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BioMed Research International

Volume 2013, Article ID 729349, 11 pages
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/729349

Research Article
Antibodies against Food Antigens in Patients with
Autistic Spectrum Disorders
Laura de Magistris,1 Annarita Picardi,2 Dario Siniscalco,3 Maria Pia Riccio,4
Anna Sapone,1 Rita Cariello,1 Salvatore Abbadessa,5 Nicola Medici,5 Karen M. Lammers,6
Chiara Schiraldi,7 Patrizia Iardino,8 Rosa Marotta,9 Carlo Tolone,10 Alessio Fasano,6
Antonio Pascotto,4 and Carmela Bravaccio11
1

CIRANAD, Second University of Naples, via Pansini 5, Building 3, 80131 Naples, Italy
Alimenti e Salute PhD School, CIRANAD, Second University of Naples, via Pansini 5, Building 3,
80131 Naples, Italy
3
Department of Experimental Medicine, Second University of Naples and Centre for Autism, La Forza del Silenzio,
via S. Maria di Costantinopoli 16, 80138 Naples, Italy
4
Department of Mental and Physical Health and Preventive Medicine, Second University of Naples, Largo Madonna delle Grazie 1,
80138 Naples, Italy
5
Department of General Pathology, Second University of Naples, Larghetto S. Aniello a Caponapoli 2, 80138 Naples, Italy
6
Center for Celiac Research and Mucosal Immunology and Biology Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital East,
Charlestown, MA 02129-4404, USA
7
Department of Experimental Medicine, Second University of Naples, via S. Maria di Costantinopoli 16,
80138 Naples, Italy
8
UOC Clinical and Molecular Pathology, Second University of Naples, via S. Maria di Costantinopoli 16,
80138 Naples, Italy
9
Department of Psychiatry, University of Catanzaro Magna Graecia, via T. Campanella,
88100 Catanzaro, Italy
10
Department of Woman, Children and of General and Specialistic Surgery, Second University of Naples, via L. De Crecchio 4,
80138 Naples, Italy
11
Department of Medical Translational Science, University of Naples Federico II , via Pansini 5,
80131 Naples, Italy
2

Correspondence should be addressed to Laura de Magistris; laura.demagistris@unina2.it

Received 21 April 2013; Revised 18 June 2013; Accepted 27 June 2013
Academic Editor: David Bernardo
Copyright 2013 Laura de Magistris et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution
License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly
cited.
Purpose. Immune system of some autistic patients could be abnormally triggered by gluten/casein assumption. The prevalence of
antibodies to gliadin and milk proteins in autistic children with paired/impaired intestinal permeability and under dietary regimen
either regular or restricted is reported. Methods. 162 ASDs and 44 healthy children were investigated for intestinal permeability,
tissue-transglutaminase (tTG), anti-endomysium antibodies (EMA)-IgA, and total mucosal IgA to exclude celiac disease; HLADQ2/-DQ8 haplotypes; total systemic antibodies (IgA, IgG, and IgE); specific systemic antibodies: -gliadin (AGA-IgA and IgG),
deamidatedgliadin-peptide (DGP-IgA and IgG), total specific gliadin IgG (all fractions: , , , and ), -lactoglobulin IgG, lactalbumin IgG, casein IgG; and milk IgE, casein IgE, gluten IgE, -lactoglobulin IgE, and -lactalbumin IgE. Results. AGA-IgG
and DPG-IgG titers resulted to be higher in ASDs compared to controls and are only partially influenced by diet regimen. Casein
IgG titers resulted to be more frequently and significantly higher in ASDs than in controls. Intestinal permeability was increased
in 25.6% of ASDs compared to 2.3% of healthy children. Systemic antibodies production was not influenced by paired/impaired
intestinal permeability. Conclusions. Immune system of a subgroup of ASDs is triggered by gluten and casein; this could be related
either to AGA, DPG, and Casein IgG elevated production or to impaired intestinal barrier function.

