Guide to the concrete durable

Chapter 3 - item 4.1, 4.2, 4.3

HORMIGON fresh:
With regard to the water dosing cement:
For the smooth cement pastes is needed w/cm approximately 0.4 to
moisturize all. If the w/cm is lower than 0.4, there will always be cement
without moisturize, because there is not enough water in the mixture.
If the w/cm is greater than 0.4, there will be spaces capillaries occupied by
water.
If the w/cm is 0.4, the capillary pores become discontinuous after
approximately 3 days;
To w/CM 0.8 or higher, they will never be discontinuous (Powers 1959).

Placement and Consolidation

It was demonstrated that the impact of concrete that falls freely through air
sections of vertical pipe can reduce the contents of air, which can be a
specific less resistant to freezing and thawing
The strength and durability of the concrete can be significantly
affected by the use of incorrect placement, finishing, and curing
techniques while the concrete is in the state non-hardened. With
the proportions of suitable mixtures of concrete that are placed
correctly, consolidated, finishing, curing, test and inspection will
help to ensure that the characteristics of durability desired were
achieved.
Chapter 4 - item 4.1
Freezing and thawing of the Concrete
The dry concrete (usually below approximately 75 to 80% relative humidity
internal) normally is immune to the damage by freezing.

Frost attack to concrete made with durable aggregates

Description of the frost damage
The concrete in the early stages of hydration contains a considerable
amount of water congelable, together with little or no resistance to traction.
Concrete in this condition, which is allowed to freeze, will develop ice
crystals approximately parallel to the surface exposed to the freeze.
In the picture we see the shelling of a concrete surface ; as a
result of their exposure to freezing and thawing cycles.

Damage in particular curing

In general, the layers of less than 1 mm (0.04 in .) thickness is lost, but
repeated cycles of freezing and thawing.
Consequences of cracking include: changes in the appearance, change in
the smoothness of the surface and, in serious cases, the loss of the
concrete cover on the reinforcing steel.
The cracking (cracking) of the pavements, caused by the
deterioration by freezing-thawing of the aggregate in the concrete,
is called of cracking in D. This type of cracking has been observed
in some pavements after three or more years of service.

Table 4.1: air content recommended for reinforced concrete

resistant to freezing and thawing.
Nominal maximum
Average content of air.(%)

size of the
aggregate
9.5 (3/8)
12.5 (1/2)

Severe
Exposure
7--1/2
7

Moderate
Exposure
6
5--1/2

19.0 (3/4)

25.0 (1)

4--1/2

37.5 (1-1/2)
50 (2)
75 (3)

5--1/2
5
4--1/2

4--1/2
4
3--1/2

EROSION BY chemical attacks (ACI 210R)

Chapter 4 - item 4.1, 4.2, 4.3
Chapter 4-EROSION BY chemical attack
4.1 Sources of chemical attacks.
The compounds present in the hardened portland cement are attacked by
the water and by many solutions of acid and salt; fortunately, in the majority
of hydraulic structures, the harmful action in a mass of hardened portland
cement with low permeability is so slow that it is irrelevant. However, there
are situations where the chemical attack can be serious and accelerate the
degradation and erosion of the concrete.
Acid environments can result in the deterioration of the concrete surfaces
exposed. The acidic environment can range from low concentrations of free
acid of minerals found in the water with a high concentration of acids found
in many processing plants. Alkaline environments can also cause
deterioration of concrete. In the presence of moisture, alkaline soils
containing sulphates of magnesium, sodium and calcium particular
attack, forming chemical compounds that imbibe water and swell and
may damage the concrete. The hydrogen sulfide corrosion, a form of acid
attack septic tank, is common in the health systems. Under certain
conditions, this corrosion can be very serious and cause premature failure of
a health system.
4.2 erosion by water free of minerals
Hydrated Lime is one of the compounds formed the cement and water are
combined. It dissolves easily in water and more aggressively dissolved by
pure water free of minerals found in some mountain streams. The
dissolved carbon dioxide is found in some fresh water in sufficient
quantity to make the water slightly acidic and add to its
aggressiveness. The Scandinavian countries have reported serious attacks
by fresh water, both in concrete surfaces exposed and the interior surfaces
of the passages in which the porosity or cracks have provided access. In the
United States, there are many cases in which the surface of
the concrete has been recorded by the fresh water that flows over it, but

