SAMPLING DEMYSTIFIED:

PROBABILITY VS. NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING

Index
Sr. No.

Particulars

Page No.

1.

Introduction

2-4

2.

Probability Sampling

5-6

3.

i.

Simple Random Sampling

7-10

ii.

Systematic Random Sampling

10-12

iii.

Stratified Random Sampling

12-15

Non-Probability Sampling

16-19

i.

Convenience Sampling

19-21

ii.

Purposive Sampling

22-36

4.

Key Difference between Probability and Non- 37

Probability Sampling
Conclusion

38

Webliography

39

Introduction:
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Sampling can be a confusing concept for managers carrying out survey research projects. By
knowing some basic information about survey sampling designs and how they differ, you can
understand the advantages and disadvantages of various approaches.
The two main methods used in survey research are probability sampling and non-probability
sampling. The big difference is that in probability sampling all persons have a chance of
being selected, and results are more likely to accurately reflect the entire population. While it
would always be nice to have a probability-based sample, other factors need to be considered
(availability, cost, time, what you want to say about results). Some additional characteristics
of the two methods are listed below.
Definition of Sampling
Application of certain queries to less than 100% of the population (group of all items
that we are trying to observe and analyze) is known as Sampling. In simple terms,
sampling is the process of selection of limited number of elements from large group of
elements (population) so that, the characteristics of the samples taken is identical to that of
the population. In above examples, suppose you choose 1000 students among 4 million
students. then:

4 million students is population

1000 is the size of sample

Sampling is a great tool if you have to deal with a huge volume of data and you have limited
resources. When you have large population of the data, then it can also be the only option you
have.
Although you do not subject all the data to your queries, the chance that you get the desired
results is almost similar to that when you do thorough checking. Provided that your choice for
the sampling techniques must be appropriate.
How Sampling Works?
First of all, we have to choose the basis of sampling, i.e. the rule that will determine whether
a sample is chosen or not. After we are sure of the method which will be used for the
process, you select the samples as specified in the previously set plan. The method used
for choosing the samples as the very name suggests, is the most crucial part of the whole
process, it defines whether the analysis accurately describes the entire population or not.
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As shown in the figure above, sampling is done by choosing a small segment of the
population. We can say that the sample correctly represents the population because the ration
of white: grey: black is the same in the sample as in the population.
Advantages of Sampling
Sampling have various benefits to us. Some of the advantages are listed below:

Sampling saves time to a great extent by reducing the volume of data. You do not go

through each of the individual items.

Sampling Avoids monotony in works. You do not have to repeat the query again and

again to all the individual data.

When you have limited time, survey without using sampling becomes impossible. It

allows us to get near-accurate results in much lesser time

When you use proper methods, you are likely to achieve higher level of accuracy by
using sampling than without using sampling in some cases due to reduction in

monotony, data handling issues etc.

By using sampling, you can get detailed information on the data even by employing
small amount of resources.

Disadvantages of Sampling
Every coin has two sides. Sampling also have some demerits. Some of the disadvantages are:

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Since choice of sampling method is a judgmental task, there exist chances of biasness

as per the mindset of the person who chooses it.

Improper selection of sampling techniques may cause the whole process to defunct.
Selection of proper size of samples is a difficult job.
Sampling may exclude some data that might not be homogenous to the data that are
taken. This affects the level of accuracy in the results.

Probability Sampling

You have a complete sampling frame. You have contact information for the entire

population.
You can select a random sample from your population. Since all persons (or units)
have an equal chance of being selected for your survey, you can randomly select

participants without missing entire portions of your audience.

You can generalize your results from a random sample. With this data collection
method and a decent response rate, you can extrapolate your results to the entire

population.
Can be more expensive and time-consuming than convenience or purposive sampling.

Non-Probability Sampling
Used when there isnt an exhaustive population list available. Some units are unable to be
selected, therefore you have no way of knowing the size and effect of sampling error (missed
persons, unequal representation, etc.).

Not random.
Can be effective when trying to generate ideas and getting feedback, but you cannot

generalize your results to an entire population with a high level of confidence.

Quota samples (males and females, etc.) are an example. More convenient and less
costly, but doesnt hold up to expectations of probability theory.

Probability Sampling
When we choose certain items out of the whole population to analyse the data and draw a
conclusion thereon, it is called sampling. The way of sampling in which each item in the
population has an equal chance (this chance is greater than zero) for getting selected is called
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probability sampling. Probability Sampling uses lesser reliance over the human
judgment which makes the overall process free from over biasness.

For instance, consider we need to sample 3 students from a group of 12. We firstly assign
a random number to each of the element in the given data. After we assign the number, we
mark the elements with the highest assigned random numbers in each row (56 in the first row,
92 in second and 63 in the third) Then we proceed for further analysis with the selected
samples.
Since we assigned a number to each member of the population randomly, each one has an
equal chance of being selected, making our process probabilistic.

Advantages

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Cost Effective: As the task of assignment of random number to different items of

population is over, the process is half done. This process saves cost and time to a great

extent. We can take any number of samples from this process.

Involves lesser degree of judgment: While assigning the number to an item of the
population, the person assigns it in a random trend that makes the process of

probability sampling more effective and more accurate.