1. Introduction
Autism and autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) are complex
neurodevelopmental conditions [14]. The aetiology and
pathogenesis of ASDs are still poorly understood and the
actually available therapeutical interventions are of behavioural, developmental and educational impact; no biomedical
effective therapies are currently available.
It has been suggested that increased permeability of the
gut and blood-brain barrier might be involved in the pathogenesis of these conditions [5]. Several studies suggest that
autistic children could have an impaired gut barrier function
as testified by an elevated intestinal permeability [5, 6]; the
question if the intestinal barrier is impaired in ASD remains a
debated question [7]. The impaired intestinal barrier function
detected in ASD might predispose autistic children to sensitization to environmental antigens by allowing the passage
of dietary-derived nonself antigens in the intestinal lamina
propria, thereby triggering an immune response to these
molecules [5, 6].
Recently, we have reported that intestinal permeability is
increased in a large percentage of not-celiac autistic subjects
and that it is partially corrected by gluten/casein-free diet
regimen [8]. A 2009 review of clinical controlled studies on
this topic showed that evidence for efficacy of these diets in
ASDs is poor, and good quality randomized controlled trials
are still needed [9]; afterwards, other studies were published
partially confirming that some autistic children embracing a
gluten-free diet show improvement in symptoms and social
behaviours [1012]. The fact that removing gluten from the
diet may positively affect developmental outcome for some
children with ASD suggests that autism may be part of the
spectrum of not-celiac-gluten sensitivity (NCGS), at least in
some cases.
Immunological alterations and changes in innate and
adaptive immunity might play a role in the pathogenesis of
autism [13, 14]. Although many studies described impaired
response of immune system in ASD [1322], reactions toward
food antigens, such as gluten and casein involved in the previously mentioned diet regimen, have been poorly described.
Lucarelli et al. [22] found high levels of IgA antigen specific
antibodies for casein, -lactalbumin, and -lactoglobulin and
IgG and IgM for casein. PBMCs obtained from ASD children
produced more tumor necrosis factor-a (TNF-a)/interleukin12 (IL-12) than those obtained from control subjects when
challenged with casein, -lactoglobulin, and -lactalbumin
[18]. Specific IgG to gluten was comparable among ASDs and
controls [15]. A significant percentage of autistic sera were
associated with elevated immunoglobulin IgG, IgM, or IgA
antibodies against gliadin [21].
Keeping in mind that autism is caused by the interaction between genetic and environmental factors [1], all
these findings might suggest that sensitivity related illness
(SRI) [23] affects some autistic children; SRI initiates with
a toxicant induced loss of tolerance (TILT) and sensitivity
to gluten/casein could only be one of the triggering aspects.
In this view removing the triggering agents from the diet
could be considered as a tool in nutrition therapy for
ASDs.

BioMed Research International

To challenge the hypothesis that dietary-derived nonself
antigens could permeate impaired gut barrier and stimulate
immune system, we evaluated the antibody prevalence to a
series of dietary proteins including gluten/gliadin and milk
proteins in a group of autistic children with increased/normal
intestinal permeability fed either a regular alimentary regimen or a gluten-casein free diet (GF/CF).

2. Methods
2.1. Subjects. One hundred sixty-two consecutive subjects
with ASDs (131 boys and 31 girls with a mean age of 7.4
5.1 yr) were recruited from either the outpatient or inpatient
services of the Child and Adolescent Neuropsychiatry Unit
at the Second University of Naples, Italy. The cohort included
5 couples of twins. For all patients, diagnosis of ASD was
made according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders, Fourth edition, Text Revision (DSM-IVTR). The compliant enrolled children were administered the
Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised version, the Childhood
Autism Rating Scales, and the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule-Generic to verify the diagnosis of autism [24
27]. A carefully detailed gastrointestinal (GI) anamnesis was
obtained for each subject, with specific emphasis to type of
special diet (e.g., GF/CF diet) and reported food intolerances.
Among the enrolled ASDs, 31 embraced a gluten/casein free
diet (GF/CF) for an average time of 3 years. The correct and
effective implementation of the GF/CF diet was under the
responsibility of the parents and assumed from their report;
only those who reported 1 transgression/month and were on
GF/CF since at least 1 year were enclosed in the GF/CG group.
Among the enrolled ASDs, 100 children presented with GI
symptoms, as reported during administration of a specific
questionnaire to the parents. Altered bowel movements
were reported as constipation (27,3%) more frequently than
diarrhea (8,4%). Other symptoms (26,0%) included pain,
flatulence, prevalence of alternating constipation/diarrhea,
and gastric reflux. Exclusion criteria were autisms secondary
to genetic syndromes; Rett syndrome; childhood disintegrative disorder; epilepsy; neurological syndromes; BMI < 25th
or >85th percentile; concomitant condition of known celiac
disease (CD) concomitant condition of major diseases of
the intestinal tract such as inflammatory bowel disease or
hepatic disorders, and known and serologically proven food
intolerances.
Forty-four healthy children (27 boys and 17 girls with a
mean age of 7.1 3.1 yr) were recruited as matched controls
among families of doctors, nurses, students of the Child and
Adolescent Neuropsychiatry Unit and Gastroenterology at
the Second University of Naples, Italy. None of these healthy
children claimed any chronic and/or recent GI symptoms
and were not affected by any major GI disease. A carefully
detailed GI anamnesis was obtained for each subject, with
specific emphasis to type of special diet (e.g., GF/CF diet)
and reported food intolerances. All of them were on regular
diet (i.e., inclusive of gluten and milk proteins). The exclusion criteria were a concomitant condition of known celiac
disease (CD), a concomitant condition of major diseases of
the intestinal tract such as inflammatory bowel disease or

