ACTA CARSOLOGICA

30/2

17

239-256

LJUBLJANA 2001

COBISS: 1.01

STRUCTURAL BASES FOR SHAPING OF DOLINES

STRUKTURNE OSNOVE OBLIKOVANJA VRTA
JOE AR1

Beblerjeva ulica 4, 5280 IDRIJA, SLOVENIJA

Prejeto / received: 19. 6. 2001

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UDK: 551.435.8

Izvleek
Joe ar: Strukturne osnove oblikovanja vrta

Z natanno registracijo geolo{kih strukturnih elementov (lega plasti in stopnja pretrtosti kamnin) ter
opazovanjem nekaterih morfolo{kih znailnosti lahko za vsako vrtao posebej neposredno ali pa s kombinacijo
podatkov iz sosednjih vrta in blinje okolice, doloimo geolo{ke osnove, ki dajejo osnovo njeni dana{nji
prostorski legi, obliki in velikosti. Na podlagi tega smo izdelali opisno-genetsko klasifikacijo vrta in definirali
8 osnovnih tipov vrta (oznake od A do H, Sl. 1). V naravi so isti tipi redki, obiajno se pojavljajo kombinacije.
Ugotovitve veljajo za vrtae na razlinih karbonatih kamninah in karbonatnih klastitih. Iz tega izhaja, da
genezo vrta nikakor ne moremo poenostaviti na en splo{no veljaven model pa pa veljajo vsi modeli
(korozijski, udorni, klimatski), ki se med seboj tudi kombinirajo in prepletajo v odvisnosti od okoli{in.
Kljune besede: geolo{ko-morfolo{ko kartiranje vrta, opisno-genetska klasifikacija vrta, poru{ne udornice,
kra{ko povr{je, geolo{ke osnove geneze vrta.

UDC: 551.435.8

Abstract
Joe ar: Structural Bases for Shaping of Dolines

By a precise registration of geological structural elements (the location of beds and to what degree the rock is
fractured) and by observation of some morphological properties one may define for each individual doline,
either directly or by combining the data known in nearby dolines and their vicinity, the geological bases
which give the foundations for its present location, shape and size. On such a basis we prepared a descriptivegenetic classification of dolines and I defined 8 basic types of dolines (labelled from A to H, Fig. 1). In nature
pure types are rare; usually combinations occur. The findings relate to dolines in different carbonate rocks
and carbonate clastites. Hence it follows that the genesis of dolines cannot be simplified into one general
model but all the models are valid (corrosion, collapse, climatic) combining among them and intertwined
by interdependence of circumstances.
Key words: geologic-morphologic mapping of dolines, descriptive-genetic classification of dolines, collapse
dolines, karst surface, geological bases of doline genesis.

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INTRODUCTION
In the past two decades a geological mapping in the scale 1:5000 of vast areas of Notranjski
and Idrijski karst and karstified Trnovsko-Banj{ka plateau was carried out (ar 1982, 1986; ar
& Gospodari 1984; ar & ebela 1997). These regions are mostly composed of limestone of the
Lower and Upper Cretaceous and partly by Jurassic carbonate rocks. By mapping we got a detailed insight into geological circumstances of the treated areas in particular in their structure in
respect to lateral lithological changes, rock texture properties, and spatial location of beds as
plicate and disjunctive tectonic deformations. Specially in detail and precisely we studied the
interdependence among the above-mentioned geological elements and karst morphology. Gradually we evolved a method of detailed geological mapping of karstified limestone terranes which
was successfully tested on some other karst terranes and karstified rocks elsewhere in Slovenia in
recent years. A special study will be dedicated to this topic (ar, in preparation).
The results of a detailed lithologic-tectonic mapping of karstified limestones are already partly
published (ar 1982, 1986; ar & Gospodari 1984; ar & ebela 1997; ebela & ar 2000).
The same method of mapping has been successfully introduced and used in mapping the karst
underground (ebela 1991, 1992, 1998; ebela & ar 1991; ar & ebela 1998). While mapping
in detail the karstified terrain in a wider vicinity of Planinsko polje and the region between Planinsko
polje, Rakov kocjan, Strmica and Piv{ka kotlina we examined and geologically mapped in detail
- by an estimation - about 4000 dolines. It was shown that by a precise registration of geological
structural elements and by observation of some morphological properties we can define geological bases for each individual doline either directly or by combination of data from nearby dolines
and their vicinity which contributed to a dolines present location, shape and size. Some basic
genetic elements of dolines are thus revealed.