Comparatively easier way of sampling: Probability sampling does not involve any

complex and long process. Thus, this is an easier way for sampling.
Less time consuming: This process is a simple and short process. This takes lesser

time to complete. The saved time can be used for analysis and interpretation.
Can be done even by non- technical persons: Assignment of Random number can
be done by any kind of person after a short briefing as this does not involve any

lengthy, complex and crucial process

Sample representative of population: Probability Sampling uses random numbers
which ensures that the samples vary as much as the population itself.

Disadvantages

Chances of selecting specific class of samples only: If a surveyor is appointed to

survey about any data relating to family members, there is likely chances that s/he
will develop a trend of starting to number from the eldest member to the youngest and
numbers will be only increasing or decreasing only. In this case, only oldest or the

latest generations will be taken as samples.

Redundant and monotonous work: As the surveyor is asked to do a repetitive job to
assign the numbers and to take the information, there is likely chances that the
surveyor suffers from monotony and the effectiveness of the system will be reduced.

Types

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Depending on the size and nature of population, time and resources available and the
inferences required from the sample, different types of probability sampling can be
conducted.

Simple Random Sampling

Suppose that we are going to find out how many of the audience of the 'Real Madrid vs.
Barcelona' match that was conducted on October 2014 like Lionel Messi the most and how
many of them bet on Neymar Jnior as the best footballer in the world.
It is a herculean task to collect the exact data by assessing the views of all the 400
million audience.
So, we go to the stadium and assign random numbers to each person in the audience. We then
choose a person from each of the rows who has the highest value among the random numbers
assigned to the persons in the same row. This way, we choose the samples and ask them about
their views to get an unbiased analysis of what the audience thinks in general. This way of
selecting the samples is known as the Simple Random Sampling.
Definition
The process of assigning the random numbers to the elements of the population and selecting
some of them by way of certain specific rule (like highest among the local group/row lowest
among the group/row etc) is called Simple Random Sampling.
This process provides more reasonable judgment as we exclude the items coming
consecutively. In most of the cases, the chances of getting similar items among the
consecutive items is very much high. Simple random sampling addresses the issue by
avoiding the consecutive data to occur simultaneously.

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In the above figure, we first assigned the random numbers to each of the elements and
marked the elements with highest assigned number among the elements in the same group (or
Row). Then we take only those elements and then proceed for next process of data analysis
from the sampled data.
Advantages

Better chances that the sample represents the whole population: Simple Random
Sampling uses random numbers which ensures that the samples vary as much as the
population

itself.

Can be concluded in shorter time duration: This process is simple and short.
It takes lesser time to complete. The saved time can be used for analysis and

interpretation.
Costs less money: Once the task of assignment of random number to different items
of population is done the process is half done. This process saves cost and time to a
great extent and its simplicity ensures that we do not have to spend too many
resources on the sampling process itself. We can take any number of samples from

this process.
Involves lesser degree of judgment: While assigning the random number to an item
of the population, the person assigns the number in a random sequence that means the
process is unbiased as it doesn't involve the judgement of the person performing the
sampling.

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Comparatively easier way of sampling: Probability sampling does not involve any

complex and long process. Thus, this is an easier way for sampling.
Can be done even by non- technical persons too: Assignment of Random number
can be done by any kind of person after a short briefing as this does not involve any
lengthy, complex and crucial process

Disadvantages

Risks of selecting samples from a few variations only: The surveyor or more
correctly, the sampler might be distributing the random numbers based on rules of
thumb which will render the sampling ineffective e.g. If a surveyor is appointed to
survey about any data relating to family members, there is likely chances that s/he
might develop a trend of starting to number from the eldest member to the youngest
and numbers will be only increasing or decreasing only. In this case, only oldest or the
latest generations will be taken as samples.

Redundant and monotony: As the surveyor is asked to do a repetitive job to assign

the numbers and to take the information, there is likely chances that the surveyor
suffers from monotony and the effectiveness of the system will be blurred.

Simple random sampling is an effective, low resource consuming method of sampling that
can be used in a variety of situations as a reliable sampling method. With the advent of
computers, the problems associated with this method can be even reduced because a
computer can be used to generate the samples based on an algorithm that generates the
random numbers.

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Systematic Random Sampling

While reaching to conclusion about a large volume of data, we prefer to take samples from
the whole population and then we analyse them and reach to a conclusion. We expect that the
samples taken represents the whole population sufficiently or at least reasonably.
We want to use our judgment as less as possible as the judgment sometimes can lead towards
biasness. As the Simple Random Sampling involves more judgment and Stratified Random
Sampling needs complex process of classification of the data into different classes, we use
Systematic Random Sampling.
We can also say that this method is the hybrid of two other methods (viz. Simple
Random Sampling and Stratified Random Sampling).

The figure above shows us how we conduct the process of choosing the samples from the
given population. The first sample is chosen at random and then the remaining are chosen by
leaving two items after the previous sample.

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Process of Systematic Random Sampling

1

Determine th size of the population.

Determine the sample size (number of samples to be taken).

Calculate the number of items in the population to be represented by each sample.