BioMed Research International

hepatic disorders, and known and serologically proven food
intolerances.
Informed consent was obtained from the parents of all
children before starting any procedure. The study was
approved by the ethics committee of our department and was
carried out in accordance with the Helsinki Declaration of
1975.
2.2. Investigated Parameters
2.2.1. Anti-Tissue Transglutaminase (tTG)-IgA, Anti-Endomysium (EMA)-IgA, and Total IgA Antibodies. To rule out celiac
disease (CD), tTG-IgA, EMA-IgA, and total IgA antibodies
were determined. The quantitative determination of specific
IgA antibodies against human recombinant tissue transglutaminase (tTG) in serum was achieved by means of a
sandwich type enzyme immunoassay and a detection system
in colorimetry (Eurospital, Italy). Normal values were set as
<9 U/mL. The detection of class IgA anti-endomysium antibodies (EMA) was performed by indirect immunofluorescence on sections of human umbilical cord (Eurospital, Italy).
The antigen-antibody complex was visualised by fluorescence
microscope with the aid of fluorescein-labelled antibody.
The detection of total IgA serum antibodies was achieved
by immune-turbid metric test system (Roche Diagnostics
Gmbh, Cobas 6000, Germany). IgA antibodies reacted with
the antigen, forming an antigen-antibody complex. Agglutination was measured metrically. Age based normal ranges
of total IgA are reported in Supplementary Material available
online at http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/729349.
2.2.2. HLA Typing. HLA-DQ2 and -DQ8 loci were typed in
all ASDs children. Genomic DNA was extracted and purified
from blood samples collected in EDTA by means of a commercially available kit (Eugen-Estraction, Eurospital, Italy).
HLA-DQ2 and -DQ8 loci were typed using commercial kits
(EU-Gen Risk, Eurospital, Italy).
2.2.3. Intestinal Permeability. Intestinal permeability was
assessed with the lactulose/mannitol (LA/MA) test. The
test was administered once to all recruited children. The
LA/MA test is considered a valuable and noninvasive test
for monitoring barrier function of the small intestine. The
procedure is based on the simultaneous oral administration
of 2 sugar probes of different molecular sizes and absorption
routes and the assessment of the concentration of each
molecule in the urine. The LA/MA test was administered
as previously described [8]. Briefly, an oral isosmolar load
of the 2 probes5 g of lactulose (LA) and 2 g of mannitol
(MA)is orally administered to fasting subjects, and urine
samples are collected for the following 5 h. The LA/MA
detection in the urine samples was performed by highperformance anion exchange chromatography with pulsed
amperometric detection, as previously described [28]. Intestinal permeability is expressed as the ratio of the recovered
percentage of lactulose versus mannitol (LA/MA). The cutoff value for the normal range was set at LA/MA < 0.030
[8].

3
2.2.4. Antibodies to Food Antigens. Antibodies against gliadin, anti--gliadin (AGA)-IgG and -IgA, and antideamidated -gliadin peptides (DPG)-IgA and -IgG, were
evaluated. The quantitative determination of specific IgA
and IgG antibodies against -fraction of wheat gliadin
(AGA) in serum was achieved by means of a sandwich type
enzyme immunoassay and a detection system in colorimetry
(Eurospital, Italy). Normal values were set as <15 U/mL and
<50 U/mL, respectively. The quantitative determination of
IgA and IgG antibodies directed against the deamidated gliadin peptides (DPG) in serum was achieved by means of a
sandwich type enzyme immunoassay and a detection system
in colorimetry (Eurospital, Italy). Normal values were set as
<5.5 U/mL and <10 U/mL, respectively.
To determine whether the children reacted to food allergens, total IgE and IgG were assessed. In addition, specific IgE
(-lactoglobulin IgE, -lactalbumin IgE, gluten IgE, casein
IgE, and milk IgE) and specific IgG (-lactoglobulin IgG, lactalbumin IgG, gliadin IgG (all fractions: , , , and ),
and casein IgG) were detected (Phadia, Italy). The detection
of total IgG serum antibodies was performed by immuneturbidimetric test system (Roche Diagnostics Gmbh, Cobas
6000, Germany). IgG antibodies reacted with the antigen
forming an antigen-antibody complex. Agglutination was
measured metrically. The total IgE and specific IgG and IgE
serum antibodies to gliadin/gluten, casein, -lactalbumin,
and -lactoglobulin were detected by FEIA method, an
enzyme immunoassay system with fluorometric detection
through the use of equipment ImmunoCAP (Phadia, Uppsala, Sweden). Normal values for specific IgG were set as
<12 mgA/L. Age-based normal ranges of total IgG and IgE are
reported in Supplementary Material.
2.2.5. Statistical Analyses. Statistical significance was assessed
at a level of < 0.05. Variables were summarized either as
mean SEM, mean SD, or percentage. The Mann-Whitney
test or Kruskal-Wallis and Dunns multiple comparison test
were used to evaluate the differences amongst means. Fisher
exact test was applied to compare group frequencies. Data
handling and analysis were performed through Graph Pad
Prism 5 (GraphPad Software Inc., La Jolla, CA, USA).

