m (which includes a change of support correction)
should not be used here.
Variographic analysis of the gaussian sample grades (the name of the variogram model will be
Point Gaussian V)
Simulate the SMU grades (5 m x 5 m blocks) with Turning Bands (TB) or Sequential Gaussian
(SGS) method with the following parameters:
m
Block mode
Starting index: 1
Seed for Random Number Generator: leave the default number 423141. This seed is supposed to be a large prime number; the same seed allows reproducibility of realizations.
The neighborhood and other parameters specific to each method will be detailed in the relevant
paragraph.
l
Calculation of the QTM variables for both techniques (described for TB): ore Tonnage T (i.e
SMU proportion within each panel), metal Quantity Q, and mean grade M of blocks above 600
ppm among each 20 m x 20 m panel (M = Q / T). The panel mean grades can not be averaged
directly on the 100 simulations: the mean grade is not additive because it refers to different tonnages (the tonnage may differ between different simulations). Therefore it has to be weighed by
the ore proportion T. One way to do this is to use an accumulation variable for each panel:
m
calculate the ore proportion T and the metal quantity Q (the metal quantity is the accumulation variable: Q = T x M) for each simulation
calculate the average (T) and average (Q) of the 100 simulations
calculate the average mean grade: average (M) = average (Q) / average (T)
Non Linear
225
Raw V. A variogram model using 3 structures has been fitted and saved under the name Point
Gaussian V:
Variogram : Gaussian V
1.25
1.00
N160
0.75
0.50
N250
0.25
0.00
50
100
150
Distance (m)
Isatis
Model : 3 basic structure(s)
Global rotation = (Az=-70.00, Ay= 0.00, Ax= 0.00)
S1 - Nugget effect, Sill =
0.13
S2 - Spherical - Range = 20.00m, Sill =
0.3
Directional Scales = (
20.00m,
40.00m)
S3 - Spherical - Range = 40.00m, Sill =
0.6
Directional Scales = (
86.00m,
40.00m)
(fig. 3.5-1)
226
(snap. 3.5-1)
Neighborhood...: create a new neighborhood parameter file named octants for TB. Press Edit...
and from the Load... button reload the parameters from the octants neighborhood. We are now
going to optimize the block discretization: press the ... button next to Block Discretization: the
Discretization Parameters window pops up where the number of discretization points along the
x,y,z directions may be defined. These numbers are set to their default value (5 x 5 x 1). Press
Calculate Cvv, the following appears in the message window (values differ at each run due to the
randomization process):
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227
Regular discretization: 5 x 5 x 1
In order to account for the randomization, 11 trials are performed
(the first value will be kept for the Kriging step)
Variables
Gaussian V
Cvv =
0.811792
Cvv =
0.809978
Cvv =
0.812136
Cvv =
0.811752
Cvv =
0.810842
Cvv =
0.812900
Cvv =
0.808768
Cvv =
0.811977
Cvv =
0.810781
Cvv =
0.810921
Cvv =
0.812400
11 mean block covariances have been calculated with 11 different randomizations. The minimum value is 0.808768 and the maximum is 0.812900; the maximum relative variability is
approximately 0.5% which is more than acceptable: the 5 x 5 discretization is a very good
approximation of the punctual support and may be optimized.
Note - Note that, for reproducibility purposes, the first value of Cvv will be kept for the simulations
calculation
For optimization, we decrease the number of discretization points to 3x3:
228
(snap. 3.5-2)
Regular discretization: 3 x 3 x 1
In order to account for the randomization, 11 trials are performed
(the first value will be kept for the Kriging step)
Variables
Gaussian V
Cvv =
0.809870
Cvv =
0.814197
Cvv =
0.808329
Cvv =
0.812451
Cvv =
0.819093
Cvv =
0.809922
Cvv =
0.814171
Cvv =
0.811332
Cvv =
0.805993
Cvv =
0.806053
Cvv =
0.807459
The minimum value is 0.805993 and the maximum value is 0.819093: the maximum relative
variability is approximately 1.6%. As expected, it has increased but remains acceptable: therefore, the 3 x 3 discretization is a good compromise and will be kept for the simulations (i.e each
simulated block value will be the average of 3 x 3 = 9 simulated points). Press Close then OK
for the neighborhood definition window.