No of items in the population to be represented by each sample (n) = Population
Size Sample Size.

Select any item as the first sample and choose next samples which comes at nth position
after the previous one.

Collect the samples and draw an appropriate conclusion.

Advantages:

Easier than Stratified Random Sampling and more effective than Simple
Random Sampling: You do not need to classify data in Systematic Random
Sampling as in Stratified Random Sampling. And it is more effective than Simple

Random Sampling as it avoids judgment.

Cost Effective: Stratification would

Systematic Random Sampling is more effective than others.

Avoids Judgments: It involves probability to a greater extent. So, judgments are

avoided. Once the first sample is chosen, the role of the judgment finishes.
Less Time Consuming: It does not cost the time for stratification nor it leaves

any doubt on reliability.

Higher degree of Control: We can control the sample size, first sample and other

cost

lots

of

resources.

Thus

means of control to complete the process. Thus, the level of control is always higher.
Disadvantages:

Size of the population may not be known before the sampling starts:Suppose that
we want to survey on the brand of cigarette that the smokers want. We
may not know how many of the population smoke or all the brands of the cigarettes

available in the market.

Assumption that the population is uniform may not always prove to be true
We cannot say that the population is enough uniform. Sometimes it can also be true
that the exceptional items appear on the portion of population that are taken as
samples. This makes the system defunct.

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Stratified Random Sampling

When we select a limited number of elements from large group of elements (population) for
sampling, we want to make sure that the samples taken correctly represent the population.
How much our analysis of the limited dataset agrees with the characteristics of the population
depends largely on the method of sampling used.
One way of selecting samples from the population is by dividing the whole population into
small strata consisting up of elements with some similar characteristics and then choosing
such number of samples from each of them so as to proportional to the size of the stratum.
This method of sampling is called Stratified Random Sampling and it is a kind of Probability
Sampling.
Process of Stratified Random Sampling

The above figure shows how different types of items are distributed in a random population.
We need to stratify the population. After the population is stratified as above, we can move on
to the calculation and analysis.
Calculation

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Imagine, for instance, you are appointed as the Head of the Investigation Team for a
suspected fraud in a company in a fiscal year, you have been provided with 100,000 journal
entries that were entered during the period of suspicion. You will not be examining all of the
transactions as you will not be provided years and years for the single investigation.
If you choose to use stratified random sampling, you proceed as follows:
1

Categorize all the journal entries into different classes of entries (Strata) eg:

Sales Vouchers = 70,000

Purchase Invoices =12,000

Salary Invoices =7,500

Purchase of Fixed Assets = 500

Others = 10,000

Decide for the size of the sample (Assume 2000 in this case)

Calculate the number of samples to be taken from each of the Stratum. eg:

Number of items to be represented by a single sample

= Total Number of Elements in the Population The number of Samples to be taken
= 100,000 2,000
= 50
Now, the numbers of samples to be taken from each of the stratum

Sales Vouchers
=Number of items in the strata 50
=70,000 50
= 1,400

Purchase Invoices
= Number of items in the strata 50
= 12,000 50
= 240

Salary Invoices
= Number of items in the strata 50

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= 7,500 50
= 150

Purchase of Fixed Assets

= Number of items in the strata 50
= 500 50
= 10

Others
= Number of items in the strata 50
= 10,000 50
= 200

Now, you can examine the number of items as stated above and reach your conclusion.
Advantages:

Stratified Random Sampling provides better precision as it takes the samples

proportional to the random population.

Stratified Random Sampling helps minimizing the biasness in selecting the samples.
Stratified Random Sampling ensures that no any section of the population are

underrepresented or overrepresented.
As this method provides greater precision, greater level of accuracy can be achieved
even by using small size of samples. This saves resources.

Disadvantages:

Stratified Random Sampling requires more administrative works as compared with

Simple Random Sampling.

It is sometimes hard to classify each kind of population into clearly distinguished

classes.
Stratified Random Sampling can be tedious and time consuming job to those who are
not keen towards handling such data.

Non-Probability Sampling

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We use Sampling techniques to reduce the time, money and other resources to be invested for
our survey. Probability Sampling techniques are widely used in surveys for fair and unbiased
sampling process. In some cases, the randomness of Probability Sampling cannot address the
niche need of the surveyors. In this case, we use Non- Probability Sampling.
Every time a media person takes an interview of a person on the street or a researcher
asks subject experts for opinions to get an idea of what the general populace thinks about an
issue, the surveyor is saving time and resource by using their judgement to select samples.
While the analysis is not statistically accurate, it is helpful to get an idea of the subject under
study.
This way of applying judgment in a sampling process reduces the opportunity that all the
items in the population have equal chances of being selected and is rightly called nonprobability sampling.
Types of Non-Probability Sampling
Convenience Sampling
This way of sampling selects those elements as samples that are most convenient to the
pollster. This does not necessarily mean that the selection of samples under this method is an
easy task but, it implies that the task is done without any principles or theories.