3. Results
3.1. CD Screening. Among the 162 recruited ASDs patients,
two children resulted serological positive for CD (positive
EMA IgA, tTG-IgA >9 U/mL) and were therefore excluded
from the study. None of the 44 investigated healthy children
tested positive to CD serology. Mean serum tTG-IgA values
were 1.8 1.5 U/mL and 2.1 2.2 U/mL in ASDs and healthy
children, respectively (mean SEM). Total IgA resulted
decreased in 2 and increased in 13 ASDs (Table 2) with no
difference versus controls. Forty percent of the ASDs children
carried the HLA DQ2/DQ8 haplotype (Table 1).
3.2. Intestinal Permeability. Intestinal permeability, evaluated
by the LA/MA test, resulted different among the three groups
( < 0.0001 Kruskal-Wallis test with Dunns Multiple

BioMed Research International

Table 1: This table reports the % distribution of the investigated

ASDs based on the HLA haplotype: 41% bear either one or two
alleles.
HLA: patients
Negative HLA-DQ2 HLA-DQ8 HLA-DQ2/-DQ8
Relative% 59%
33.6%
5.7%
1.6%
0.06

3.4. Anti-Deamidated -Gliadin Peptides (DPG)-IgA and -IgG

LA/MA

0.04

0.02

0.00
AU GF/CF

increased in ASDs children with normal intestinal permeability as compared to healthy children with normal intestinal
permeability (37.8 3.3 UmL versus 22.2 3.1 U/mL, =
0.0018). The AGA-IgG titer in ASDs children with a normal
intestinal permeability was similar to that in ASDs children
with an increased intestinal permeability (33.1 4.5 U/mL)
(Figure 3(b)).
Taken together, these results indicate that AGA-IgG
titers are higher in ASDs compared to controls and are not
influenced by changes in intestinal permeability; they are,
however, partially influenced by diet regimen.

AU RD

HC RD

Figure 1: Intestinal permeability was evaluated by means of the

LA/MA ratio [28] in ASDs children on a regular diet (AU RD)
and on a GF/CF diet (AU GF/CF) and in healthy children all
being on regular diet (HC RD). Normal range LA/MA cutoff is
indicated by the dotted line. Values are given as mean SEM of
the three groups. Significant differences were found between all
groups (Kruskal Wallis-test and Dunns multiple comparison test,

< 0.0001).

Comparison Test): increased in ASDs children on a regular

diet (0.046 0.010) versus healthy children (0.009 0.001)
and ASDs on GF/CF diet (0.033 0.006) (Figure 1). LA/MA
test is considered altered when values >0,030 (cut-off value),
as already assessed [8, 28]; 41 ASDs and 1 control had LA/MA
values higher than the cutoff (Table 2).
3.3. Anti--Gliadin (AGA) IgA and IgG
3.3.1. Effect of GF/CF Diet. The prevalences of AGA-IgA in
ASDs children, whether on a regular diet or on GF/CF, and
that in healthy children were similar; it was below cutoff but
for three cases among ASDs on RD (Figure 2(a)).
AGA-IgG resulted more frequently increased in ASDs
children on regular diet compared to healthy children
(Table 2, = 0.0203, Fishers exact test). Mean values
also were significantly different (40.4 3.1 U/mL versus
22.4 3.4 U/mL, < 0.005), (Figure 3(a)). AGA-IgG mean
titer decreased in ASDs children on a GF/CF diet (11.1
3.2 U/mL); however, few ASDs still showed titers above
normal values (Figure 3, Table 2).
3.3.2. Influence of Intestinal Permeability. The prevalence of
AGA-IgA in ASDs children, whether they had a normal
or increased intestinal permeability, and that in healthy
children, was similar and below cut-off level (Figure 2(b))
but for the three above mentioned cases. AGA-IgG were