serious damage by this cause is infrequent (Holland et al. 1980). This

engraving is particularly evident in hydraulic structures carrying the runof
from high mountain streams in the Rocky Mountains and the Cascade
Mountains of the central and western part of the United States. A survey of
1951 (ICOLD) of the chemical composition of the raw wter in many
reservoirs throughout the United States almost neutral indicates an acid alkaline (pH) of the greater part of these waters.
4.3 The erosion caused by various causes
4.1. Acidic environments: decaying vegetation is the most frequent
source of acidity in natural waters. The breakdown of certain minerals can
be a source of acidity in some localities. The water has a pH as low as 6.5
that leaked out cal of concrete, reducing its strength by what is more porous
and less resistant to freezing and thawing and other chemical actions. The
number of filtered cal of concrete is a function of the exposed area of the
volume of the concrete. Small diameter drains will deteriorate in a few years
when exposed to water slightly acidic, while the structures of pipe and with
very much volume will not be damaged significantly during many years
under the same exposure, provided that the cover on the reinforcement
steel complies with the normal standards of design.
Waters that flow of peat beds can have a pH as low as 5. This force acid
attack aggressively concrete, and for this reason, when the means
of
transport
to
groundwater
are
being
designed,
the
aggressiveness of the water must be examined in order to
determine its compatibility with concrete. This is particularly true in
the pressure pipes.
4.2. Bacterial action: Most of the literature that addresses the problem of
concrete deterioration resulting from bacterial action has evolved due to the
great impact of this mechanism corrosive to the sewerage systems of
concrete. This is a serious problem that, as Rigdon and Beardsley (1958)
noted, occurs more easily in warm climates like California, USA; Australia;
and South Africa. This problem also occurs at the end of drive lines of
wastewater in the long pumped into the northern climates (Pomeroy, 1974).
The reduction of the sulfur bacteria belong to the genus of bacteria that
derives the energy for their life processes of the reduction of some element
other
than
carbon,
such
as
nitrogen,
sulfur,
or
iron
(Rigdon and Beardsley 1958). Some of these bacteria are able to reduce the
sulphates which are present in natural waters and produce hydrogen sulfide
as a waste product. These bacteria, as indicated by Wetzel (1975), are
anaerobic.
Another group of bacteria takes the reduced sulfur and oxidizes again so as
to form sulfuric acid. The genus Thiobacillus bacteria is sulfur oxidizers that
is more destructive for concrete. Has a remarkable tolerance to acid. The
concentrations of sulfuric acid until the 5 percent do not inhibit their full
activity.
The sulfur-oxidizing bacteria are likely to be found where the heat, humidity
and reduced sulfur compounds are present. It is usually requires a free
water surface, in combination with low dissolved oxygen levels in

wastewater and low speeds that allow the accumulation of slag in the walls
of a tube in which the anaerobic sulfur reducing bacteria can thrive. Certain
conditions must prevail before the bacteria can produce hydrogen sulfide
from water rich in sulphate. Sufficient moisture must be present to prevent
the drying of the bacteria. There must be an adequate supply of hydrogen
sulfide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen compounds and oxygen. In addition, the
soluble compounds of phosphorus, iron and other elements must be present
in the film of moisture.
Chapter 7 - item 7.1, 7.2, 7.3
Chapter 7-CONTROL OF EROSION BY chemical attacks.
7.1 Control of Erosion by water free of minerals
The possible attack mild acid with pure water rarely develops in
deterioration which may cause serious structural damage. Generally, the
water free of minerals are leached mortar on surfaces exposed to this water.
This can be seen in the exposed surfaces and in the joints and cracks in
the concrete. As the surface the mortar is leached from the concrete, more
coarse aggregate is exposed, which naturally decreases the amount of
mortar exposed. With less exposed, mortar less leaching occurs and
therefore serious structural problems do not usually cause. The gradual
erosion of the leachate mortar can be minimized through the use of special
cements, besides pozzolana for mixtures, or the use of a variety of
protective coatings and sealants applied to concrete surfaces (Tuthill 1966).
SIKA ADDITIVE WT-100

Cement PUZOLANICO

7.2-Check the erosion caused by the action of bacteria

The process of generation of sulfur in a sanitary sewer when there is not
enough dissolved oxygen is present in wastewater has been discussed and
illustrated by a ASCE-WPCF Joint Task Force (1982). This original work was
carried out by Pomeroy (1974). Continuous work by Pomeroy and Parkhurst,
1977, developed a quantitative method for the prediction of sulfur.
Engineers involved in projects of this nature would be wise to also review

the recommendations set out in the manual of the tube of concrete of

ACPA.
Concrete ducts have served in the sewerage systems for many years
without serious damage in the systems were designed and operated
properly. The minimum speed of the adequate airflow in the sewerage
network for the force and the temperature of the wastewater are generally 2
ft/s (0.6 m/sec). Ofer this speed without undue turbulence and provide
adequate ventilation of the sewers will usually prevent the erosion caused
by the action of bacteria. The Turbulence is to be avoided because it is an
H,S by releasing the mechanism.
Where the conditions are such that the generation of H,S cannot be totally
eliminated by the design of the system and then other means may be
applied, such as:
1) The use of hydrogen peroxide or chlorine compounds to convert the
WPCF H,S (1979).