PROBLEMS
A list of studies related to dolines in limestone is very long (see cited and commented literature in works of Cviji 1893, 1895; Cramer 1941; Gams 1974; White 1988; Ford & Williams
1989; u{ter{i 1994). The authors discuss mostly the origin and development of dolines, their
shape and morphometry, geomorphological installation in different karst terrains and also systematics and hydrology. There is also quite a lot of studies dealing with geological bases for
origin of caves and with geology of cave systems (see references in Gospodari 1976: ebela
1998). But there are few studies which try to connect a complicated problems of genesis, development, distribution and shape of dolines with geological structural elements (see references in
Aubert 1966; Bahun 1969; ar 1974; Placer 1972; Cucchi et al. 1976). Till now the Slovene
karstological literature does not comprise any study dedicated exclusively to geological problems
of dolines. It is true that we find in studies of geological setting of some parts of the Slovene karst
also data related to genetic connection of dolines in limestones with local geological structures
(ar 1974, 1982, 1986; ar & ebela 1998).
Numerous karstologists have studied the doline genesis from Cviji (1893, 1895) to the present
time (DAmbrosi 1960; Williams 1985; Klimchouk 1995). In spite of several theories (collapse,
corrosion, climatic) there is still quite a lot of uncertainty in relation to their genesis which was in
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recent years emphasised by our researchers also (u{ter{i 1994; Gams 2000; Mihevc 1998, 2001).
Mihevc (1998) specially stresses that by a superficial mapping it is very difficult if not impossible
to find out their origin. Classification of dolines only by their shape and depth to dish-like, funnel-like or well-like (Cviji 1893) is preserved till now (Gams 2000) yet in our opinion it is
useless. This writes u{ter{i (1987, 1994) and Mihevc (2001) confirms. Such morphological
classification of dolines is only descriptive and does not tell anything about the essence of
dolines.
This study does not deal with doline genesis directly but it treats the connection between
dolines and geological structures which can be established by a detailed geological mapping. The
statements hold for dolines in variously bedded and lithologically changing limestones (for example marl limestones, calcarenites, calcrudites etc.) and dolomites as well as for dolines in carbonate clastites (for example lime sandstones, lime conglomerates etc.). Concordantly to statements
we propose a doline classification which is not descriptive only but contains important genetic
elements. We can call it descriptive-genetic classification as geological setting is taken into consideration defining the genesis evolution and giving morphological shape to dolines. Only for
broken dolines, steep sided cliff hollows (earlier: collapse dolines, ar 1982; ebela & ar 2000)
we give a short description of their origin as it has not been yet presented.

COLLECTING OF FIELD DATA

The following list of data that must be obtained by mapping in the field is prepared for a
suggested descriptive-genetic classification of dolines. In a morphological point of view it does
not bring any changes (u{ter{i 1994). The decisive role in doline origin of how the limestone is
bedded and fissured has been known since the end of the 19th century (Cviji 1893, 1895). But
new is consideration of various fractured zones (crushed, broken, fissured zones) and their influence on origin and development of dolines. We find them in the field and we follow them concordantly to the implemented method of mapping (ar 1982, 1986; ar & Pi{ljar 1993; ar &
ebela 1997). A new view opens that spatial connection between near dolines and the form of
transition between them.
The procedures of a detailed geological mapping on various carbonate rocks, clastite included
are very similar. A more exacting work is a mapping of dolomite terrains. We shall discuss it in a
special contribution.
If we wish to explain descriptive-genetic bases we must define for each doline the following
geological and morphological data:
1. Geological data:
type of bedding (stratification, lithology, bedding of regulated particles, non-bedded rock)
strike and dip of strata
thickness of beds
tectonic deformations
type of fractured zone (crushed, broken and fissured zones),
strike and dip of tectonic planes,
how much a zone is fractured (a type of cataclastic fault rocks, density of fissures, etc.)

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extent of the fractured zone

spatial connection of different fractured zones.
2. Morphological data:
ground plan of doline,
the shape of slopes and walls,
the shape of upper rim (outer border)
depth, width and length.
3. Other:
spatial connection with neighbouring dolines and forms of transition between them
drawing of ground plan of each doline (or series of dolines) separately and at least two
characteristic profiles of a doline (or series of dolines).
According to judgement we can draw or photograph selected details and particularities
As we see the list is rather long, time-consuming and exacting. Yet we observe and note all
the listed data only when we study individual dolines. Usually we treat dolines in complex or at
the same time with mapping of terrain. Numerous geological elements, in particular strike of
strata and various fractured zones extend in a greater distances therefore it is not necessary to note
just everything in each individual doline. Thus on the base of the terrain knowledge and experiences a geologist or a karstologist skilled in geological mapping can adequately shorten the list of
above written elements.
At times it is impossible to collect all the data included in the above list due to thick vegetation. In a case of a doline where you see nothing one has to note it and examine the neighbouring dolines and the intermediate terrain. Experiences show that in a complex of at the most three
or four dolines at least some basic elements of structural and lithological structure could be seen.
Basic types of dolines
According to previous experiences at mapping karst in limestones and checking on other
karstified rocks at us all the dolines in relation to their dependence to geological structures can be
divided into six basic types labelled from A to F and two special types labelled G and H and one
transitional type - broken collapse dolines. The suggested sorting of dolines has a character of
descriptive-genetic classification.
A. Stratification doline (Fig. 1A). Stratification dolines develop in thin bedded, gently inclined
and syncline bent bedded rocks. In this case these are not a virtual tectonically fractured
rocks but insignificant tension joint (discontinuities) which usually cross one bed and thus
extend from one to the other bedding plane (interbedded joints). They occur during gentle
inclination or bending of beds. Water flows by slightly inclined bedding planes to reach a
sheaf of interbedded joints (discontinuities) either on normal syncline crest (channel) with
small amplitudes and relatively large radius or on inclined beds where water starts to flow in
generally vertical direction. Dolines of the A type are regularly shaped with almost circular or
oblong outer rim. They are relatively large (outer diameter more than 10 m) and relatively
shallow. The deepest part is nearly in the middle of a doline. The bottom is usually not
directed and if it is it trends to bedding. The rate between the diameter of the outer rim and

