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17 Generator and
Generator Transformer Protection
Introduction
17.1
Generator earthing
17.2
17.3
17.4
Differential protection of
direct-connected generators
17.5
17.6
Overcurrent protection
17.7
17.8
Overvoltage protection
17.9
17.11
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17 Generator and
Generator-Transformer P rotection
17.1 INTRODUCTION
The core of an electric power system is the generation.
With the exception of emerging fuel cell and solar-cell
technology for power systems, the conversion of the
fundamental energy into its electrical equivalent
normally requires a 'prime mover' to develop mechanical
power as an intermediate stage.
The nature of this machine depends upon the source of
energy and in turn this has some bearing on the design
of the generator. Generators based on steam, gas, water
or wind turbines, and reciprocating combustion engines
are all in use. Electrical ratings extend from a few
hundred kVA (or even less) for reciprocating engine and
renewable energy sets, up to steam turbine sets
exceeding 1200MVA.
Small and medium sized sets may be directly connected
to a power distribution system. A larger set may be
associated with an individual transformer, through
which it is coupled to the EHV primary transmission
system.
Switchgear may or may not be provided between the
generator and transformer. In some cases, operational
and economic advantages can be attained by providing
a generator circuit breaker in addition to a high voltage
circuit breaker, but special demands will be placed on
the generator circuit breaker for interruption of
generator fault current waveforms that do not have an
early zero crossing.
A unit transformer may be tapped off the
interconnection between generator and transformer for
the supply of power to auxiliary plant, as shown in
Figure 17.1. The unit transformer could be of the order
of 10% of the unit rating for a large fossil-fuelled steam
set with additional flue-gas desulphurisation plant, but
it may only be of the order of 1% of unit rating for a
hydro set.
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Generator
Main transformer
HV busbars
Unit transformer
Auxiliary
supplies switchboard
c. overvoltage
d. unbalanced loading
e. overfluxing
f. inadvertent energisation
e. rotor electrical faults
f. loss of excitation
g. loss of synchronism
h. failure of prime mover
j. lubrication oil failure
l. overspeeding
m. rotor distortion
Utility
Generator
Rating: yMW
Industrial plant
main busbar
17
1. rated current
2. 200A-400A (low impedance earthing)
3. 10A-20A (high impedance earthing)
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I>
Loading
resistor
U>
Loading
resistor
I>
(d) Distribution transformer earthing
with overcurrent relay
Figure 17.3: Methods of generator earthing
283
I>>
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17
I2
B
C
Idiffff
= I1+II2
IS1
Id>
Id>
Operate
K2
K1
Restrain
Id>
IS2
IBIAS =
I1+
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Ie = CT magnetising current at Vs
Saturated CT
Protected zone
Zm
RCT1
RCT2
If
RL1
RL3
Rst
Vr
Id >
RL2
Healthy CT
RL4
17.5.3 CT Requirements
In some applications, protection may be required to limit
voltages across the CT secondary circuits when the
differential secondary current for an internal phase fault
flows through the high impedance relay circuit(s), but
this is not commonly a requirement for generator
differential applications unless very high impedance
relays are applied. Where necessary, shuntconnected,
non-linear resistors, should be deployed, as shown in
Figure 17.7.
NLR
NLR
Rst
NLR = Non-linear resistance
(Metrosil)
Figure 17.7: Relay connections for high
impedance differential protection
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17
Main
transformer
Generator
Protected zone
Id>
HV
busbars
286
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I>
KI>
Vs
Chap17-280-315
Voltage level
287
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considerations.
17.8.1.2 Sensitive earth fault protection
This method is used in the following situations:
a. direct-connected generators operating in parallel
b. generators with high-impedance neutral earthing,
the earth fault current being limited to a few tens
of amps
I>
17
KI>
VS2
VS1
Voltage level
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sum residually.
Feeder
I >
I >
Ursd
I >
* Optional interlocked
earth-fault protection
if grading problems exist
I >>
I >
Block*
Ursd >
I >
Block*
Open
Re
Re
2
Re
Va
Vb
c
Vn
1 Derived from phase neutral voltages
2 Measured from earth impedance
3 Measured from broken delta VT
Figure 17.12: Neutral voltage displacement
protection
289
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Loading
resistor
I>
17
If =
aV
R
IsR
V
%covered 1-a
Loading
resistor
U>
amin =
in
) x 1100%
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IBIAS =
(highest of IA
B,
Nx
scaling factor)
2
200
=
= 0.2
1000
(scaling factor
IN )
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17
292
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Motoring Power
(% of rated)
Possible Damage
Diesel Engine
5-25
Fire/explosion due
to unburnt fuel
Mechanical damage
to gearbox/shafts
Gas Turbine
Hydro
Steam Turbine
10-15
(split shaft)
>50%
(single shaft)
0.2-2
(blades out of water)
>2
(blades in water)
0.5-6
Protection Setting
gearbox damage
50%
of motoring
power
293
I 22t = K
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where:
I2R = negative sequence component
(per unit of MCR)
t = time (seconds)
K = constant proportional to the thermal capacity
of the generator rotor
I
M = 2 =
I2R
I2 t
1 e ( 2R )
I
2 set
t = 2 log e 1
I 2 set
I 2
10000
Equation 17.1
where:
1000
100
Indirectly cooled (air)
I flc
I 2 set = I 2 cmr
Ip
I n
Kg
17
0.01
0.01
t = time to trip
I flc
K = K g
Ip
where:
Time (sec)
0.1
1
10
Negative sequence current (p.u.)
