Chapter 11: Nervous System & Nervous Tissue

Completion Outline

I. Functions
1. senses environment (monitor changes.relayed as sensory input)
2. integrates sensory info (makes decisions)
3. Coordinates voluntary/involuntary activities
a. Creates a response via motor output
b. regulates peripheral structures and systems.
II. Organization (Fig. _________)

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III. Neural Tissue

A. Cells
A-1. Neurons (information transfer)___
* extreme longevity
* _____amiotic_____ (lose ability to divide)
* very high metabolic rate (high O2 and glucose requirements)
A-2. Neuroglia (supporting cells)____________
* outnumber neurons
* retain ability to divide (mitotic)
* wrap around or located near neurons.
B. Neuron Structure
(General, see Fig. ________)

See Fig.____________
1. _Perikaryon________:
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cell body (soma)

contains neurofilaments
contains microtubules
organelles:
a. typical (mitochondria, lysosomes, etc.)
b. specialized:
- Nissl Bodies = _Aggregations of free and fixed ribosomes__
that will contribute to gray matter of N.S. (not in axons)

Note: following differentiation of neurons they become incapable of

undergoing mitosis (cannot replace themselves after cell death)
2.

_Dendrites___:
Highly branched processes
Provide large surface area for receiving input
Transmit electrical changes toward body (soma)

3. _Axon with Axon hillock___(area of the axon closest

to the soma)
a long axon also called a nerve fiber.
Myelin Sheath: Whitish, fatty (protein-lipoid), segmented sheath
around most long axons
o It functions to:
Protect the axon
Electrically insulate fibers from one another
Increase the speed of nerve impulse transmission
4. _Collaterals___: axonal branches
5. _Telodendria___: fine extensions of a collateral
(end branches)
6. _Synaptic Knobs__(aka terminals): expanded ends of the axon

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C. Neuron Classification (Table ________)

C-1. Structural

SKETCH

1. _Multipolar_____:
large, several dendrites, single axon
common in CNS, eg). motor neurons
2. _Unipolar______:
soma off to one side
dendritic and axonal processes are continuous
eg). sensory neurons
3. _Bipolar____:
one dendrite, one axon
soma between
eg). sense organs, (eye, ear)
C. Neuron Classification, cont. (Table ________)
C-2. Functional
1. Afferent_(Sensory)- carry impulses toward CNS
2. Efferent_(Motor)- carry impulses away from CNS
3. Interneurons_(association)

Located between sensory and motor n. in CNS only (brain & sp. chord)
Will shuttle impulses
99% of neurons in the body of this type

D. Neuroglia Classifications (Table ________)

D-1. CNS Neuroglia:
1. Astrocytes_: Fig. _________
largest, most numerous
functions include:
a. maintenance of BLOD BRAIN BARRIER_(isolates brain
from general circulation, will discuss in later chapter)
b. create 3-D framework (via microfilaments)
c. regulate interstitial fluid composition
2. Oligodendrocytes_: Fig. _________
large, few slender extensions
many layers of membranous wrapping creates MYELIN in CNS
gaps between the myelinated segments of the axon are called
nodes of Ranvier (SKETCH)

Note: myelinated segments are glossy white,

* will appear white and thus make up the "white matter" of the CNS
* whereas, "gray matter" constitutes the area where cell bodies
predominate
* axons without myelin = unmyelinated axons

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3. Microglia_: Fig. _______

small mobile cells (macrophages), move toward debris
phagocytotic WBC that have migrated into the CNS.migrate,
enlarge, then engulf
4. Ependymal cells_: Fig. _______
Note: since CNS is made of neural tissue surrounding a hollow tube...
tube = central canal of spinal cord
and ventricles of the brain

will line the central canal and ventricles which are filled with
CSF = cerebrospinal fluid
will aid in CSF circulation

D-2. PNS Neuroglia: (Fig. __________)

1. Satellite cells_:
surround cell bodies of ganglia cells (sensory cells)
2. Schwann cells_:
create neurolemma around every peripheral axon
will myelinate a single axon (as shown with oligodendrocytes)

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IV. NEUROPHYSIOLOGY
Recall, all cells in the body have a transmembrane potential (a difference in
electrical charge across the membrane). Ions (charged particles) cannot pass
through a lipid membrane but must pass through ion channels.
Ions can have positive or negative charges.
Like charges repel, unlike charges attract.
These electrical forces contribute to the membrane potential.
Because fluid in and out of the cell is different in composition,(there exists a
difference in the number and types of ions present), there is an additional force
created by this chemical gradient.
A. Existence of a chemical gradient:
Na+ are in HIGH conc. outside the cell relative to inside
K+ are in HIGH conc. inside the cell relative to outside

overall resting potential inside cell is NEGATIVE and outside is

POSITIVE = ELECTROCHEMICAL GRADIENT, the sum of
all the chemical and electrical forces active across the
membrane.