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their depth is about 4:1 to 3:1. The conditions for an origin of the described doline type are
rarely fulfilled, this is why such type is relatively rare.
Note: Dolines in a distinctive syncline or anticline bent layers are mostly B and D type.
B. Fissure dolines (dolines in fissured zones) (Fig. 1B). Dolines in fissured zones are the least
distinctive. The limestone beds have a gentle bedding angle (up to 20). They occur in medium to dense fissured zones. The outer rim of dolines is very irregular. In general it conforms to structural conditions in a fissured zone and indents in a form of karren. The doline
slopes are prolonged in the direction of strata dip and have approximately the same angle as
the layers. The slopes are irregular and covered by karren or by single rock knives peeping
from the thin weathered surface. Dolines in fissured zones are shallow with one or several
lowest points distributed along the strike of bedding.
C. Bedded-fissured dolines (Fig. 1C). Dolines belonging to group C are shaped according to
bedding in fissured zones. The limestone is medium to thick layered (from 10 to 100 cm) and
their dip is usually from 20 to 60. A fissured zone is (usually) directed over the bedded
limestones. In ground plan dolines display an irregular shape and they are elongated
rectangularly to ridges. Upper external rim of dolines is more or less straight? and directed
according to bedding. In general dolines are relatively narrow and deep. Poorly distinctive
lower points may be either elongated in the direction of bedding or roughly rectangular. Often
there are in the bottom of dolines rock shelters of various sizes and developed according to
bedding.
D. Broken dolines ( dolines in broken zones) (Fig. 1D). In broken zones (ar 1982, 1986) very
large and regular dolines may develop. In most cases the outer rims of dolines approach more
or less to a proper circle. The rim may reach from edge to edge of a broken zone or it lies
inside it. The slopes of dolines are smooth. In the upper part they are steeper and in the lower
part they reach the central doline point by a gentler angle. The slopes are in general without
protuberances or channel-karren-like features, dotted with some rock blocks or almost entirely covered by detritus (weathered material). Taking into account that the depths of dolines
within the same broken zone are very similar I suppose that depth mostly depends on changing of how the rock is crushed in the vertical direction and also on size of blocks (autoclasts)
within the broken zone. The bottoms of dolines are usually elongated in the direction of
crushed zones. The biggest dolines on till now mapped areas are found just in broken zones.
E. Near-fault dolines (dolines near the fault zone) (Fig. 1E). On one side a doline is bordered by
a fault. In case when the fault is a simple one composed of only one distinctive fault plane
with a crushed zone on one side, the walls are poorly or not at all dissected and inclined under
the angle of dip (usually very steep) of a fault plane towards the bottom of doline and in
places subvertical into the opposite direction. If fault has a complicated internal zone the
dolines slope displays graded structure (Fig. 1E). We see several steep fault planes with
intermediate ledges, more or less wide. Thin-bedded limestones do not display such structure.
In such a case the wall is steep and covered by smaller or bigger broken pieces. The remaining part of a doline developed in accompanying broken, fissured or broken-fissured zone. The
dolines rim is irregular, resembling the ground plan of Type B doline (Fig. 1). Independent
dolines are usually elongated roughly rectangularly to fault or fault zone direction. The bot244

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tom is directed along the fault zone and usually covered by a thick layer of weathered material. Near-fault dolines are often set in a series. In such cases the bottom of doline is elongated
in the direction of the fault. In such a case strike and dip of strata play only a subordinate role.
F. Fault dolines (dolines in fault zones) (Fig. 1F). In such a case dolines developed entirely in a
distinctive fault zone. The fault contains more or less wide internal broken zone. Thus the
rock is fractured up to blocks of different size and bedding is no more visible. Usually broken
rocks of the internal zone are distinctly limited by border fault planes, which may be either
single or developed as fault zones with a narrow internal crushed zone. Dolines reach from
one to another fault plane and usually set series along the fault zone. It is characteristic that
within one series in a totally irregular order there are shallow dolines with gentle slopes and
very deep dolines with steep slopes. The intermediate passages between dolines are either
very lowered or only slightly lowered in relation to the surrounding terrain. The outer rim of
dolines is irregular. The bottom may be either totally irregular or covered by a thicker layer of
weathered material. Morphology and depth of dolines adapt to structure and distribution degree in which the internal fault zone is fractured and to morphology and direction of fault
zone.
In addition to the above described, there are quite frequent also dolines with more complicated lithological structure and supplementary structural elements. Their basic properties are united
into two types and they are designated by the letters G and H. Both types of dolines intertwine
(ar 1974). Genetically and morphologically such types of dolines are very complicated this is
why every single example must be studied separately.
G. Contact dolines (dolines at geological contacts) (Fig. 1G). Contact dolines develop at the
contact of two lithologically different rocks. This is either contact of two carbonate rocks (for
example limestone - dolomite) or one carbonate and one non-carbonate rocks (for example
limestone - flysch). Rocks do not differ only by lithologico-sedimentological properties but
also by bedding and dip angle of strata. Contacts may be either normal and erosional but also
fault and thrust with all sorts of fractured zones (fissured, broken, crushed zones). The description shows that not only contact of two different rocks but also one or many structural
definition conditions exist which are typical of dolines from A to F. There are no generally
valid common description properties.
H. Reproduced dolines (repeated dolines; dolines reproduced from the base foot-wall) (Fig. 1H).
Special structural conditions must exist (ar 1974) to get a reproduced doline. In the base
there must be rocks favourable for karstification, in particular different types of limestone
which must be covered by impermeable rocks or such that are less favourable for karstification
non-compact rocks (tectonically fractured or mechanically non-resistant - various lithology)
or weathered material. The karstification process goes on in the base while dolines are formed
in upper layers by reproduction. Almost as a rule in the lower layers there must exist smaller
or larger karst caves to swallow the material from upper layers. The upper layer must not be
too thick as this prevent collapsing and transport of material. Which is the crucial thickness
depends on size and intensity of karstification in the base and on degree how the rock is
fractured or solid and on lithological character of the upper layers. The contact between the
karstified base and upper layers can be either normal, erosional or thrust.
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In nature the dolines of pure type, such that completely correspond to the above descriptions are rare. The problem may be solved by writing down the assessed combination. For example the combination EB means that the central part of doline developed along the fault zone (nearfault doline) and border parts are characteristically shaped and elongated at fissured zones (fissure doline). Less distinctive properties can be written in brackets, for example EF(B) (Fig. 2a). If
a doline lies on limestone entirely this is not specially stressed; if it lies on dolomite or conglomerate this fact is written at the right side, for example EFdo and Dko. The first case means a doline
of EF type on dolomite and in the second broken doline in conglomerate.
Broken collapse dolines (Fig. 2)
Broken collapse dolines are transitional features between real collapse dolines and broken
dolines (dolines of type D; dolines in broken zones). They develop in cases when in a certain
depth water flow crosses vertical or subvertical broken zone. If the rocks are tectonically less
fractured, growing cave passages develop and this can cause a sudden roof collapse and origin of