3.4.1. Effect of GF/CF Diet. DPG-IgA titers among ASDs on

RD showed mean values significantly different than controls
(AU RD: 0.960 0.14; HC RD: 0.34 0.07 U/mL; < 0.0001)
(Figure 4(a)).
Among ASDs children, DPG-IgG mean values were increased compared to controls and only partially corrected by
diet restrictions (Figure 4(b)). DPG-IgG mean values in both
ASDs groups were 4.87 0.6 U/mL (regular diet) and 6.14
2.50 U/mL (GF/CF diet) and were significantly different from
mean values in healthy children (1.27 0.16 U/mL, <
0.0001). DPG-IgG were more frequently increased in AU RD
in respect to HC RD (Table 2, = 0.0383, Fishers exact test).
3.4.2. Influence of Intestinal Permeability. The prevalences of
DPG-IgA in ASDs children, whether they had a normal or
increased intestinal permeability, and that in healthy children
were similar. DPG-IgG mean values were similar in ASDs
children with normal and increased intestinal permeability
(4.790.64 and 6.141.94 U/mL) and in healthy children with
normal intestinal permeability (1.27 0.16 U/mL, = NS).
Taken together, these results indicate that DPG titers are
higher in ASDs compared to controls and are not influenced
by changes in intestinal permeability.
3.5. Total and Specific IgG. Total IgG resulted in the normal range (age based) in all subjectsASDs and controls
(Table 2).
Among ASDs on RD, total gliadin IgG titers resulted
>12 mgA/L more frequently and significantly than among
controls (Table 2, = 0.0043 Fishers exact test), even if mean
values were not significantly different (Figure 5(a); Table 2);
GF/CF diet, as expected, influences Gliadin-IgG production
( < 0.007).
Among ASDs on RD, casein IgG titers resulted
>12 mgA/L more frequently and significantly than among
controls (Table 2, = 0.0034 Fishers exact test), even if
mean values are not significantly different (21.1 2.5 and
16.3 2.4 mgA/I, = NS). The implementation of a GF/CF
diet drastically and significantly decreased casein IgG titers
(7.6 0.9 mgA/I, < 0.0015) (Figure 5(b)).
Specific IgG titers to -Lactoglobulin were similar
between ASDs on RD and healthy children (AU RD: 19.0
2.8 and HC RD: 15.0 2.9). Specific IgG titers to lactalbumin were also similar between ASDs on RD and

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Table 2: This table is a summary of the results; it reports about all the investigated parameters in all subjects. Number of altered values and
% are reported for each investigated parameter.

Recruited
Positive for celiac disease (tTg > 9 U/mL,
EMA positive)
Enrolled
HLA DQ2/DQ8 (for details see Table 1)
Total IgA altered (see age based normal range in
Supplementary Material available online at
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/729349)
Total IgG altered (see age based normal range in
Supplementary Material)
Diet regimen:
RD: regular diet = no diet restrictions
GF/CF: gluten/casein free diet
LA/MA altered, >0.030
AGA IgA altered, >15 U/mL
AGA IgG altered, >50 U/mL
DPG IgA altered, >5.5 U/mL
DPG IgG altered, >10 U/mL
Total IgE altered (see age based normal range in
Supplementary Material)
-Lactoglobulin IgE > 0.35 kUA/L
-Lactalbumin IgE > 0.35 kUA/L
Gluten IgE > 0.35 kUA/L
Casein IgE > 0.35 kUA/L
Milk IgE > 0.35 kUA/L
-Lactoglobulin IgG > 12 mgA/L
-Lactalbumin IgG > 12 mgA/L
Total gliadin IgG (, , , ) > 12 mgA/L
Casein IgG > 12 mgA/L

162

44

160 (M 131; F 31)

66 (41.0)
Deficit: 2 (1.3)
Increase: 13 (8.1)

44 (M 27; F 17)
Not determined
Deficit: 0
Increase: 3 (6.8)

0
GF/CF
( = 31)

Controls RD
( = 44)

33 (25.6)
3 (2.3)
33 (25.6)
3 (2.3)
12 (9.3)

8 (25.8)
0
3 (9.7)
0
2 (6.5)

1 (2.3)
0
4 (9.1)
0
0

20 (15.5)

7 (22.6)

4 (9.1)

12 (9.3)
16 (12.4)
8 (6.2)
8 (6.2)
23 (17.8)
30 (23.3)
27 (20.9)
48 (37.2)
45 (34.9)

1 (3.2)
3 (9.7)
0
0
3 (9.7)
4 (12.9)
3 (9.7)
7 (22.6)
5 (16.1)

2 (4.6)
1 (2.3)
2 (4.6)
0
2 (4.6)
11 (25.0)
11 (25.0)
10 (22.7)
19 (43.2)

AGA IgA

50

40

40

30

30

(U/mL)

(U/mL)

Controls: number (%)

RD
( = 129)

AGA IgA

50

ASD: number (%)

20
10

20
10
0

0
AU GF/CF

AU RD
(a)

HC RD

AU normal

AU altered

HC normal

HC altered

(b)

Figure 2: Mean SEM and individual titers of AGA-IgA (anti--gliadin IgA) are reported; normal range cutoff is indicated by the dotted line
(15 U/mL). (a) The investigated subjects were divided in three groups to be compared on the basis of diet regimen: ASDs children on a regular
diet (AU RD) or on GF/CF diet (AU GF/CF) and healthy children (HC RD); no significant differences were shown. (b) The investigated
subjects were divided in four groups to be compared on the basis of normal/altered intestinal permeability: ASDs children with normal (AU
normal) or altered (AU altered) LA/MA values and healthy children with normal (HC normal) or altered LA/MA values (HC altered); no
significant differences were shown.