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229
Number of Turning Bands: 300. The more turning bands, the more precise are the realizations
but CPU time increases. Too few turning bands would create visible 1D-line artefacts.
230
True V
300
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
200
150
100
50
50
250
200
Y (m)
250
Y (m)
Simu V TB[00002]
300
ppm
150
100
50
50
N/A
Simu V TB[00030]
300
300
250
250
200
200
Y (m)
Y (m)
Simu V TB[00020]
150
150
100
100
50
50
50
50
250
250
200
200
150
100
100
50
50
50
Simu V TB[00050]
300
Y (m)
Y (m)
Simu V TB[00040]
300
150
50
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231
(snap. 3.5-1)
232
300
300
1.000
0.875
250
250
0.750
200
0.625
0.500
150
0.375
Y (m)
Y (m)
200
0.250
100
0.125
50
150
100
0.000
N/A
50
50
50
X (m)
Tonnage T calculated by TB (SMU proportion) compared to the true tonnage. The color scale is
a regular 16-class grey palette between 0 and 1: panels for which there is strictly less than 1
block (i.e 0 <= proportion < 0.0625) are white.
true grade above 600
300
ppm
300
1000
250
950
250
900
200
850
800
150
750
700
100
Y (m)
Y (m)
200
150
100
650
50
600
N/A
50
50
50
(fig. 3.5-1)
Non Linear
1000
rho=0.936
1.0
233
0.5
0.0
rho=0.869
900
800
700
600
0.0
0.5
1.0
600
700
800
900
1000
(fig. 3.5-2)
Scatter diagrams of ore tonnage and mean grade above 600 ppm between
the mean of 100 TB simulations and the true values of panels.
Interpolate / Conditional Simulation / Sequential Gaussian / Standard Neighborhood...: a standard elliptical neighborhood is used taking the point data & the previously simulated grid nodes
into account.
We will use the standard neighborhood option because it is more accurate from a theoretical point
of view, and moreover the Block simulation is possible (automatic averaging of point values).
3.5.5.4 Simulations
Open Interpolate / Conditional Simulations / Sequential Gaussian / Standard neighborhood.... and
enter the same parameters described in the workflow summary ( 3.5.2):
234
(snap. 3.5-1)
Non Linear
235
The Gaussian Back Transformation is enabled with the Point anamorphosis function
Special Model Options...: by default, a Simple Kriging (SK) is performed using a constant
mean equal to zero
Neighborhood...: create a new neighborhood named octants for SGS with the following parameters (you may load the parameters from the octants for TB parameter file):
(snap. 3.5-2)
m
Optimum Number of Samples per Sector: 4, which adds to a maximum of 32 samples. Theoretically, the SGS technique would require a unique neighborhood and use all the previously simulated grid nodes to reproduce exactly the variogram; in practice, it is impossible,
so it is recommended to increase the Optimum Number in respect to the Optimum Number of
Already Simulated Node (to be defined below in the main SGS window) and the capacity of
the computer.
236
in the Advanced tab, set the Minimum distance between two samples to 2 m; as two different
sets of data are used to condition the simulations (i.e the actual data points combined with
the previously simulated grid nodes), this minimum distance criterion avoids fictitious
duplicates between original data points and simulated grid nodes. It allows also to spread
conditioning data for a better reproducibility of the variogram.
Optimum Number of Already Simulated Node: 16. This means that the software will load all the
real samples and the 16 closest already simulated nodes in memory for the search neighborhood
algorithm. The maximum number of samples being 32, there will be 16 real samples used for
each node simulation, as for the Turning Bands method. The TEST window allows to evaluate
the impact of these different parameters on the neighborhood.