Text to legend in Fig. 2:

1. flysch rocks (in general: any poorly permeable rock - carbonate or non-carbonate), 2. bedded
dolomite (in general: upper impermeable or poorly karstifiable layers non-solid - tectonically
fractured and mechanically weak - rocks or weathered material), 3. thin-bedded limestone,
4. medium to thick-bedded limestone, 5. strike and dip of strata, 6. crushed zone, 7. broken zone
in cross-section, 8. broken zone in longitudinal section, 9. fissured zone, 10. fissures in inner
layers (discontinuities), 11. visible and covered fault plane with strike, 12. thrust line, 13. outer
doline rim, 14. bottom of doline and its elongation, 15. lowered parts in broken zone, 16. groundplan and cross-section of rock shelters, 17. cross-section of sinkhole filled by weathered material
in near-fault zone, 18. ground-plan of sinkhole in near-fault zone, 19. direction of cross-section,
20. profile of cave passage, 21. underground water flow and direction of flow.

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Tekst k legendi na sliki 2 (na strani 248):

1. fli{ne kamnine (v splo{nem: katerakoli slab{e prepustna kamnina - karbonatna ali nekarbonatna),
2. plastnat dolomit (v splo{nem: krovninske plasti iz neprepustnih ali za zakrasevanje manj ugodnih
nekompaktnih - tektonsko pretrtih ali mehansko neodpornih - kamnin ali preperine, 3. tanko
plastnati apnenec, 4. srednje in debelo plastnati apnenec, 5. vpad in slemenitev plasti , 6. zdrobljena
cona, 7. poru{ena cona v pre~nem preseku, 8. poru{ena cona v vzdolnem preseku, 9. razpoklinska
cona, 10. znotrajplastne razpoke (diskontinuitete), 11. vidna in pokrita prelomna ploskev z vpadom,
12. narivnica, 13. zunanji obod vrta~e, 14. dno vrta~e in njegova razpotegnjenost, 15. zniani deli
v poru{enih conah, 16. tloris in presek spodmolov, 17. prerez s preperino zapolnjenega greza v
obprelomni coni, 18. tloris greza v obprelomni coni, 19. potek presek, 20. profil jamskega rova,
21. podzemski vodni tok s smerjo pretakanja.

typical collapse dolines (Michler 1954; Gams 1974; u{ter{i 1973, 1974, 1987). In broken zones
the rocks are broken to a degree of blocks of various size, from fine rubble to blocks. Due to
mechanical instability of blocks, cave spaces (at least larger ones) cannot exist (ar 1982).
Depending on the power of water flow and hydrological gradient rinsing and transporting of
debris from broken zone can be extremely intensive. Also, due to limestone breaking into rubble
and blocks the reaction surface essentially increases and consecutively also corrosion dissolution
and transport of weathered particles of rock in the broken zone above the water flow (vadose
zone). The lack of material is replaced by simultaneous subsiding of higher-lying rubbles and
blocks. Breaking processes advance to the surface where so-called broken collapse dolines are
formed (ar 1982).
Due to extreme permeability in broken zones there are no preferential directions for water
flow (ar & Pi{ljar 1993). Depending on general geomorphological circumstances and regional
hydrological conditions the underground water flow can cross broken zone even rectangularly,
under various smaller angles or it flows in certain distance through a broken zone. The outer
features of doline rims adapt to this fact. Dolines may be either regularly round or very elongated
including all the transitional forms. The diameter of broken collapse dolines depends upon the
size of broken zones. They reach several tens of meters in width and up to 200 m in length. The
slopes of collapse dolines are steep, in any case steeper than slopes of broken collapse dolines,
uniform and morphologically poorly developed. Usually the slopes reach the outer rim, very
rarely the uppermost part is steeper. Only in case when the outer rim indents into the less fractured border of a broken zone it may be subvertical. The bottom of active broken collapse dolines
(for example Globo{ak) is usually thinly covered by weathered material or even without it and
funnel shaped. The bottom of older, non-active (for example Jer{anova Dolina) is flat viewed
from a wider side, thickly covered by weathered material and often dotted by more or less distinctive dolines.

EXAMPLES FROM POSTOJNSKA GMAJNA

For illustration and better understanding of the proposed classification and its use there are in
Figure 3 some dolines from the Postojnska gmajna area. I have chosen the examples of dolines
bound to fault zones which are in some places difficult to be defined unambiguity.