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The media person who asks questions to people around them to get a gist of public opinion
on an issue is a common example of convenience sampling. The sample is obviously biased
but it is very convenient.
Purposive Sampling
This method selects an element if it satisfies certain predetermined rule(s). This type of
sampling has several sub-types:

As the above image shows, the pollster chooses only certain members of the population that
have a trait that separates them from the rest.
Types of Purposive Sampling

Snowball Sampling: This process takes samples from the referrals of the previous
samples. In other words, this process takes samples which are either referred by
previous samples or somehow related with them. If you are conducting a survey
regarding the popularity of a tourist destination, we can add the persons as the
samples

who

were

with

the

previously

selected

persons.

Expert Sampling: This method takes experts as the samples. The views by them are
regarded as mode while getting into the conclusion.

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If we are to survey about the best building material for a specific region, we may
choose the views of those structural engineers who have at least 10 years of
experience and received at least one national level award.

Heterogeneity Sampling: This method aims to select those elements which have the
highest value of deviations from the average item. This method relies on the principle
that when we opt to choose samples, the collection of all the samples will represent
the whole population the best. When we want to conduct a survey about the different
alternatives of the Hot Water Bag, we would take samples representing all of the
views (regardless of the number of people supporting them) expressed therein.

Modal Instance Sampling: This method first asks the pollster to find the cases for
modal class of items. After it is found out, the researcher will then take samples
around that modal criteria.
When we are to derive a conclusion on the fashion consciousness on people, we first
conduct a survey for the modal class. If we find out that the modal class for such
survey is women of age group 20-40 years, we would choose samples from that group
only.

Advantages of Non-Probability Sampling

Probability Sampling methods give a very small space for judgment. A person with
sound knowledge and ability on the subject matter can best perform if the person is
permitted to conduct non-probability sampling.

Non -Probability Sampling can be very much cost effective as compared to

Probability Sampling. This saves time and money both at the same time by reducing
the administrative hassles and traveling etc.

This system fits best when the exhaustive population is not defined.

Disadvantages

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Excessive dependency on judgment: As this method has no specific rules or

principles for selection of samples, the dependency on judgment is very much
high. This can lead towards biasness and prejudice on the subject matter.

Needs much purpose-oriented pollsters: Due to excessive reliance on judgment, this

method

requires

the

pollsters

to

be

more

purpose

-oriented

pollsters

Focuses on simplicity over effectiveness

Convenience Sampling
When you take samples on the basis of your comfort, it is called convenience sampling. The
name "convenience" sampling is given because the selection of samples is done without any
predetermined theories or principles.
Convenience sampling is not preferred way of sampling for effective analysis as samples are
taken from specific section of the population. Convenience sampling is a type of NonProbability Sampling.

Convenience Sampling Example

When you are asked to survey about the habit of drinking alcohol in your town, you will not
go and roam all around the town. What you will do is meet a few households around you and
ask them about those who drink alcohol. It will not exactly reflect the position or
characteristics of the town but it is still reflecting some major characteristics to some extent.

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In the above figure, the pollster (person who conducts the poll) chooses items around it as the
samples. The items in the colored square represent the items chosen as samples. This usually
happens when the pollster is not asked to comply with the norms of the sampling expressly or
s/he is ignorant to the effectiveness of the system.
Advantages of Convenience Sampling

Easy Method: As Convenience Sampling allows the pollster to draw samples from
the zone where s/he gets comfortable, the sampling method becomes easier for the
pollster as compared to Stratified, Systematic Random Sampling and others.

Represents class of data pollster is familiar with: As the Pollster chooses those
items which are familiar with the environment of himself/herself, it becomes fruitful
for

understanding his/her

environment.

Less time consuming: The method can be conducted by taking only those items
which are easier to choose and analyze. This makes the whole process less time
consuming.

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Economic way of sampling: As this method puts its focus on the ease of the
person who conducts it, and chooses the items which are easiest for examination, it is
an economic way of sampling.

Disadvantages of Convenience Sampling

Fails to represent the whole population: Since all the samples are concentrated
around the person carrying out the survey, it cannot represent the whole sample as a

whole.
Whole system may become useless: When the end users are in need of the
information about the whole population, or when the end users' need of information

do not match with the perception of the pollster, the whole system goes defunct.
May not represent the whole population: Uneven distribution requires the system to
choose samples more dispersedly. It is because more dispersed samples represent the
population better. As the Convenience Sampling does not focus on choosing samples
in more dispersed way, it cannot be used for uneven population to draw conclusion on
the whole population.

Why Convenience sampling is used?

Convenience sampling is useful for Pilot Project (trial project) that aims for getting
information by selecting samples that are easier to study and satisfy certain criteria.
Convenience sampling are useful,

If the population is random.

When the whole population is difficult to be studied thoroughly.

Convenience sampling is used for our ease as it's less time consuming and easier method.
But, it is not preferred to use this technique for accurate analysis of population in all cases.

Purposive Sampling
When choosing the method of sampling, we usually try to make sure that the samples
represent the general population. But there are some cases where we might need an inquiry
on certain items that fulfil specific criteria. This is where purposive sampling is useful.

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In purposive sampling, the items are selected in such manner that each of them are rich
in information about the parameters that we are trying to study in the population.