Leave the other parameters to their default values and press RUN
Note - Isatis offers the possibility to perform the different simulations with independent paths
(optional toggle in the main SGS window). By default, this toggle is set OFF, meaning that the same
random path is used for all simulations: the independency is no more certain, but the algorithm is
much quicker. If the toggle is set ON, the CPU time will approximately be multiplied by the number
of simulations. Here, it has been checked that both options show negligible differences in the final
results.
The resulting outcomes are very similar to the TB method.
Non Linear
237
(snap. 3.5-1)
238
300
300
1.000
0.875
250
250
0.750
200
0.625
0.500
150
0.375
0.250
100
0.125
50
Y (m)
Y (m)
200
150
100
0.000
N/A
50
50
50
X (m)
(fig. 3.5-1)
300
300
ppm
250
950
200
200
900
850
150
800
100
750
50
650
700
50
600
N/A
Y (m)
Y (m)
250
1000
150
100
50
50
(fig. 3.5-2)
Non Linear
rho=0.938
1000
true grade above 600
1.0
239
0.5
0.0
rho=0.870
900
800
700
600
0.0
0.5
1.0
600
700
800
900
1000
(fig. 3.5-3)
Scatter diagrams of ore tonnage and mean grade above 600 ppm between
the mean of 100 SGS and the true values of panels
We observe that SGS simulations give very similar results to TB and are also well correlated to the
reality.
240
3.6 Conclusions
The objective of the case study was to illustrate several non linear methods (global and local) to
estimate recoverable resources, and compare them to linear kriging. All methods take the same support effect for 5 m x 5 m blocks into account, but only a few take the information effect into
account. Therefore, we will first focus on results without information effect.
Non Linear
241
(snap. 3.6-1)
Repeat the same for DK and UC, and change the curve parameters and labels for optimal visibility.
By clicking on the graphic windows below, ask for the following Grade Tonnage curves: Mean
grade vs. cut-off, Total tonnage vs. cut-off, Metal tonnage vs. cut-off and Metal tonnage vs. Total
tonnage. The graphics are presented here below:
242
1250
Mean Grade
1000
750
500
250
250
500
750
Cutoff
1000
True
OK
Block 5*5
IK
DK
UC
(fig. 3.6-1)
100
90
Total Tonnage
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
250
500
750
Cutoff
1000
True
OK
Block 5*5
IK
DK
UC
(fig. 3.6-2)
Non Linear
243
Metal Tonnage
250
200
150
100
50
0
250
500
750
Cutoff
1000
True
OK
Block 5*5
IK
DK
UC
(fig. 3.6-3)
Metal Tonnage
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 10
Total Tonnage
True
OK
Block 5*5
IK
DK
UC
(fig. 3.6-4)
244
The True curve is black and represented with a bold line type. We clearly see that the OK tonnage
curves are shifted compared to others: linear kriging induces a significant smoothing effect despite
a refined sampling and a good coverage of the domain.
All non linear methods provide similar and suitable results; a zoom centered on V = 600 allows
a more precise comparison around this particular cut-off:
800
13
790
12
Total Tonnage
Mean Grade
780
770
760
750
740
90
Metal Tonnage
10
730
720
11
80
70
Cutoff
78
77
76
75
74
60
73
525 550 575 600 625 650
Cutoff
(fig. 3.6-5)
Grade-Tonnage curves with a zoom on the 600 ppm cutoff of interest (same legend)
Little differences are noticeable: IK overestimates the grades whereas DK overestimates the tonnages.
Non Linear
245
As we had to choose a particular cut-off for comparing these methods with SV and simulations, we
have chosen V = 600 and the global results according to this cut-off are presented hereafter.
246
use Statistics / Quick statistics 8 times on each grade variable of each method with the relevant tonnage as the Weight variable:
|
|
|
|
|
Q
77.95
67.92
72.03
69.20
|
|
|
|
|
T
10.38
9.01
9.69
9.17
|
|
|
|
|
M
750.67
754.11
743.05
754.60
For the cut-off V = 600 ppm, UC has correctly quantified the information effect.