Figure 17.16: Typical negative phase sequence
current withstand of cylindrical
rotor generators
Iflc
Ip
= CT primary current
IN
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17.14 UNDER/OVERFREQUENCY/
OVERFLUXING PROTECTION
These conditions are grouped together because these
problems often occur due to a departure from
synchronous speed.
17.14.1 Overfluxing
Overfluxing occurs when the ratio of voltage to
frequency is too high. The iron saturates owing to the
high flux density and results in stray flux occurring in
components not designed to carry it. Overheating can
then occur, resulting in damage. The problem affects
both direct-and indirectly-connected generators. Either
excessive voltage, or low frequency, or a combination of
both can result in overfluxing, a voltage to frequency
ratio in excess of 1.05p.u. normally being indicative of
this condition. Excessive flux can arise transiently, which
is not a problem for the generator. For example, a
generator can be subjected to a transiently high power
frequency voltage, at nominal frequency, immediately
after full load rejection. Since the condition would not
be sustained, it only presents a problem for the stability
Chap17-280-315
17.14.2 Under/Overfrequency
The governor fitted to the prime mover normally provides
protection against overfrequency. Underfrequency may
occur as a result of overload of generators operating on
an isolated system, or a serious fault on the power
system that results in a deficit of generation compared
to load. This may occur if a grid system suffers a major
fault on transmission lines linking two parts of the
system, and the system then splits into two. It is likely
that one part will have an excess of generation over load,
and the other will have a corresponding deficit.
Frequency will fall fairly rapidly in the latter part, and the
normal response is load shedding, either by load
shedding relays or operator action. However, prime
movers may have to be protected against excessively low
frequency by tripping of the generators concerned.
With some prime movers, operation in narrow frequency
bands that lie close to normal running speed (either
above or below) may only be permitted for short periods,
together with a cumulative lifetime duration of
operation in such frequency bands. This typically occurs
due to the presence of rotor torsional frequencies in such
frequency bands. In such cases, monitoring of the period
of time spent in these frequency bands is required. A
special relay is fitted in such cases, arranged to provide
alarm and trip facilities if either an individual or
295
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B2A
8
where:
A = area
B = flux density
Field Winding
Short Circuit
Field
winding
>
Exciter
17
Figure 17.18: Earth fault protection of field
circuit by potentiometer method
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Generator
field
winding
Exciter
L.F. injection
supply
U>
Generator
field
winding
Exciter
Injection
supply
<
Z<
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17
298
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+jX
XG
ZS
XT
EG
1.8
ES
2.0
Load point
2.5
+jX
D
Loss of field
locus
5.0
ZS
XG+
T+ZS
-R
EG
1
ES
+R
XT
ZR
-R
Chap17-280-315
EG
=1
ES
+R
XG
0.5
0.6
0.7
C
-jX
Figure 17.21: Swing curves and
loss of synchronism locus
-jX
Figure 17.20: Basic interconnected system
ZR =
( X G + X T + Z S )n (n cos j sin )
(n cos ) 2 + sin 2
XG
Equation 17.2
where:
n = EG
ES
generated
voltage
system
( X G + X T + Z S )(1 j cot 2 ) X
2
299
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17
X
Normal machine operating impedance
R
-X
Xa2
+jX
Alarm
angle
ZS
Xb2
XT
-R
-X
Xa1
Xb1
+R
'd
2X'd
Xd
Limiting
generation
point
Relay
Diameter =
d/2
-jX
Figure 17.22: Locus of limiting operating
conditions of synchronous machine
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kV 2
MVA
Xa2 = -0.5Xd
The time delay settings td2 and tdo2 are set to zero to give
instantaneous operation and reset.
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Blinder
X
ZA
P
P'
+jX
ZS
Relayingg point
Lens
T
ZB
XG
Slip locus
EG=ES
-R
+R
The width of the lens is set by the angle and the line
PP, perpendicular to the axis of the lens, is used to
determine if the centre of the impedance swing during a
transient is located in the generator or power system.