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The first example (Fig. 3a) shows a double doline of EF(B) type. The main fault zone crosses
in the middle of fractured zone which looks like long channel and a series of dolines. The crushed
zone did not develop. To the left and right of the fault plane there is broken zone with lateral
passages into the fissured zone. Less important particularity is lengthening of the northern part of
the southern doline in karren field (sign B). The ridge between the two dolines is much lowered
regarding the field in a wider vicinity of the series.
The doline shown in Fig. 3b can be marked as EB type. In this case doline is not included in a
series but it lies independently. Along weak fault plane only a narrow broken zone developed

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while rock is fissured in a rather wide belt (fissured zone). Doline is distinctly elongated in a
direction of broken zone, the outer rim is irregular. On the border there are karren features in the
fissures.
The doline c in Fig. 3 is a typical example of E type doline. Related to sample example in Fig.
1 (E type) the fault zone is weak with simple structure. Beside single fault plane which does not
dip towards doline only a weak fissured zone is seen.
Also doline d in Fig. 3 makes part of doline series in a morphological channel formed in
unilaterally developed fault zone related to fault plane (doline of E type). Fault plane is accompanied by a broken zone which sideboard? gradually passes into the fissured zone. At first sight a
single doline has two less distinctive lowering developed at the passage between broken and
fissured zone. Due to favourable bedding on the eastern, non-fractured side of the main fault
plane smaller rock shelters developed. Such an example is denoted as ED type of doline.

DISCUSSION
First I would like to remind of generally known fact that for the origin of dolines a subvertical
drainage of atmospheric water through the rock is required. This is fulfilled when, in a large
enough area of rocks (rock block) based on appropriate lithological and tectonic-structural circumstances, is established effective porosity (ar & ebela 1998). Such conditions due to structural and textural particularities of tectonically undamaged rocks and changing permeability in
horizontal and vertical direction inside fractured zones (ar 1986) exist at certain places only and
by a progress of denudation lowering of the terrain they move over the spatial structural grid .
Based on slightly different presumptions similar ideas of moving swallow-holes (dolines) in
the space due to lowering of the surface and in connection with previous development of caverns
and fissures in the interior were spread by dAmbrosi (1960) and Bahun (1969).
As a karst surface is a very dynamic system it is logical that the above described and classified dolines represent only pure examples. As already stated we must expect on a karst terrain
different types of dolines and connections among them depending on concrete geological facts
(Fig. 3). Also, it must be considered that single dolines, broken collapse dolines and other superficial karst objects are to be found in different development phases. This one depends on location
in geological structural grid and actual erosional situation and also climatic conditions. Some
are thus completely developed, others are almost gone and represent just a remnant of a
former doline. What we observe today is only the actual state in a continuous process of permanent lowering, shaping and changing of karst surface (ar 1986).
To understand geological morphological and consecutively genetical properties of single dolines
or series of dolines one must take into account spatial changing of lithological properties of
karstified rocks and eventual alternating of bedding and one must precisely follow the sequence
of changing of fractured zone in the horizontal direction and assume from geological properties
eventual changes in rock fractures in vertical direction (ar 1986; ar in preparation).
Dolines cannot be unlimitedly large or deep. According to experience there exist an upper
limit. The largest single dolines are about 60 to 80 m in diameter of the outer rim; rare are 100 or
more; and they are from 20 to 50 m deep. Only some dolines of D and F type may be deeper.
Assuming that direct genetic circumstances were approximately the same then experience shows

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that the width of a doline mostly depends on the width of fractured zones and the way how the
rock is fractured, while depth is connected with vertical changing of permeability of fractured
zones and filling of footwall by weathered materials which may interrupt effective porosity.
According to geology, considering in particular mechanical properties and changing of permeability in fractured zones and also speleological development of an area, there may exist a
connection between dolines and cave spaces, filled up shafts, open shafts deeper inside, cave
chimneys and corrosionally widened fractures but it is not indispensable. This implies that the
doline genesis cannot be simplified into one, generally sound model but all the models are valid
(corrosion, collapse, climatic) and they combine and interact depending on circumstances. In all
models an essential process is corrosion. To similar conclusion came Gams in 1974 already
(p. 153).
According to previous experiences and on the basis of quoted geological-morphological properties 70 to 75% of all superficial features on the mapped terrain belong to dolines and broken
collapse dolines. If we take from them morphologically undisputed collapse dolines and some
other karst depressions (Habi 1985) that represent spatial connections of already described features and structural phenomena (ar 1986) other, morphologically less clear and distinctive superficial features can be attributed to corrosionally reduced dolines or series of dolines, broken
collapse dolines and collapse dolines (ebela & ar 2000) or to different roofless speleological
objects (shafts and caves) (Mihevc 1998, 2001; u{ter{i 1987, 1994) which are formed as a
consequence of gradual corrosion lowering of terrain.

REFERENCES
Aubert, D., 1966: Phnomenes et formes du Karst jurassien. Eclogae geol.Helv., Vol. 62/2, 325399, Birkhuser S.A., Bale, Switzerland.
Bahun, S., 1969: On the formation of karst dolinas. Geolo{ki vjesnik 22, 25-32,1969, Zagreb.
Cramer, H., 1941: Die Systematik der Karstdolinen. Unter Bercksichtigung der Erdflle,
Erdzschlotten und verwandter Erscheinungen. Neues Jahrbuch fr Mineralogie, Geologie
und Palontologie, Beilage Band, Abt. B, 85, 293-382, Mnchen.
Cucchi, F., Forti, F., Ulcigrai, F., 1976: Relazioni tre tettonica e morfogenesi di doline del carso
Triestino e Monfalconese. Instituto di Geologia e Paleontologia dellUniversita di Trieste,
(1975), 57-71, Trieste
Cviji, J., 1893: Der Karstphnomen. Geographische Abhandlungen 5, 217-329, Wien.
Cviji, J., 1895: Karst, Geografska monografija. 1-173, Beograd.
^ar, J., 1972: Nekaj osnovnih podatkov o osmnem krasu na Idrijskem. Some notes about the
isolated karst in the region of Idrija. Na{e jame 13, (1971), 61-70. Ljubljana.
^ar, J., 1974: Zakriti kras v blinji okolici Idrije. The covered karst in the near Idrija vicinity.
Na{e jame 16, 51-62, Ljubljana.
^ar, J., 1982: Geolo{ka zgradba poiralnega obrobja Planinskega polja - Geologic setting of the
Planina polje ponor area. Acta carsologica 10 (1981), 75-105, Ljubljana.
^ar, J., 1986: Geolo{ke osnove oblikovanja kra{kega povr{ja. - Geological bases of karst surface
formation. Acta carsologica 24/25, (1985-86), 31-38, Ljubljana.
^ar, J., & Gospodari~, R., 1984: O geologiji krasa med Postojno, Planino in Cerknico - About