Typical Neuron = -70 mV (-85 mV in skeletal muscle)

Q: How can a cell change its transmembrane potential? (important in excitable

cells like neurons, muscle cells)
B. MEMBRANE CHANNELS: (proteins within the cell membrane)
1. Chemically regulated_- (fig. ______)
a. will open or close when specific chemicals bind the channel
Eg.) ACh receptor of the skeletal muscle cell
b. produce graded potentials (fig. _______)
- which may be depolarizing or hyperpolarizing
c. found at dendrites, soma,
presynaptic surfaces of axon

2. Voltgage-regulated_- (fig. _______)

a. will open or close in response to changes in the transmembrane
potential.
Eg. 1) sarcolemma channels in response to depolarization
Eg. 2) axonal channels
b. produce action potentials

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Generation of an Action Potential (see figures 11.11-11.12)

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C. Generation of an ACTION POTENTIAL (AP) (Fig. ________)

(See diagrams 1-6 attached)
1. Graded potential brings membrane to threshold (approximately -55 mV)
results in activation (opening) of Voltage-regulated Na+ channels
o _Na+ rushes IN!_
results in rapid depolarization of membrane (up to +30 mV)
All or None phenomenon means if threshold is reached, an AP is
always generated, if threshold not reach, NO AP generated.
2. Na+ channels are closed (inactivated), due to new (+30) transmembrane
potential
3. Voltage-regulated K+ channel activation (opening)
o _K+ rushes OUT!_
results in repolarization of the membrane (back toward -70 mV)
4. Normal permeability is established:
Na+ channels closed but capable of opening
K+ channels begin closing, will allow for a
_Hyperpolarization_ before permeability returns
to normal.
Note: the membrane exhibits refractory period: (fig. _______)
= period between threshold and return of transmembrane potential to
resting level.
(Absolute refractory period, NO AP can be stimulated)
D. Role of Na+/K+ exchange pump in AP:

responsible for maintaining proper charge balance across the

membrane
is not essential to any single AP

E. Action Potential Conduction:

1. Proceeds away_ from the point of initial stimulation
2. Affects the entire membrane_ surface via a "chain reaction"
3. Velocity of AP depends upon:
a. presence of absence of _Myelin sheath_
b. Diameter of the axon_ (larger axon is faster)
4. Types of conduction: (Fig. _________)
a. continuous, along unmyelinated axons
b. saltatory, on myelinated axons, is 7X faster

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F. Synaptic Communication
1. Characteristics of a Synapse
a. Definition: _junction of information transfer from neuron to another
cell_
b. types- (note: presynaptic vs postsynaptic cells)
based on location: _axodendritic, axosomatic, axoaxonic_
based on mechanism of information transfer:
_electrical or chemical_
c. anatomy: review synaptic knob, cleft, vesicles, neurotransmitter effects
d. Steps of information transfer at a chemical synapse:
Review figure 11.17 Events at a chemical synapse in response to
depolarization
2. Termination of neurotransmitter (NZ) effects:
a. _Degredation of NZ by enzymes_____(in cleft)
b. _Removal from the synapse________(reuptake)
c. _Diffusion of NZ away from synapse_
3. Postsynaptic Potential and Integration
a. EPSP: _excitatory postsynaptic potential_
* a graded potential that moves the transmembrane potential closer to
threshold (a depolarization).
Ex) chemical binds and opens sodium channels, causes depolarization
b. IPSP: _inhibitory postsynaptic potential_
* a graded potential that moves the transmembrane potential further
from threshold (hyperpolarization).
Ex) chemical binds and opens potassium or chloride channels, causes
hyperpolarization
Note: Such graded potentials can be added up (summated) to bring the
threshold of the postsynaptic neuron further from or closer to threshold.
4. Classification of Neurotransmitters
a. _Acetylcholine_, Ach (_cholinergic_ synapses)
* produces graded potential via ion movements,
usually depolarizing (excitatory)_
* located at neuromuscular junctions, brain, and peripheral autonomic
neurons
* acetylcholinesterase present to degrade ACh
b. _Biogenic Amines_(_Adrenergic_ synapses)
* Includes norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, histamine
* Effects alter metabolism through second messenger molecules
* Can be excitatory (depolarizing) or inhibitory (hyperpolarizing)
c. _Amino Acids_
* Includes GABA, glycine, glutamate
d. _Peptides_
* Includes endorphins, Substance P
e. Others
* _Purines_(ATP and adenosine)
* _Dissolved gases_: Nitric Oxide, Carbon dioxide
(signaling gases)

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