In the above figure, a pollster wants to conduct a survey about the latest fashion trends in his
city. The pollster assumes that the information he is seeking can be best found from the
people with age group 16-30. So, he selects only people from that age range (shown in darker
shade) as samples. The main target for this sampling is not to represent the whole population
but to get sufficient information on fashion conscious people.
Purposive sampling focuses on the theoretical aspects of the data, explores the characteristics
of the items selected to form an opinion on them. Hence, purposive sampling focuses on
qualitative research.

Types of Purposive Sampling

Purposive Sampling Types
Politically Important Cases Sampling
Critical Case Sampling
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Purposive Sampling Types

Snowball or Chain Sampling
Criterion Sampling
Convenience Sampling
Expert Opinion Sampling
Combination Sampling
Opportunistic Sampling
Operational Construct Sampling
Confirm or Disconfirm Sampling
Politically Important Cases
In politically important cases sampling, some cases or issues with higher importance are
focused while some sensitive or undesirable cases are eliminated. When the inclusion of a
sample affects the notion of the overall poll to a great extent, such samples are excluded.
For example: A government is conducting a poll regarding the fear of terrorism in common
people in a particular region. The view of the people who have been under direct threat from
terrorists or directly affected by a terrorist attack will be too strong and might bias the
analysis.
In such cases, some views which seem to be more influenced, are excluded and the view with
apparently lesser influence will be taken for further analysis.
Critical Cases Sampling
Sometimes, we can make logical generalizations by taking a handful of special cases because
they provide us enough information about the general population.
For example: A mathematics teacher wants to know if the 200 students of his class
understood the lecture he gave on Probability Sampling. he will choose 5 of the most brilliant
students and 5 out of the weakest ones and ask them some questions related to the topic.
Here is a list of probable results and the recommended conclusions for them:

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Probable Results

Recommended Conclusion

Everybody gave correct answers

The class was quite effective

Nobody gave correct answers

The class was ineffective

The lecturer did not illustrate the

Brilliant students gave correct answer, but others could

details

well

not
A mix of brilliant students and weak students gave

Some

students

correct answer

distracted

might

have

Critical Case Sampling assumes that "If it is true for this one case, it is likely to be true of all
other cases". In the example, if even the weakest students can answer the questions, we can
generalize that everyone must have understood the lecture. Similarly, if even the most
brilliant students couldn't answer, we can reach the conclusion that the lecture was
ineffective. In this way, by choosing samples rich in certain information, we got information
about the general population that is the main advantage of purposive sampling.
Snowball or Chain Sampling
In purposive sampling, we are always in search of samples that are rich in certain
information. In snowball or chain sampling, the data is collected in such a way that helps in
selection of next samples too. We form a chain of samples and since each selection helps in
the selection of next sample through the snowball effect, it is called snowball or chain
sampling.
On some occasions, the people we select can help us or refer us to other people who might be
rich in the information we are looking for.
For example: If you are conducting a survey regarding the popularity of a tourist destination,
we first start by finding a few tourists. Once we find them, we can find more by asking them
about other tourists who they know have visited the destination.
In this way, finding one sample helps us find another to form a chain of samples that are rich
in information that the surveyor needs.
Criterion Sampling

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been

This method selects those samples that satisfy certain specified criteria that help us to
separate out the information rich samples.
For example: If the tourism ministry wants to focus their efforts on the needs of the regular
tourists, they can survey tourists who have visited a particular place at least thrice and have
been there at least in two different seasons. Such tourists can tell us more about their
experience about the place.
Criterion Sampling helps us to get more information from smaller number of samples. This
can save us time and money because the information collected from samples are
collected applying multiple criteria can be useful to multiple purposes too.
Convenience Sampling
When the surveyor chooses the samples based on his/her convenience like geographical
proximity or ease of contact with the samples, it is called convenience sampling. This saves
time and money because the surveyor can quickly find samples at low cost.
For example: When you are asked to survey about the habit of drinking alcohol in your
town, you will probably not go and roam all around the town asking people about their
drinking habits. What you can do is meet a few households around you and ask them about
those who drink alcohol.
It might not exactly reflect the position or characteristics of the entire town but it still gives
information about some major characteristics at a very low cost. It increases the convenience
of the surveyor and reduces the cost associated with selecting the samples. If we had selected
samples at random, contacting them, convincing them to take part in the survey and
collecting data would have been time-taking and costly processes.

Expert Opinion Sampling

The opinions of experts in any field are considered to be more reliable. Expert opinion
sampling is a method that gives preferences to the experts of the field under study when
choosing the sample from the population and their views are regarded as authoritative while
doing the research study. As the opinion of experts can be more convincing to others, this can
make the users of the data more confident on the conclusion drawn from the samples.
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For Example: If we are to survey about the best building material for a specific region, we
may choose the views of those structural engineers who have at least 10 years of experience
and received at least one national level award.
By choosing opinions of experts, we can increase the validity of the research and save time
and cost because the experts can give us more reliable and accurate information, are easy to
separate out based on criteria (e.g. we can survey PhDs in the field of study) and can give us
the information we need quicker due to their experience.
Combination Sampling
The process of triangulation or combination of two or more methods of sampling to get more
effective and more specific results is called Combination or Mixed Purposeful Sampling. The
idea is that if we apply different methods of sampling and get the same results upon analysis
of both sets of samples, we can be more confident that our results are accurate.
For example: When we are to survey about the cinematic quality of a movie, we may want to
choose those viewers who have done at least graduation in film making, direction or any
other faculties related with films (Expert Sampling) and have watched the movies at least
twice (Criterion).
After we get the results by taking opinions of experts and from those who have watched the
same movie at least twice, we analyse the results. If we get similar results from both set of
samples, we can conclude that the result is accurate.