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geology of karst among Postojna, Planina and Cerknica. Acta carsologica 12 (1983), 91106, Ljubljana.
^ar, J., & Pi{ljar, M., 1993: Presek Idrijskega preloma in potek doline U~je glede na prelomne
strukture - Cross section of the Idrija Fault and the course of the U~ja velley regarding the
Fault structures. Rudarsko-metalur{ki zbornik, {t.1-2, vol.40, 79-91, Ljubljana.
^ar, J., & [ebela, S., 1997: Structural position of vertical karst objects on Postojnska Gmajna Strukturna lega vertikalnih kra{kih objektov na Postojnski gmajni. Acta geologica 26/2,
295-314, Ljubljana.
^ar, J., & [ebela, S., 1998: Bedding planes, moved bedding planes, connective fissures and horizontal cave passages (Examples from Postojna jama cave).- Lezike, zdrsne lezike, vezne
razpoke in horizontalni rovi (primeri iz Postojnske jame. Acta carsologica 27/2, 75-95,
Ljubljana.
DAmbrosi, C., 1960: Sullorigine delle doline casiche nel quadro genetico del carsismo generale.
Bolletino della societa adriatica di scienze di naturali in Trieste, 51. 205-231, Trieste.
Ford, D.C. & Williams, P. 1989: Karst Geomorphology and Hydrology.- Uniwin Hyman, 601 p.,
Boston, Sydney, Wellington.
Gams, I, 1974: Kras. Zgodovinski, naravoslovni in geografski oris. Slovenska matica. 1-358,
Ljubljana, 1974.
Gams, I., 2000: Doline morphogenetic processes from global and local viwpoins. Geomorfogenetski
procesi vrta~ z globalnega in lokalnega vidika. Acta carsologica 29/2, 123-138, Ljubljana.
Gospodari~, R., 1976: Razvoj jam med Piv{ko kotlino in Planinskim poljem v kvartarju. The
quaternary caves development between Pivka bassin and Polje of Planina. Acta carsologica
7, 8-135, Ljubljana.
Michler, I., 1954: Vrta~e in doline.-Proteus 16, 8, 204-209, Ljubljana.
Mihevc, Andrej, 1998: Dolines, their Morphology and Origin. Case Study: Dolines from the
Kras, West Slovenia (the [kocjan karst). Karst Geomorphology, Fourth International Conference on Geomorphology - Italy 1997, 69-74, Torino 1998.
Mihevc. A., 2001: Speleogeneza Diva{kega krasa. Zaloba ZRC, ZRC SAZU, 5-180, Ljubljana.
Klimchouk, A., 1995: Karst Morphogenesis in the epikarstic zone. Cave and Karst Science Vol.21,
No.2, Transactions of the British Cave Research Association.
Placer, L., 1972: Usmerjenost kra{kih jam na Idrijskem. The orientation of karstic caves in the
region of Idrija. Na{e jame 13, (1971), 71-76, Ljubljana.
[ebela, S., 1991: Vpliv povr{inskih geolo{kih struktur na oblikovanje Predjame. Magistrsko delo.
115 str., In{titut za raziskovanje krasa ZRC SAZU, Postojna.
[ebela, S., 1992: Geolo{ke zna~ilnosti Pisanega rova Postojnske jame. Geological characteristic
of Posani rov in Postojna cave. Acta carsologica 21, 97-116, Ljubljana.
[ebela, S., 1998: Tektonska zgradba sistema Postojnskih jam. Tectonic Structure of Postojnska
jama Cave System. Zbirka ZRC 18, 112 str., Zaloba ZRC SAZU Ljubljana.
[ebela, S., & ^ar, J., 1991: Geolo{ke razmere v podornih dvoranah Vzhodnega rova Predjame.
Geological setting of callapse chambers in Vzhodni rov in Predjama cave. Acta carsologica
20, 205-222, Ljubljana.
[ebela, S., & ^ar, J., 2000: Velika Jer{anova doline - a former collapse doline.-Velika Jer{anova
dolina - nekdanja udornica. Acta carsologica 29/2, 201-212, Ljubljana.