Non Linear
247
The table below summarizes the main results for the error on tonnages:
248
The table below summarizes the main results for metal quantity:
2D Estimation
4.2D Estimation
249
250
Tools / Accumulation: Compulsory step to derive additive variables from the grade: Accumulation and Thickness.
File / Data File Manager/Modify 2D-3D: Transform the 3D data to 2D. It amounts to a flattening process.
Statistics / Exploratory Data Analysis: QA/QC tool. Display the experimental distributions.
File / Create Grid file: Builds the 2D grid on which the estimation will be performed.
File / Selection/From Polygons: Selection definition menu. Define the area of interest (AOI)
based on a polygon file.
Statistics / Variogram Fitting: Variogram modelling tool. Compute the Thickness and Accumulation variograms, independently.
Statistics / Variogram Fitting: Define the variogram model, this time for co-kriging.
Statistics / Statistics / Principal Component Analysis: Check the consistency different methods consistency using the PCA built-in tool on the results.
2D Estimation
251
(snap. 4.8-1)
252
(snap. 4.8-2)
Note - Isatis computes two thickness variables, Analysed length and Total length, the former being
the length of samples, analysed for Fe, and the latter the length of the entire drillhole. At this stage
a decision has to be made because the thickness is unique and not subject to the presence of grade
analysis, consequently it is compulsory to refer the accumulation to the same thickness and not only
2D Estimation
253
to the analysed length. Failing doing that would result in underestimating the grade by dividing the
accumulation by a thickness larger than the analysed one.
We have then normalized the accumulation by the ratio Total length by Analysed length. This
operation is equivalent to set the value of the non-analysed sample to the average value of the drillhole. This operation is performed using the calculator: File / Calculator.
(snap. 4.8-3)
254
Go to File / Data File Manager, then right-click on the Header file and select Modify 2D 3D. This
is important because the space dimension directly impacts several subsequent computations,
including the duplicates masking.
(snap. 4.8-4)
At this point, the duplicates should be masked off as they may cause kriging inversion error, and
degrade the global statistics. Use Tools / Look for Duplicates.
2D Estimation
255
(snap. 4.8-5)
The resulting variables histograms can be displayed using the EDA: Statistics / Exploratory Data
Analysis. The accumulation and thickness histogram can be computed directly. If one is also interested in the mean Fe grade along each line, it can be reconstructed as the ratio between accumulation and length (use File/Calculator).
256
(snap. 4.8-6)
From top to bottom and left to right. Fe Accumulation histogram; Total length histogram; Fe grade
weighted by Total Thickness histogram; Accumulation vs. Total Thickness cross-plot, note that the
correlation coefficient is close to 1.
2D Estimation
257
(snap. 4.8-7)
258
(snap. 4.8-8)
The 2D grid file is built so that each data is at centre of one block
To restrict the study to the area of interest (AOI), a polygonal selection based on the outline of the
orebody is applied on the grid. The coordinates of the polygon vertices are stored in an ASCII file
polygon_AOI.asc.
To use it, first create a new polygon file: File / Polygons Editor / Application menu / New Polygon
File. Then import the file: Application menu / ASCII Import And finally: Application menu / SAVE
and RUN.
To select the blocks on the grid file use: File / Selection / From Polygons.
2D Estimation
259
260
(snap. 4.8-9)
2D Estimation
261
4.9 2D Estimations
Four methods will be run and compared.
4.9.1 Kriging
Let us start with the independent kriging of thickness and accumulation.
(snap. 4.9-1)
Experimental and model variograms of the thickness (Total length). Parameters are given in following table.
262
1.
Nugget
Effect
RangeU
RangeV
SillThickness
2.
Spherical
3.