Opportunistic Sampling
This method takes samples as they appear in their natural state. Elements are chosen as
samples if they satisfy certain criteria and are available at the time at which the observation is
being conducted.
For example: A student doing research on customer satisfaction choosing her friends who
are at canteen as the samples.
Theory-Based or Operational Construct
Sometimes a person wants to study about a Theoretical Construct like anxiety. Since it is very
difficult to quantify anxiety, the researcher operationalizes it in terms of social stress. i.e.
he tries to study anxiety by relating it with social stress. The people who might be facing
anxiety can now be traced easily. We just have to find those who are going through social
stress because of their condition.
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For Example: Someone who has recently become homeless, physically disabled people
etc. In this way, even theoretical topics can be researched by choosing an appropriate
operational construct and conducting the sampling process based on it.
Confirm or Disconfirm
After the sampling process, the researcher may want to further analyse the emerged patterns.
The researcher then picks some other information rich samples to get confirmed about the
previous results. This is mostly used for drug tests. After we conduct the first test, the second
is tested to Confirm or Disconfirm the results of the first. Such process taken to confirm or
disconfirm a theory, principle or a conclusion of a sampling process is called Confirm or
Disconfirm Sampling. If the results from the Confirm or Disconfirm Sampling suggests the
same as the previously found results, it confirms the results. If the results suggest another or
opposite suggestions, this will disconfirm the previous results and another theory or principle
will be drawn.
For example: A survey was conducted about the views of public on economic issues. The
survey concluded that the people believe that the world is about to adopt socialism in near
future. To confirm or disconfirm this result, we can conduct another survey.
From the above discussion, we can infer that Purposive Sampling can be very much useful
for the qualitative researches and other similar purposes to deduce a theory or develop some
principles and theories.

Snowball Sampling
Sometimes researchers need to study a group of population where identifying or
finding potential subjects can be difficult because they are either deviant or socially
isolated e.g. homeless people, drug addicts, members of an elite golf club etc. Snowball
sampling is a technique where a researcher picks the first few samples and either recruits
them or asks them to recommend other subjects they know who fit the description of samples
needed. This referral technique goes on and on, increasing the size of the respondent
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population like a snowball rolling down a hill until the researcher has sufficient data to
analyze. Snowball sampling is also called chain referral sampling.
Where to Use Snowball Sampling
For some populations, snowball sampling is the only viable sampling strategy because the
study group is secretive or hard to reach because of social stigma, illegality of their work or
lack of data.
Some of such cases are

There is no obvious list of the population of interest

homeless people

members of an elite golf club

difficulty to locate subjects

people suffering from rare diseases

less willingness to identify themselves due to social stigma

prostitutes

victims of sexual assault

gay, bisexual or transgender people

secretiveness or illegality of the organization

terrorists

hackers

religious extremists

Types of Snowball Sampling

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Linear Snowball Sampling

Subject refers only one other subject.

2

Exponential Non-Discriminative Snowball Sampling

Subject gives multiple referrals and each referral gives some more until required sample
size is reached.

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Exponential discriminative Snowball Sampling

Subject refers multiple people but only one is chosen as sample

Process for Snowball Sampling

1

Identify the population to study

Choose some samples to get the snowball rolling

Ask the initial subjects to nominate others who they know fit the description of potential
subjects

Repeat the above process until you have sufficient data

Advantages of Snowball Sampling

Referral system helps find samples quickly: Since you may not have exhaustive list
of the population for your study, the referral system helps to a great extent to get
appropriate samples quickly at conveniently low cost. For instance, It can be too
difficult to trace out those persons who go to brothels regularly or those who use
narcotic drugs or those who are prostitutes, but the referral system helps minimizing

the problem.
Low cost solution: This sampling technique can be implemented with little workforce
and without a lot of planning, making it cost and time efficient compared to other

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methods.

Works for hesitant subjects: Some persons do not want to come forward in public
researches due to their need for confidentiality. Drug users, prostitutes, brothel goers,
spies may not be willing to reveal their identity if you ask them in public if they are
so. Snowball Sampling helps for this situation as this system asks to those who are

familiar with the potential samples.

Secretive groups can be identified easily: Some social groups are secret by nature.
The classification, stratification and other analysis on them by a new person is quite
difficult. As this method takes information from those persons who are already
familiar with other potential samples, the process becomes quite easier. As an
example, the classification of drug users according to their frequency (Casual or
Addict) will only be revealed if you ask someone who is already quite familiar with
the drug users in that locality. And this helps to explores other insights of such groups
as well.

Disadvantages of Snowball Sampling

Potential sampling bias: The method is liable to various forms of sampling bias.
People associate with and nominate their peers who share very similar traits. This
means that the researcher might only be able to reach out to a small section of the
population.