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[u{ter{i~, F., 1973: K problematiki udornic in sorodnih oblik visoke Notranjske.- On the problems of collapse dolines and allied formes of high Notranjsko (South-central Slovenia)
(Summary). Geografski vestnik, 45, 71-86, Ljubljana.
[u{ter{i~, F., 1974: Nekateri metri~ni problemi udornic. Some metric problems on the collapse
dolines (Summary). Geografski vestnik, 46, 27-46, Ljubljana.
[u{ter{i~, F., 1982: Nekaj misli o oblikovanosti kra{kega povr{ja. Some considerations about the
spatial organization of the karst terrains. Geografski vestnik 54, 19-28, Ljubljana, 1982.
[u{ter{i~, F., 1987: Drobno kra{ko povr{je ob severnozahodnem obrobju Planinskega polja. The
small scale surface karst and solution dolines at the northestern border of Planinsko polje.
Acta carsologica 16 (1987), 51-82, Ljubljana, 1987.
[u{ter{i~, F, 1994: Classic dolines of classical site. Klasi~ne vrta~e klasi~nega kras. Acta carsologica
23/10, (1994), 123-154, Ljubljana 1994.
White, W.B., 1988: Geomorphology and Hydrology of Karst Terrains.- Oxford University Press,
464 p., New York, Oxford.
Williams, P.W., 1985: Subcutaneous hydrology and the development of doline and cockpit karst.
Z. Geomorph. N.F. 29/4, 463-482, Berlin -Stuttgart

STRUKTURNE OSNOVE OBLIKOVANJA VRTA^

Povzetek
Uvod in problematika
Pri geolo{kem kartiranju zakraselih terenov v merilu 1:5000 v {ir{i okolici Planinskega polja
ter ozemlju med Planinskim poljem, Rakovim [kocjanom, Strmico in Piv{ko kotlino smo pregledali
in geolo{ko podrobno kartirali - po oceni - okrog 4000 vrta~ (^ar 1982, 1986; ^ar & Gospodari~
1984). Pokazalo se je, da z natan~no registracijo geolo{kih strukturnih elementov ter opazovanjem
nekaterih morfolo{kih zna~ilnosti lahko za vsako vrta~o posebej neposredno ali pa s kombinacijo
podatkov iz sosednjih vrta~ in blinje okolice, dolo~imo geolo{ke osnove, ki dajejo osnovo njeni
dana{nji prostorski legi, obliki in velikosti. Ugotovitve veljajo za vrta~e na razli~no plastnatih in
litolo{ko spreminjajo~ih apnencih (npr.: laporastih apnencih, kalkarenitih, kalkruditih, itd) in
dolomitih, kakor tudi za vrta~e na karbonatnih klastitih (npr.: apnen~evih pe{~enjakih, apnen~evih
konglomeratov, itd). Soglasno z ugotovitvami predlagamo klasifikacijo vrta~, ki ni samo opisna
pa~ pa vsebuje tudi pomembne genetske elemente. Poimenujemo jo lahko opisno-genetska
klasifikacija, saj upo{tevamo geolo{ke osnove, ki definirajo potek geneze in dajejo vrta~am
morfolo{ko obliko. Le pri poru{nih udornicah (prej: udorne vrta~e, ^ar 1982; [ebela & ^ar 2000),
ki doslej {e niso bile podrobneje predstavljene, podajamo tudi kratek opis njihovega nastanka.

Zbiranje terenskih podatkov

Da bi lahko razporedili vrta~e soglasno s predlagano klasifikacijo, moramo za vsako vrta~o
dolo~iti slede~e geolo{ke in morfolo{ke podatke:

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Joe ar: Structural Bases for Shaping of Dolines

Geolo{ki podatki:
Plastnatost - slemenitev in upad plasti ter debelino plasti.
Tektonske deformacije - tip pretrte cone (zdrobljene, poru{ene in razpoklinske cone), vpad in
slemenitev tektonskih ploskev, stopnja pretrtosti v coni (vrsta kataklasti~nih prelomnih kamnin,
bloki, gostota razpok, itd), {irina pretrte cone ter prostorska povezava razli~nih pretrtih con.
Morfolo{ki podatki:
Tloris dna vrta~e, oblika pobo~ij ali sten, oblika zgornjega oboda vrta~e ter globina, {irina in
dolina vrta~e
Ostalo:
Prostorska povezava s sosednjimi vrta~ami in oblike prehoda med njimi, izris tlorisa za vsako
vrta~o (ali niz vrta~) posebej in izdelava najmanj dveh karakteristi~nih profilov ~ez vrta~o (ali
niz vrta~).
Zbiranje vseh podatkov, ki jih vsebuje zgornji seznam, je dostikrat tudi onemogo~eno zaradi
pokritosti terena. V takem primeru je potrebno pri vrta~i, kjer se ni~ ne vidi, to zabele`iti in
podrobno pregledati sosednje vrta~e in vmesni teren. Izku{nje ka`ejo, da se v sklopu najve~ treh
do {tirih vrta~ `e poka`ejo vsaj nekateri osnovni elementi strukturne in litolo{ke zgradbe terena.