-jX
Ohm relay 2
Ohm relay 1
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Left-lens
A
ZS
Right-lens
B
Power Swing In System
O
P'
R4
R3 S
XT
R2
R1
T2
1
X
ZB
Pole Slipping
Characteristic
Blinder
If the impedance locus lies above line PP, the swing lies
far out in the power system i.e. one part of the power
system, including the protected generator, is swinging
against the rest of the network. Tripping may still occur,
but only if swinging is prolonged meaning that the
power system is in danger of complete break-up. Further
confidence checks are introduced by requiring that the
impedance locus spends a minimum time within each
zone for the pole-slipping condition to be valid. The trip
signal may also be delayed for a number of slip cycles
even if a generator pole-slip occurs this is to both
provide confirmation of a pole-slipping condition and
allow time for other relays to operate if the cause of the
pole slip lies somewhere in the power system. Should
the impedance locus traverse the zones in any other
sequence, tripping is blocked.
17.19.2 Overspeed
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17
Governor
trip
Loss of excitation
Stator winding temperature
Unbalanced loading
Excitation
circuit
breaker
Under/overvoltage
Low power
interlock
Generator
circuit
breaker
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4. overvoltage protection
17.20.2 Generator-Transformer Units
5. undervoltage protection
6. overload/low forward power/ reverse power
protection (according to prime mover type)
7. unbalanced loading
8. overheating
9. pole slipping
These units are generally of higher output than directconnected generators, and hence more comprehensive
protection is warranted. In addition, the generator
transformer also requires protection, for which the
protection detailed in Chapter 16 is appropriate
Governor
trip
Inadvertent energisation
Excitation
circuit
breaker
Buchholz
HV overcurrent
HV restricted E/F
Generator
circuit
breaker
Low power
interlock
305
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a. overvoltage
b. undervoltage
c. overfrequency
d. underfrequency
e. loss of Utility supply
In addition, particular circumstances may require
additional protection functions:
f. neutral voltage displacement
g. reverse power
h. directional overcurrent
In practice, it can be difficult to meet the protection
settings or performance demanded by the Utility without
a high risk of nuisance tripping caused by lack of coordination with normal power system faults and
disturbances that do not necessitate tripping of the
embedded generation. This is especially true when
applying protection specifically to detect loss of the
Utility supply (also called loss of mains) to cater for
operating conditions where there would be no
immediate excursion in voltage or frequency to cause
operation of conventional protection functions.
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kW
PF
6250
5000
0.8
Generator type
Salient Pole
Earthing
resistor
31.7
CT Ratio
200/1
Rated
voltage
11000
Xd p.u.
2.349
Rated
Rated
current frequency
328
50
Generator Parameters
Xd p.u.
CT Ratio
0.297
500/1
Maximum earth
fault current
200A
Network Data
Minimum phase
fault current
145A
VT Ratio
11000/110
Maximum downstream
phase fault current
850A
Existing Protection
Overcurrent Settings
Earth Fault Settings
Characteristic Setting
TMS
Characteristic Setting
TMS
SI
144A
0.176
SI
48A
0.15
328
1.05
0.95
> 362.5 A
The nearest settable value is 365A, or 0.73In.
The minimum phase-phase voltage for a close-up singlephase to earth fault is 57%, so the voltage setting Vs
must be less than this. A value of 30% is typically used,
giving Vs = 33V. The current setting multiplying factor
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87.5
0.14
s
0.02
200
1
20
1.13
= 0.38 .
2.97
Use a setting of 0.4, nearest available setting.
=2.97s, so the required TMS is
( I pe Z e ) 3
VT ratio
48 31.7 3
100
= 45.6 V
where:
= 3.01s
0.02
Chap17-280-315
1.09
= 0.362
3.01
is required. Use 0.375, nearest available setting.
17.22.1.3 Stator earth fault protection
t = K/(M-1) sec
where:
V
M =
V snvd
and
= voltage seen by relay
309
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= 227
17
The nearest settings provided by the relay are Xa = 14.5 Xb = 227. The time delay td1 should be set to
avoid relay element operation on power swings and a
typical setting of 3s is used. This value may need to be
modified in the light of operating experience. To prevent
cyclical pick-up of the relay element without tripping,
such as might occur during pole-slipping conditions, a
drop-off time delay tdo1 is provided and set to 0.5s.
17.22.1.6 Negative phase sequence current protection
This protection is required to guard against excessive
heating from negative phase sequence currents, whatever
the cause. The generator is of salient pole design, so from
IEC 60034-1, the continuous withstand is 8% of rating
and the I 22t value is 20s. Using Equation 17.1, the
required relay settings can found as I2>> = 0.05 and K =
8.6s. The nearest available values are I2>> = 0.05 and
K = 8.6s. The relay also has a cooling time constant
Kreset that is normally set equal to the value of K. To coordinate with clearance of heavy asymmetric system
faults, that might otherwise cause unnecessary operation
of this protection, a minimum operation time tmin should
be applied. It is recommended to set this to a value of 1.