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AGA IgG

AGA IgG

120

150

100
100
(U/mL)

(U/mL)

80
60
40

50

20
0

0
AU GF/CF

AU RD

HC RD

AU normal

AU altered

(a)

HC normal

HC altered

(b)

Figure 3: Mean SEM and individual titers of AGA-IgG (anti--gliadin IgG) are reported; normal range cutoff is indicated by the dotted
line (50 U/mL). (a) The investigated subjects were divided in three groups to be compared on the basis of diet regimen: ASDs children on a
regular diet (AU RD) or on GF/CF diet (AU GF/CF) and healthy children (HC RD); AGA-IgG were increased in ASDs versus healthy children
( < 0.005, Kruskal Wallis test, Dunns multiple comparison test). (b) The investigated subjects were divided in four groups to be compared
on the basis of normal/altered intestinal permeability: ASDs children with normal (AU normal) or altered (AU altered) LA/MA values and
healthy children with normal (HC normal) or altered LA/MA values (HC altered); AGA IgG titers in ASDs were increased irrespective of
intestinal permeability ( = 0.0018, Mann Whitney test).
DPG IgG

DPG IgA
80

10

60

(U/mL)

(U/mL)

40

20
2
0

0
AU GF/CF

AU RD

HC RD

AU GF/CF

(a)

AU RD

HC RD

(b)

Figure 4: Mean SEM and individual titers of DPG-IgA and IgG (anti-deamidated gliadin peptides IgA and IgG) are reported. The
investigated subjects were divided in three groups to be compared on the basis of diet regimen: ASDs children on a regular diet (AU RD)
or on GF/CF diet (AU GF/CF) and healthy children (HC RD). (a) DPG-IgA values are reported; normal range cutoff is indicated by the
dotted line (5,5 U/mL): significant differences were shown between AU RD and HC RD ( < 0.0001 Kruskal Wallis test, Dunns multiple
comparison test). (b) DPG-IgG values are reported; normal range cutoff is indicated by the dotted line (10 U/mL): DPG-IgG were increased
in ASDs versus healthy children ( < 0.0001, Kruskal Wallis test, Dunns multiple comparison test). Diet restrictions were ineffective in a
few subjects.

healthy children (AU RD: 19.2 3.1 and HC RD: 14.3

4.0). In both cases, diet restriction, as expected, drastically
decreased IgG titers (Table 2).
3.5.1. Influence of Intestinal Permeability. The prevalences
of Casein-IgG in ASDs children, whether with normal or
increased intestinal permeability (18.2 2.7 and 19.4
3.1 mgA/I), and that in healthy children were similar (15.5
2.7 mgA/I, = NS). Intestinal permeability alteration did not

influence -Lactoglobulin and -Lactalbumin as well as total

gliadin IgG titers (data not shown).
3.6. Total and Specific IgE
3.6.1. Effect of GF/CF Diet. Total IgE titers of ASDs children
on a regular diet were similar to those of healthy children
(202.5 45.7 kU/I and 96.4 26.4 kU/I, resp.) and were not
influenced by a GF/CF diet (164.1 65.8 kU/I, = NS)

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7
Casein IgG

Total gliadin IgG

80

80

60
(mgA/L)

(mgA/L)

60

40

20

40

20

0
AU GF/CF

AU RD

HC RD

(a)

AU GF/CF

AU RD

HC RD

(b)

Figure 5: Mean SEM and individual titers of specific IgG are reported; normal range cutoff is indicated by the dotted line (12 mgA/L). The
investigated subjects were divided in three groups to be compared on the basis of diet regimen: ASDs children on a regular diet (AU RD) or
on GF/CF diet (AU GF/CF) and healthy children (HC RD). (a) Gliadin IgG were higher in ASDs on regular diet in respect to ASDs on GF/CF
( < 0.0015 Kruskal Wallis test, Dunns multiple comparison test). (b) Casein-IgG were lower in ASDs on GF/CF versus ASDs on regular
diet and healthy children ( < 0.0015, Kruskal Wallis test, Dunns multiple comparison test).

(Figure 6(a)). Specific IgE to milk (0.30 0.05 kUA/L) mean

values were similar in ASDs on RD and healthy children
(0.1 0.0 kUA/I). They were reduced in ASDs children on
a GF/CF diet (0.13 0.03 kUA/L, < 0.005) (Figure 6(b)).
3.6.2. Influence of Intestinal Permeability. Total IgE and specific IgE milk in ASDs children were similar irrespective of
normal (milk IgE: 0.23 0.04 kUA/I) or increased intestinal
permeability (milk IgE: 0.36 0.12 kUA/I) (Figure 6(c)).
None of the other investigated specific IgE to Lactalbumin (AU RD: 0.22 0.04; AU GF/CF: 0.07 0.02;
HC RD: 0.07 0.02 kUA/I;), -Lactoglobulin (AU RD: 0.15
0.03; AU GF/CF: 0.07 0.04; HC RD: 0.07 0.02), Casein
(AU RD: 0.11 0.02; AU GF/CF: 0.03 0.01; HC RD: 0.12
0.08) and gluten (AU RD: 0.11 0.02; AU GF/CF: 0.03 0.01;
HC RD: 0.80 0.75) resulted different amongst the groups
(Table 2), with regard to both diet restriction and intestinal
permeability alteration.