Spherical
650m
400m
1.1
700m
1150m
2.7
(snap. 4.9-2)
Experimental and model variograms of the accumulation (Accu Fe corrected). Parameters are
given in following table.
2D Estimation
263
1.
Nugget
Effect
RangeU
RangeV
SillAccuFe
1870
2.
Spherical
3.
Spherical
650m
350m
3176
720m
1230m
11000
This tutorial will not deal with the non-stationary structure along the EW direction, which is
ignored during the fitting.
4.9.1.2 Kriging
Thickness and accumulation are kriged in turn (Interpolate / Estimation / (Co-)Kriging).
(snap. 4.9-1)
264
(snap. 4.9-2)
4.9.2 Co-Kriging
The most classical method to estimate the accumulation and the thickness is the co-kriging. It takes
into account the statistical link between accumulation and thickness through the cross-variogram.
2D Estimation
265
(snap. 4.9-1)
simple and cross-variograms resemblance allows us to sensibly assume a linear model of co-regionalization, consisting of a nugget effect, and of two spherical structures, detailed in table 3. The
directions of anisotropy of the model are the directions of calculation of the experimental variograms, i.e. N90 and N0.
266
(snap. 4.9-2)
Experimental and modelled variograms in NS and EW directions for thickness and accumulation.The models are described in the following table.
1.
Nugget
Effect
RangeU
RangeV
SillAccuFe
SillThickness
SillThickness/AccuFe
2150
15.2%
0.95
20.9%
41
16.7%
2.
Spherical
3.
Spherical
480m
600m
7000
49.5%
1.8
39.6%
110
44.9%
1150m
600m
5000
35.3%
1.8
39.6%
94
38.4%
2D Estimation
267
Note that the simpler intrinsic correlation model cannot be used, because the relative sills of the different variogram structures are not equal, and the variogram sills are thus not proportional.
4.9.2.4 Co-kriging
Thickness and accumulation can now be co-kriged: Interpolate / Estimation / (Co-)Kriging (figure
15).
(snap. 4.9-1)
268
(snap. 4.9-1)
The strong correlation between Accumulation and Thickness would allow the use of the residual
model on this dataset.
The relationship can be expressed as follow:
(eq. 4.9-1)
Where Thickness and Residual are uncorrelated variables. In this model, the co-kriging process
amounts to the separate kriging of the Thickness and the Residual.
2D Estimation
269
(snap. 4.9-1)
A linear regression is applied to the accumulation using the thickness as the explanatory variable.
The residual is the part that is not explained by the linear regression. It is orthogonal (not correlated) to the thickness.
In our case, the results are:
And it can be checked that the residual is indeed not correlated to the Thickness. The
variograms can be modelled independently (figure 18). The Thickness variogram has
already been computed, and the parameters for the residual variogram are detailed in
table4.
270
(snap. 4.9-2)
Experimental and model variograms of the residual and the thickness. The parameters are
described in the following table:
1.
NuggetEffect
RangeU
RangeV
SillResidual
508
2.
Spherical
2500m
666m
213
2D Estimation
271
Krige the residual (Interpolate / Estimation / (Co)-Kriging) using this variogram. Iron grades can be
recovered from the Thickness variable and the residual:
(eq. 4.9-1)
(eq. 4.9-2)
(snap. 4.9-3)
Once the additive variables (thickness and accumulation or thickness and residual), are estimated,
the Fe grade can be calculated applying the inverse transformation.
272
2D Estimation
273
(snap. 4.9-1)
From left to right and top to bottom. Comparison of Fe estimation using kriging; co-kriging; and
the residual method. All result are weighted by the thickness. Because the Fe grades are defined on
different supports (varying thickness), histograms have to be weighted by the thickness variable
(Statistics / Exploratory Data Analaysis / Compute Using the Weigth Variable option). Global statistics (figure 20) show that each estimation method yields a mean value consistent with the data.
The kriging method gives the highest standard deviation, and the residual method the lowest.