Chance of lack of co-operation: Respondents may not be willing to co-operate citing

ethical reasons or fear of danger to their lives. The researcher has to gain the trust of
the sample before they are willing to recommend other potential subjects. This brings
the biases of both the researcher and the subject into play because how the individual
researcher

behaves

affects

the

research

output.

Peer network might not exist: If there is a communication gap among the
population, the whole process gets halted. For Example, Drugs users at their initial
stage might not be interacting with other drug users around them and thus might not
be able to nominate anyone.

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Quota Sampling
Sampling is the process of selecting a subset of the population for analysis to save time and
resources. In some cases, the properties or preferences of the population is determined by
certain characteristics that puts them in certain groups e.g. the preference of clothes depends
on age is different for children, teenagers, college students and working professionals.
Quota sampling helps us in the selection of the samples by providing important metadata
about how many samples need to be taken for each target group so that they are in proportion
to the original population.
When we take the samples from a group of items with specific traits or specific
characteristics in proportion to their size in the population, this is called quota sampling.

Example of Quota Sampling

Suppose that you are required to conduct a survey regarding the choice of colors by females
for a fashion designer. To get an accurate view of the data, you will need to collect data from
different sections of the population of different age groups.
If you do this randomly, it can be a difficult task because the place where you can find the
samples for each group is different. Teenagers hang out at completely different places than
old people and their preferences are greatly shaped by their age as well. To make life
easier, what you can do is divide the whole sample size into several fractions and assigning
each of them to a section of the population.

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In the above figure, the population is distributed randomly. i.e., the women of different age
are present. The assessment of the population needs to be done first. The next step becomes
to calculate the number of samples that are to be taken from each group. Now that you know
how many samples of each age group you need; you can plan your data collection better.

Process of Quota Sampling

Quota Sampling is a technical job and requires some steps to be handled carefully. The steps
are explained below:
1. Assess the Data and Determine the Traits to be chosen for Classification
In this step, we analyse our data and choose the traits or characteristics to be chosen for the
classification of the data. Traits can be:

Age Group

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Caste

Height

Level of Education

Sex

Level of Employment

Country of Origin

2. Determine the number of Samples to be taken from each Group

In this step, we calculate the number of samples that are to be taken from each of the groups.
This is done proportionally with the formula:
Number of Samples taken from a group
= Number of Items in the Group (Total number of Samples to be taken Total number of
Items in the population)
3.Selection of Samples
In this step, we select the samples in proportion to the number of samples from each group as
calculated in Step 2.

As shown in the diagram above, we calculated the relative percentages of different groups of
the population and calculated how many samples of each group we needed in the same
proportion. Now that we know how many samples are needed, it is much easier to divide up
the work of sample collection.
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Advantages:
Quota Sampling is widely adopted these days because of its many benefits. Some of the
advantages are stated below:

Quota Sampling is an economic process. It saves time and money both at the same
time by giving us important information about how many samples of each group we

need to collect
The extra information speeds up the sampling process
We can get a high level of accuracy because quota sampling is scientific with a welldefined process

Disadvantages:
Nothing can have only positive aspects. Quota Sampling also has its pros and cons. As this
process sets criteria to choose samples, disadvantages are mainly due to its non-random
nature. Some of the disadvantages are as follows:

Since quota sampling is a non-random sampling method, it is impossible to find the

sampling error.
There is always a chance of sampling bias as well, since the surveyor can choose to
ignore certain important characteristics for ease of access and cost-saving. For
example, if we are selecting colour preferences based on age group, if the surveyor
chooses samples from arts colleges only, though it satisfied the quota based on the
proportion of age, the survey might be biased because the color choice might have

been affected by academic background as well.

Some issues relating with those items which do not clearly fall in any of the
groups are understated.eg:
i.

Transgender and transsexual Issues

ii.

Other issues related with items that cannot be clearly categorized to certain
groups

Quota Sampling can be a useful technique if we handle it with due care and choose a good
strata-division method. A time saving, less costly and easy method with high rate of accuracy
is what always we want in sampling.
Politically Important Cases Sampling
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Politically important cases sampling is a type of Purposive Sampling where the sampling
method attracts or avoids attracting attention undesired attention by including or eliminating
specific sensitive samples.
Examples of Politically Important Cases

A government is conducting a poll regarding the fear of terrorism in common people

in a particular region. The view of the people who have been under direct threat from
terrorists or directly affected by a terrorist attack will be too strong and might bias the
analysis. In such cases, some views which seem to be more influenced, are excluded

and the view with apparently lesser influence will be taken for further analysis.
A program is launched nationwide. To analyze the effectiveness of the program, the
researcher may choose a district from with a legislator with high influence. Due to the
influential nature of that legislator, the data so obtained is more likely to get attraction

and become popular.

While conducting a survey on American system of government, one might choose the
Watergate or Iran-Contra scandals for study not merely because of the insight
approaches they provide on the American system of government but also to grab more
attention.

Advantages

Increases Effectiveness: Politically Important Cases Sampling increases the

effectiveness of the analysis by choosing attractive samples. Only such samples which
can attract more public attention and have more possibility of being acted on.