4. Discussion
Aim of this study was to investigate if an impaired intestinal
barrier function might allow the passage of dietary-derived
non-self antigens in the intestinal lamina propria triggering
an immune response toward these molecules. To reach
our goal we studied both small intestinal barrier function
and immune responsegeneral and specific toward dietaryderived non-self antigens in a large number of ASDs subjects;
immunoglobulin titers were related to the paired/impaired
barrier condition and to the dietary regimen either regular
or restricted (gluten casein free diet).
The condition of intestinal barrier impairment in ASDs
is a largely debated question that has produced conflicting
reports [7]. It was present [8, 29] in children with no
concomitant gastrointestinal (CD, IBD) and hepatic

disordersthat are usually associated with increased gut

permeabilityreporting gastrointestinal symptoms [8, 29].
We confirmed that a large percentage (25.6%) of the enrolled
ASDs have an impaired intestinal barrier function, as
assessed by the LA/MA test; GF/CF diet regimen tends to
normalize the barrier impairment.
Among the recruited children, the implementation of
GF/CF diet was a free choice of the parents; this behaviour is
frequently observed19,4% of the population under study
and it derives from the parents subjective belief/observation
that their children behaviour and GI disturbance ameliorate.
From a scientific point of view this, also, is a debated
question; few appropriate studies have been done, and the
question is still under debate [7, 912]. In this study the
GF/CF condition (deprivation of gluten and casein) was
used to compare that of a regular diet in which gut lumen,
barrier and immune system get in touch with these dietaryderived non-self antigens. Specific casein and gliadin IgG
elevated titers resulted more frequent among ASDs on regular
diet than controls (Table 2, Figure 5). The other investigated
milk-derived antigens (Table 2) show patterns comparable to
healthy controls. Previous findings on increased reactivity
toward milk proteins (Casein) are confirmed [18, 22].
A more marked difference was found toward
gliadin/gluten: AGA-IgG and even DPG-IgG increased
titers were more frequently present in ASDs than in controls,
in a few cases even independently of diet regimen. DPG
are considered accurate predictors of CD in early infancy
and a sign of gluten related intestinal damage [30]. Their
synthesis in vivo is an expression of the interaction between
tissue transglutaminase and gliadin peptides, rendering them
highly specific toward deamidated gliadin; they can also be an
involvement sign of adaptive immunity. The present finding
of DPG-IgG alterations in not-celiac ASDs is important
evidence in favour of the hypothesis that a subgroup of ASDs
patients are specially triggered by gluten, as it was already

BioMed Research International

Total IgE

2000

Milk IgE

1500
(kUA/I)

(kUA/I)

2
1000

1
500

0
AU GF/CF

AU RD

AU GF/CF

HC RD

(a)

AU RD

HC RD

(b)

Milk IgE
3

(kUA/I)

0
AU normal

AU altered

HC normal

HC altered

(c)

Figure 6: Mean SEM and individual titers of total IgE (a) and specific milk-IgE (b, c) are shown. The investigated subjects were divided
in three groups (a, b) to be compared on the basis of diet regimen: ASDs children on a regular diet (AU RD) or on GF/CF diet (AU GF/CF)
and healthy children (HC RD). The investigated subjects were divided in four groups (c) to be compared on the basis of normal/altered
intestinal permeability: ASDs children with normal (AU normal) or altered (AU altered) LA/MA values and healthy children with normal
(HC normal) or altered LA/MA values (HC altered). Specific milk-IgE titers in ASDs children on a regular diet resulted higher than ASDs on
GF/CF ( < 0.005, Kruskal Wallis test, Dunns multiple comparison test).

suggested [8]. Possible cross reactivity can be excluded

because gliadin is a prolamine, and gliadin derived peptides
are peculiarly rich in proline, which makes it very specific to
immune system. Moreover, it was demonstrated the presence
of only a slight reaction of anti-cerebellar peptide to gliadin
and absence of binding of anti-myelin basic protein (MBP),
anti-milk, anti-egg, and anti-soy [21].
Immunological alterations and changes in innate and
adaptive immunity have been reported in individuals with
ASDs [13, 14]; however, a direct cause-and-effect relationship between immune dysfunction and ASDs has yet to
be proven, and the role of immune responses in the
pathogenesis of gastrointestinal disorders in individuals with
ASDs warrants additional investigation [7].
Among ASDs children, low total IgG (hypogammaglobulinemia), with IgG subclass deficiency and selective IgA
deficiency (<7 mg/dL), and elevated IgE were reported [13].
More recently, it has been demonstrated that autistic children

have low-normal IgA mean levels compared to healthy

age-matched controls, whereas serum IgE, IgG, and total
gliadin specific IgG mean levels were comparable between
both groups [15]. We did not find any statistically significant
differences in IgA, IgE, IgG high titers frequency among the
investigated subjects in respect to controls though we found
an augmented frequency of high titer specific gliadin IgG in
ASDs (Table 2) that could be partly explained by the significant increase of AGA-IgG and DPG-IgG (i.e., anti--gliadin
antibodies). Moreover, the fact that AGA-IgA and DPGIgA titres were similar in ASDs and controls indicates that
mucosal surface immune response was possibly not involved
[31].
Whether or not IgE levels have clinical significance in
ASDs is still a debated question [7, 15]. We found no significant differences in total and specific IgE antibody titres in
ASDs children versus healthy controls; this could indicate,
according to previous studies [16, 17], that these antibodies do