Similarly, a maximum time can be applied to ensure that
the thermal rating of the generator is not exceeded (as
this is uncertain, data not available) and to take account
of the fact that the P343 characteristic is not identical
with that specified in IEC 60034. The recommended
setting for tmax is 600s.
17.22.1.7 Overvoltage protection
0.05 5 10 6
setting =
CT ratio VT ratio
0.05 5 10 6
=
500 100
=5 W
This value can be set in the relay. A time delay is
required to guard against power swings while generating
at low power levels, so use a time delay of 5s. No reset
time delay is required.
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Differential protection
Loss of excitation
Overvoltage
Underfrequency
Reverse Power
10:50
Page 311
Quantity
Value
Is1
Is2
K1
K2
Ise
TMS
Vsnvd
K
Xa
Xb
td1
tDO1
Ivcset
Vs
K
TMS
I2>>
K
Kreset
tmin
tmax
V> meas mode
V> operate mode
V>1 setting
V>1 function
V>1 time delay
V>2 setting
V>2 function
V>2 time delay
F<1 setting
F<1 time delay
F<2 setting
F<2 time delay
P1 function
P1 setting
P1 time delay
P1 DO time
5%
120%
5%
150%
0.04
0.4
48V
3.5
-14.5
227
3s
0.5s
0.73
33
0.6
0.375
0.05
8.6s
8.6s
1.5s
600s
three-phase
any
107%
DT
10s
120%
DT
0sec
49Hz
20s
48Hz
0.5s
reverse power
5W
5s
0s
Parameter
Value
Unit
MVA
MW
kV
pu
pu
pu
pu
pu
pu
pu
s
pu
Hz
MVA
pu
pu
pu
m
deg
I flt =
VN
( nR f ) + ( X d + X t + nX f ) 2
2
where:
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hence,
Iflt = 2893A
= 0.361N
and
V flt =
V N 3(( nR f ) 2 + ( X t + nX f ) 2 )
( nR f ) 2 + ( X d + X t + nX f ) 2
=1304 V
= 0.07U N
0.92 18 kV 0.1
3
17
= 956.1V
Use a value of 935.3V, nearest settable value that
ensures 90% of the winding is covered. A 0.5s definite
time delay is used to prevent spurious trips. The third
harmonic voltage under normal conditions is 2% of rated
voltage, giving a value of:
18 kV 0.02
3
= 207.8 V
Alarm: V f >1.1
Trip: V
X b2 =
X a 2 = 0.75 X d = 0.1406
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Protection
Differential protection
Overvoltage
Underfrequency
Reverse Power
Inadvertent energisation
Forward reach, ZA = Zn + Zt
= 0.02 + 0.22
= 0.24
Reverse reach, ZB = ZGen
Reverse Power
= 2 x Xd
= 0.652
Reactance line, ZC = 0.9 x Z
Overfrequency
= 0.9 x 0.22
= 0.198
where:
Underfrequency
Quantity
Value
Is1
Is2
K1
K2
8%
100%
0%
150%
166.3V
0.5s
935.3V
0.5s
-0.245
1.666
5s
-0.1406
1.725
0.5s
0s
7200A
3
14400V
3000V
0.06
10
10
1s
1300s
three-phase
any
19800V
DT
5s
23400V
DT
0.1s
reverse power
1.6MW
0.5s
0s
6000A
9000V
0.243
0.656
0.206
90
80
15ms
15ms
62Hz
30s
63.5Hz
10s
reverse power
1.6MW
0.5s
0s
59.3Hz
0.5s
58.7Hz
100s
58.2Hz
1s
Vn3H<
Vn3H delay
Vsnvd
Time Delay
Xa1
Xb1
td1
Xa2
Xb2
td2
tDO1
Iset
K
V1set
V2set
I2>>
Kg
Kreset
tmin
tmax
V> meas mode
V> operate mode
V>1 setting
V>1 function
V>1 time delay
V>2 setting
V>2 function
V>2 time delay
P1 function
P1 setting
P1 time delay
P1 DO time
Dead Mach I>
Dead Mach V<
Za
Zb
Zc
T1
T2
F>1 setting
F>1 time delay
F>2 setting
F>2 time delay
P1 function
P1 setting
P1 time delay
P1 DO time
F<1 setting
F<1 time delay
F<2 setting
F<2 time delay
F<3 setting
F<3 time delay
313
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(Z A + Z B )
and, substituting values,
min = 62.5
17.23 REFERENCES
17
314