274
(snap. 4.9-2)
2D Estimation
275
Kriging and co-kriging give locally very similar results, while the residual model wanders a bit
more, especially for low values.
276
(eq. 4.9-1)
As usual, when computing the Fe grade standard deviation histogram, dont forget to weight it with
the thickness variable (Statistics / Exploratory Data Analysis / Compute Using the Weight Variable
option).
2D Estimation
277
(snap. 4.9-1)
278
(snap. 4.9-2)
(snap. 4.9-3)
2D Estimation
279
(snap. 4.9-4)
Comparison of Fe kriging error using kriging, co-kriging (both weighted by the thickness), and
residual method
Kriging errors are fairly close to one another. As expected, the error is lower for the co-kriging than
for the kriging. It also appears that the error of the residual method is higher than the co-kriging
one. The calculation of its value is, however, more complicated and for simplicity sake will not be
detailed here.
280
2D Estimation
281
4.10 3D Estimation
Grades in thin deposits that can stem from weathering process for example (Ni, Mn) can be efficiently estimated with a 2D kriging: flattening of surfaces is implicit, and there is no need to
model the footwall and hanging wall surfaces. On the other hand, this method requires that the
grade is decomposed into two additive variables. For comparison purposes, the 3D estimation
process is briefly presented hereafter.
282
(snap. 4.10-1)
2D Estimation
283
Make sure this new variable is of type length, this will be compulsory later on, to create the 3D
selection. If necessary, use File / Data File Manager / Variable / Format (or right click on the
variable), and change it to Length, unit meters.
As usual, use Statistics / EDA to compute the experimental variogram, and Statistics / Variogram Fitting to fit the model. Then Interpolate / Estimation / (Co)-Kriging to perform the estimation.
(snap. 4.10-2)
Experimental and model variogram of the elevation of the hanging wall. The following table
describes the parameters of the model.
1.
Nugget
Effect
RangeU
RangeV
SillZhangingwall
2.
Spherical
3.
Spherical
300m
400m
13
1360m
1200m
55
284
(snap. 4.10-3)
Compute a footwall estimate from the hanging wall and the thickness
Then use the tool in File / Selection / From Surfaces (figure 26) to compute the 3D selection. Use
the same 2D polygon file as before. Figure 27 shows the result in the 3D viewer.
2D Estimation
285
(snap. 4.10-4)
286
(snap. 4.10-5)
2D Estimation
287
(snap. 4.10-6)
Experimental and model variograms of Fe along two horizontal directions (red and green,
range 62.5 m) and along the drillholes (purple, range 1 m).
1.
Nugget
Effect
RangeU
RangeV
RangeW
SillFe
24m
2.
Spherical
3.
Spherical
0.50m
377m
236m
6.2
473m
174m
7.0m
17
For the estimation, use a moving neighbourhood with the following parameters:
- A search ellipsoid with maximum distances (600 m, 400 m, 30 m) in the (U, V, W) directions.
- Anisotropic distances.
- 5 samples minimum.
- 4 angular sectors.
- An optimum of 15 samples per sector.
- Selection of all the samples in the target block
The Fe grade estimated in 3D can be averaged on the 2D grid in order to compare it with the 2D
estimation: Tools / Copy Statistics / Grid -> Grid.
288
(snap. 4.10-7)
Estimated values of 3D blocks of a same column of blocks are averaged on a single 2D block. This
operation is similar to the accumulation calculation.
2D Estimation
289
(snap. 4.11-1)
Graphic of Factor 2 vs. Factor 1 and Factor 3 vs. factor 2 (F1 representing 93% of the variance,
resp. F2 5% and F3 1.7%) obtained from the PCA analysis of the four different estimates. All estimates show a good correlation although Fe Residual and Fe est 3D seem globally less consistent.
A PCA analysis is performed to compare the different estimates using the menu Statistics / Statistics / Principal Component Analysis. Fe Kriging and Fe Co-Kriging are very close while Fe Residual and Fe est 3D seem globally less consistent.
290