BioMed Research International

not have a valuable clinical significance [15]. The investigated
specific IgE also resulted similar among ASDs and controls.
In our study it is also shown that the GF/CF diet regimen, as
expected, did not influence total or specific IgE titres.
Food allergy is related to IgE sensitization [17], and nonallergic food hypersensitivitysuch as gluten-sensitivity
could have a role in the gastrointestinal symptoms observed
in ASDs children [18]. In addition to an imbalanced intestinal
immune response in ASDs children with gastrointestinal
symptoms [19], an increased intestinal permeability and
altered gut microbiota have been demonstrated [8, 32, 33].
Here we failed to demonstrate a direct correlation between
altered barrier function and antibodies increase; as a matter
of fact high titers of Ig toward gliadin/gluten were equally distributed in ASDs having normal/impaired intestinal permeability (Figure 3). This lack of correlation could be significant,
indicating that different pathways of intestinal damage can be
found in ASDs patients, as already suggested [8], given the
phenotype heterogeneity of persons with ASDs [7].
Although the nature of intestinal damage in ASDs is
not yet clearly defined, the inflammatory innate immune
responses present in ASDs could predispose children to sensitization to common dietary proteins, leading to GI inflammation and aggravation of some behavioural symptoms [20].
Various etiopathogenetic hypothesis were proposed: mucosal
and/or systemic inflammation [19, 34], altered signalling to
the tight junctions [35], serum neurotensin increase [36],
mast cells intervention [37], molecular mimicry between
peptides of dietary gliadin, and a cerebellar peptide, for
example, brain protein of Purkinje cells [20, 21]. Sensitivity
related illness (SRI) [23] could affect some autistic children;
the sensitivity is secondary to a toxicant induced loss of tolerance (TILT) where the primary toxic agents are unknown.
Hypersensitivity to gluten and casein, as well as toward other
potential antigens, is an acquired condition resulting from a
bioaccumulation of toxicants. The GI dysregulation could be
the consequence of an abnormal immune response induced
by toxicant exposure. Diminishing the toxicant burden (i.e.,
GF/CF diet) would improve the reactions being, even if only
partially, useful.
In this study we have confirmed previous reports [21, 38,
39] suggesting that the prevalence of CD is not increased
among children affected by ASD. It is therefore conceivable that gluten could be responsible for causing immunemediated gastrointestinal symptoms also in ASDs patients
without CD, although the exact mechanisms through which
this immune response is elicited are still unclear [40,
41]. In CD, the percentage of patients carrying the HLADQ2/DQ8 haplotype is approximately 97%, and this haplotype is required to develop this gluten-induced autoimmune
enteropathy. In gluten-sensitive individuals these haplotypes
are present in about 50% of patients with this condition
[42]. In our study, 41% of enrolled ASD patients were HLA
DQ2/DQ8 positive, a percentage similar to that found in the
normal population. This also supports the hypothesis that a
subgroup of ASDs children could be SIR-triggered by gluten.
The observation that subjects affected by gluten sensitivity
often experience behavioural symptoms [42] further supports
this hypothesis.

5. Conclusions
Combined, our data support the hypothesis that immune
system of a subgroup of ASDs is triggered by gluten and
casein; ASD demonstrates great phenotypic variation, and it
could well be related either to AGA and DPG elevated titers
or to impaired intestinal barrier function. The determination
of antibodies titers to food antigens could be useful to identify
the ASDs subjects in whom the implementation of a GF/CF
diet might be considered as medical nutrition therapy acting
through the elimination of triggering stimuli in an underling
SRI condition. Additional investigations are required in order
to identify phenotypes based on best and nonresponders to
dietary modifications.

Acknowledgments
This study was approved by the Ethical Committee of the
Second University of Naples (number 71, 11/02/2011), and
it was supported by the Autism Research Institute (ARI)
Grant 2010 (Siniscalco D) and Centro Inter-universitario
per Ricerche suAlimenti, Nutrizione e Apparato Digerente
(CIRANAD) Grant 2011. The authors are grateful to Miss.
Elisabetta Carlino for technical advice on Dionex. A. Fasano
has a financial interest in Alba Therapeutics. A. Sapone has a
financial interest in Dr. Shar Institute. All other authors have
no conflict of interests.

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