Osnovni tipi vrta~

Soglasno z dosedanjimi izku{njami pri kartiranju krasa na apnencih in preverjanju na drugih
zakraselih kamninah pri nas, lahko vse vrta~e glede na njihovo odvisnost od geolo{ke strukture
razdelimo na {est osnovnih, ki smo jih ozna~ili z velikimi ~rkami od A do F, dve posebni vrsti z
oznakami G in H (sl. 1) ter eno prehodno vrsto - poru{ne udornice (sl. 2).
A - Stratifikacijske vrta~e (vrta~e v tanko plastnatih, blago nagnjenih ali sinklinalno upognjenih
plastnatih kamninah), (sl. 1A),
B - Razpoklinske vrta~e (vrta~e v razpoklinskih conah), (sl. 1B),
C - Plastnato-razpoklinske vrta~e (vrta~e oblikovane po plastnatosti in razpoklinskih conah, (sl.1C)
D - Poru{ne vrta~e (vrta~e v poru{enih conah), (sl. 1D),
E - Obprelomne vrta~e (vrta~e ob prelomni coni), (sl. 1E),
F - Prelomne vrta~e (vrta~e v prelomnih cona), (sl. 1F),
G - Kontaktne vrta~e (sti~ne vrta~e; vrta~e na geolo{kih stikih), (sl. 1G),
H - Reproducirane vrta~e (ponovljene vrta~e; iz podlage ponovljene vrta~e), (sl. 1H).
V naravi najdemo le redko vrta~e ~istega tipa, torej take, ki se povsem skladajo z zgornjimi
opisi. Problem re{imo tako, da zapi{emo ugotovljeno kombinacijo. Naprimer kombinacija zapisa
EB pomeni, da je osrednji del vrta~e nastal ob prelomni coni (obprelomna vrta~a), obrobni deli pa
so zna~ilno oblikovani in podalj{ani po razpoklinskih conah (razpoklinska vrta~a). Manj izra`ene
tipi~nosti zapi{emo v oklepaju npr. EF(B), (sl. 2a). ^e le`i vrta~a v celoti na apnencu tega ne
poudarjamo posebej; ~e pa le`i naprimer na dolomitu ali konglomeratu, pa podatek zapi{emo na
desni strani in sicer EFdo in Dko. V prvem primeru pomeni torej vrta~o tipa EF na dolomitu, v
drugem pa poru{no vrta~o na konglomeratu.

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Na sliki 2 smo izrisali nekaj konkretnih vrta~ iz obmo~ja Postojnske gmajne. Prvi primer
a) predstavlja vrta~o EF(B). Objekt pod oznako b) je zna~ilna vrta~a tipa EB, medtem ko
predstavljata c) in d) vrta~i tipa E.

Poru{ne udornice
Poru{ne udornice so prehodna oblika med pravimi udornicami (Michler 1954; Gams 1974;
[u{ter{i~ 1973, 1974, 1997) in poru{nimi vrta~ami (vrta~e tipa D; vrta~e v poru{enih conah).
Nastajajo v primeru, ko v dolo~eni globini pre~ka vertikalno ali subvertikalno potekajo~o poru{eno
cono vodni tok. Kamnine so v poru{enih conah pretrte do stopnje razli~no velikih blokov. Zaradi
mehanskih razmer se v njih odprti jamski rovi (vsaj ve~ji prehodni) ne morejo oblikovati. V
odvisnosti od mo~i vodnega toka in hidrolo{kega gradienta je izpiranje in odna{anje drobirja iz
poru{ene cone lahko zelo intenzivno. V poru{eni coni se pri~nejo dogajati ru{ni procesi, ki postopno
napredujejo do povr{ine, kjer se oblikujejo tako imenovane poru{ne udornice (prej: udorne vrta~e
- ^ar 1982).

Diskusija
Znano je, da je za nastanek vrta~ potrebno subvertikalno pretakanje atmosferske vode skozi
kamnino. To je izpolnjeno takrat, ko se v nekem dovolj velikem obmo~ju kamnin (bloku kamnin),
na podlagi primernih litolo{kih in tektonsko-strukturnih razmer, vzpostavi preemajo~a efektivna
poroznost (^ar & [ebela 1998). Taki pogoji so, zaradi strukturnih in teksturnih posebnosti tektonsko
nepo{kodovanih kamnin ter spreminjajo~e se prepustnosti v horizontalni in vertikalni smeri znotraj
pretrtih con (^ar 1986), dani le na dolo~enih mestih in se z napredujo~im erozijskim znievanjem
terena selijo po geolo{ki prostorski strukturni re{etki (^ar, v pripravi).
Glede na to, da je kra{ko povr{je zelo dinami~en sistem je seveda logi~no, da predstavljajo
omenjeni osnovni tipi vrta~ (od A do H) le skrajne, ~iste primere. Na nekem kra{kem terenu
moramo glede na konkretne geolo{ke danosti pri~akovati razli~ne kombinacije geolo{kih osnov
za oblikovanje vrta~ (npr: tipe EB, EF, itd) in razli~ne tipe prostorskih povezav med njimi (sl. 2).
Poleg tega je potrebno upo{tevati, da se posamezne vrta~e, udorne vrta~e in drugi povr{inski
kra{ki objekti nahajajo v razli~nih razvojnih fazah, tako da so lahko prvotne ~iste oblike `e
mo~no zabrisane. Ta pa je odvisna od prostorske lege v geolo{ki strukturni re{etki in dana{njega
erozijskega stanja ter klimatskih razmer v preteklosti in danes. Nekatere so tako polno razvite,
druge so `e skoraj v celoti izginile in predstavljajo le {e sled nekdanjih vrta~. To kar opazujemo
danes je pa~ dana{nje stanje v kontinuiranem procesu stalnega oblikovanja in spreminjanja kra{kega
povr{ja (^ar 1986).
Soglasno z geolo{kimi danostmi, predvsem upo{tevanjem mehanskih lastnosti in spreminjanja
prepustnosti pretrtih con ter speleolo{kim razvojem terena, lahko obstaja povezava med vrta~ami
in jamskimi prostori, zasutimi brezni, odprtimi brezni globlje v notranjosti, jamskimi kamini ali
korozijsko raz{irjenimi razpokami, ni pa nujna. Iz tega izhaja, da genezo vrta~ nikakor ne moremo
poenostaviti na en splo{no veljaven model pa~ pa veljajo vsi modeli (korozijski, udorni,
klimatski), ki se med seboj tudi kombinirajo in prepletajo v odvisnosti od okoli{~in. Pri vseh pa je
bistven proces korozija. Podoben zaklju~ek je zapisal `e Gams leta 1974 (str. 153).

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