Avoids Adverse Samples: Selection of sensitive samples can bring about unnecessary
focus

to

the

research

analysis,

which

might

be

better

avoided.

Allows Customization: As this process is conducted as per the judgment of the

analyst, the process can be customized as per the necessity of the situation.

Disadvantages

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Risk of unnecessary focus on Presentation: This method focuses on the presentation

aspect of the research. Since the main focus lies on the presentation and attractiveness
of

the

information,

the

core

theme

might

go

missing.

Risk of Biasness: Since the method chooses or ignores only those samples which are
politically important, there is always a risk that the sampling process gets biased and
the

true

opinion

might

be

lost.

Risk of getting controversial: As this method chooses the samples on the basis on
political importance or adverseness, this method is more likely to be brought into
controversy due to conflicting opinions of the related parties.

Key Differences Between Probability and Non-Probability Sampling

The significant differences between probability and non-probability sampling
1. The sampling technique, in which the subjects of the population get an equal
opportunity to be selected as a representative sample, is known as probability
sampling. A sampling method in which it is not known that which individual from the
population will be chosen as a sample, is called nonprobability sampling.
2. The basis of probability sampling is randomization or chance, so it is also known as
Random sampling. On the contrary, in non-probability sampling randomization
technique is not applied for selecting a sample. Hence it is considered as Non-random
sampling.

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3. In probability sampling, the sampler chooses the representative to be part of the

sample randomly, whereas, in non-probability sampling, the subject is chosen
arbitrarily, to belong to the sample by the researcher.
4. The chances of selection in probability sampling, are fixed and known. As opposed to
non-probability sampling, the selection probability is zero, i.e. it is neither specified
not known.
5. Probability sampling is used when the research is conclusive in nature. On the other
hand, when the research is exploratory, nonprobability sampling should be used.
6. The results generated by probability sampling, are free from bias while the results of
non-probability sampling are more or less biased.
7. As the subjects are selected randomly by the researcher in probability sampling, so the
extent to which it represents the whole population is higher as compared to the
nonprobability sampling. That is why extrapolation of results to the entire population
is possible in the probability sampling but not in non-probability sampling.
8. Probability sampling test hypothesis but nonprobability sampling generates it.

Conclusion:
Although probability sampling is a well-defined concept under ideal text-book conditions, the
borderline between probability and nonprobability sampling is a bit vague when it comes to
survey sampling in practice. Even when the ambition is to use strict probability sampling,
there will usually be disturbances caused by non-sampling errors, so that the textbook
conditions are no longer satisfied. If one should stick rigidly to the text-book definition,
probability sampling hardly ever exists in real life. But it seems that the term probability
sampling is still used by responsible survey statisticians, as long as the disturbances are
considered to be small. Unfortunately, a satisfactory agreement on what should be meant by
small is still lacking. How to present the quality of statistics based on a probability sample
is an issue that has been discussed by statisticians for a long time, and it seems that a
considerable consensus has been reached. National statistical agencies and other big actors
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often have their own guidelines on how quality should be reported to the users. When it
comes to quality declaration of statistics based on a nonprobability sample, the situation is
different. There are no general guidelines on how users should be informed about the quality
of statistical results. Of course, if certain statistical model assumptions are made, the usual
technical apparatus of statistical theory can be used for model-based inference, but this type
of survey is not discussed in the present paper. Instead, I have wanted to draw attention to
quality declaration of statistical results from nonprobability surveys without model
assumptions, which are often used, for example, in market and opinion research. I think
statisticians should not disregard this type of surveys, but rather come up with concrete
suggestions for declaration of quality, to make it easier for users to judge how much they
should believe in the results. It seems that with nonprobability surveys (without model
assumptions), quality should not be expressed so much by numerical measures (such as
nonresponse rates), but rather by verbal descriptions of the procedures used, focusing on their
potential weaknesses.
While probability sampling is based on the principle of randomization where every entity
gets a fair chance to be a part of the sample, non-probability sampling relies on the
assumption that the characteristics are evenly distributed within the population, which make
the sampler believe that any sample so selected would represent the whole population and the
results drawn would be accurate.

Webliography:

https://www.mathstopia.net/sampling/definition-advantages-

disadvantages; 02/10/2016
http://survey.cvent.com/blog/market-research-design-tips-2/samplingdemystified-probability-vs-nonprobability-sampling; 02/10/2016
http://survey.cvent.com/blog/market-research-design-tips-2/samplingdemystified-probability-vs-nonprobability-sampling; 02/10/2016
https://www.mathstopia.net/sampling/probability-sampling-advantagesdisadvantages; 02/10/2016
https://www.mathstopia.net/sampling/systematic-random-sampling;
02/10/2016

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 https://www.mathstopia.net/sampling/simple-random-samplingadvantages-disadvantages; 02/10/2016
https://www.mathstopia.net/sampling/purposive-sampling-and-its-types;
02/10/2016
http://www.officialstatistics.files.wordpress.com/2010/05/bok03.pdf;
02/10/2016
http://keydifferences.com/difference-between-probability-and-nonprobability-sampling.html#Conclusion; 02/10/2016

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