2) Enter compressed air to keep cool of wastewater, and therefore

prevent the development of the anaerobic environment;
3) Using a tube resistant to acid as vitrified clay or polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) pipe;
4) Using acid-resisting liners in the crown of sewers; and/or
Table 7.1- cement types recommended for use in concrete when
mixing the water contains sulphates

5) Increase the specific section to allow a sacrificial thickness based on

predict erosion rates.
Graphical methods have been published to determine the accumulation of
sulfur in sanitary sewers, using equations (Kienow Pomeroy-Parkhurst et al.
1982). Parker (1951) lists the following corrective measures for the control
of H,S attack in sewers of concrete:

I. Potential reduction of generation

Reduced flow
Partial Purification
Chemical dosage to increase the oxidation (but in addition of nitrates
is impractical)
Aeration
Chlorination
Removal of silt and sludge.
Speed Increase
II. Emissions
Reduction of turbulence
Treatment with salts of heavy metals (Cu, Fe, Zn)
The treatment with alkali
Maximum flow in Alcantarilla
III. H2S in the setting of concrete ventilation
Periodic wetting
The use of concrete resistant
Ammoniation
The use of protective coatings
The designer before the reduction of the bacterial action should be aware
that a) The chlorination may, under certain circumstances, be unlawful,
because it can produce trihalomethanes, a known carcinogen; and (b) may
also be illegal to add lead salts (which are usually the only cost-efective
option) or other salts of heavy metals in wastewater.
The lining of the tube of concrete, walls and duct with polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) sheets is an efective method of protecting the concrete and the
reduction of the roughness of the surface. This technique has been used
commercially for many years.
The designer must carefully assess whether the composition and the
thickness of the brake linings of vinyl are appropriate for each application.
More information on remedial measures to sewerage systems is available in
the USA. Publication of the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA/625/185/018 (1985).
7.3-erosion control by various chemical causes
7.3.1 acid environments-without portland cement, regardless of their
other ingredients, resists the attack of water with high concentration of
acids. When a strong acid corrosion is indicated, other materials of
construction or a suitable coating or treatment must be used. This can
include applications of sulfurconcrete dressings, epoxy coatings, polymer,
impregnation of linseed oil, treatments, or other processes, each of which
afects the resistance to acid diferently. The replacement of a part of
the Portland cement by an adequate amount of pozzolana selected for that
property can improve the resistance of concrete to weak acid attack. In
addition, the limestone or dolomite aggregates have been found to be

beneficial
to
extend
the
life
of
structures
exposed
to
acid Biczok attack ( 1967).
Deterioration similar to what happens in the crown of sewers has also
produced above the level of the water in the tunnels that drain the waters of
the lakes that contain sulfur and other materials that are susceptible to the
formation of hydrogen sulphide by the action of bacteria.
PVC liners can also be used to control the degradation and erosion of
concrete in acid environments.

7.3.2
Reaction
alkali-added
and
chloride
concrete
mixes: deterioration caused by the reaction alkali-aggregate and by
mixtures of chloride in the concrete mix is not included in this
discussion. TuthiIl (1966) and ACI 201.2R provide information on these
topics.

7.3.3 The soil and groundwater: sulphates of sodium, magnesium and

calcium, frequently encountered in the "alkali" ground and waters to the
west of the United States attack aggressively concrete. ACI 201.2R explains
this in detail. The use of type V sulfate-resisting the cement, which is low in
the tricalcium aluminate (C2A), it is always recommended that sulphate in
the water is within the ranges listed for use in Table 7.1. The topic of
designing a mixture of sulphate resistant concrete is complex.
There is general agreement that the limitation of the C3A content of cement
in the range of 3 to 5 percent, as in a cement type V, is beneficial. But the
same could be said of types I or II, cement, where the C3A content is so
restricted. Other issues that are also important. Include: Restrict the
content tetracalcium aluminoferrite (C4AF)1 to 10 percent; the provision of
air entrainment (a mixture of air mixed with cement type II may be more
resistant to sulfate as non-air blended mix with cement type V);
replacement of 20 to 30 percent of the cement content with pozzolana or fly
ash; and through a rich mixture, with the water-cement ratio restricted to
0.50. The use of the shrinkage compensation, made with Cementos Type II
or V of portland cement clinker and adequately sulfated, sulphate of
concrete which produces resistance equal or greater tanning portland
cement clinker facts of the same type (Mehta and Polivka 1975). Table 7.1
lists the types of cement recommended for the relevant content of sulphate.