BORE HOLE ENVIROMENT & INVASION

After drilling through a permeable

formation, generally a filtrate-invasion
process begins. If the pressure in the mud
column exceeds formation pressure, then
fluid from the mud will move into the
formation (porous and permeable), leaving
a deposit of mud cake on the borehole wall
The flushed zone is defined as the
zone around the borehole where the
pores are 100% filled with mud filtrate
The transition zone contains a
mixture of mud filtrate and original
formation fluids
The virgin zone contains only
original formation water and/or
hydrocarbon saturation.

Resistivities:
Rt - Resistivity of the formation in the virgin zone, ohm-m
Rxo - Resistivity of the flushed zone, ohm-m
Rm - Resistivity of the mud, ohm-m
Rmc - Resistivity of the mudcake, ohm-m
Rw - Resistivity of 100% formation water, ohm-m
Rmf - Resistivity of 100% mud filtrate , ohm-m

Saturations:
Sxo -Mud filtrate saturation in the flushed zone, %
Sw - Water saturation in the virgin zone, fraction of pore volume in, %

Diameters:
dh

- Diameter of the hole, m

di - Diameter of the flushed zone, m

Dri - Diameter of the flushed and transition zones together, m

Thicknesses:
h -Height of the bed being logged

hmc

- Thickness of the mudcake, m

,m

WELL LOGGING TOOLS

Caliper tool
Spontaneous Potential (SP)
Gamma Ray & Spectral Gamma ray
Resistivity Log
Density & Photoelectric
Neutron & APS tools

Sonic log

Objective
A caliper log is a well logging tool that measurement of the
size and shape of a borehole along its depth
The measurements can be an important indicator of cave or
shale swelling in the borehole.

Caliper Logs
Uses of the caliper log are : Contributory information for lithological assessment.

Indicator of good permeability and porosity zones (reservoir rock) due to

development of mudcake in association with gamma ray log.
Calculation of mudcake thickness:
hmc = (dbit dh)/2, where h stands for the hole, in inches.
Measurement of borehole volume:
Vh = (dh2/2)+1.2%, in liters' per meter.
Measurement of required cement volume:

V cement = 0.5 *(dh2 d2 casing) + 1%, in litres per metre.

to locate permeable zones as evidenced by the presence of a filter cake

Is also used to calculate the volume of cement needed behind the casing

Spontaneous Potential (Self- Potential)

Objective:
Theory

to detect the formation water resistivity (Rw)

1) Shale/ Sand/ Shale

2) Salinity contrast

Measure the electrical potential in the formation

caused by salinity difference between the drilling
mud and the formation water.
SP is generally and indicator of permeability.
SP log is used to identify impermeable zones
such as shale, and permeable zones such as
sand, as well as several other uses.

The log: The SP log is a measurement of the natural potential differences (selfpotentials) between an electrode in the borehole and a reference electrode at the
surface. curve records the naturally occurring electrical potential (voltage) produced by
the interaction of formation connate water, conductive drilling fluid.

The deflection on the SP curve result

from electric currents flowing in the
mud in the borehole. These SP
currents are cause electrochemical
and electrokinetic origins.

Principles of SP measurement
1-A conductive fluid in the borehole.
2-A porous and permeable bed
surrounded by an impermeable beds.
3-A difference in salinity between the
borehole fluid and the formation
fluid.

When mud filtrate salinities are lower than connate

water salinities (i.e., Rmf is > Rw), the SP deflects
to the left (the SP potential is negative). This is
called a normal SP. When the salinities are
reversed (i.e., salty mud and fresh formation water,
Rmf < Rw), the SP deflects to the right. This is
called a reverse SP. Other things being equal, there
is no SP (and no SP deflection) at all when Rmf = Rw.
In sand A, we see that Rw is less than Rmf; which
means that formation water is saltier than the mud
filtrate. In sand B, the SP deflection is less than in
sand A and thus a fresher formation water is
indicated. In sand C, the SP is reversed, indicating
that formation water is fresher than the mud filtrate
and thus Rw is greater than Rmf. Somewhere in the
region of 7000 feet it may be guessed that Rmf and
Rw are equal.

If Rmf > Rw
shales will have a low SP
and clean sandstones will
have a higher SP
.
If Rmf < Rw
shales will have a high SP
and clean sandstones will
have a lower SP.
If Rmf = Rw
little SP will be developed
and the SP log will have very
little character.

The magnitude of SP deflections is always

measured from the shale line and for a clean,
water-bearing formation containing a dilute
sodium chloride solution is given by

SP = -K log (Rmf/Rw)
The constant K depends on the temperature and
salt types in formation water (K = 71 at 25C )

Shale Volume Calculation

Shaliness indicator
SPshale = -10 mV
SPsand = -40 mV
SPlog = SP reading from
the log = -25 mV

The percentage
of shale will be :
SPlog - SPshale / SPsand Spshale
=-15/-30 = .5
or 50% shale

APPLICATIONS OF THE SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL LOG

1- Determination of formation water resistivity "Rw".
2- Can be used quantitatively as an indicator of shale content.
3- Identify the permeable and impermeable beds.
4-correlation.
(SP can only be acquired in open hole, conductive mud
environment with RmfRw)

GAMMA RAY LOG

Generally, a gamma ray log indicates the amount
of shale present

API

100

Measure Natural Radioactivity emissions from subsurface

formations.
Potassium
Uranium
Thorium

Gamma ray logs can be run in both open hole and cased-hole environments.
Cased-hole gamma ray can be used to correlate with the open hole gamma ray.

Low Natural Radioactivity

Sandstone
Limestone
Dolomites

High Natural Radioactivity

Shale
Organic rich rock (source rock)

Theory
The tool consists
simply of a highly
sensitive gamma ray
detector in the form of
a scintillation counter.

This counter is
composed of a
activated single
sodium iodide
crystal backed by
a photomultiplier

it is amplified by a photomultiplier
which consists of a photocathode and
a series of anodes held at progressively
higher electrical potentials, all of which
are arranged serially in a high vacuum.

When a GR
strikes the
crystal a small
flash of light is
produced.

This flash is
too small to be
measured using
conventional
electronics

Equipment: Scintillation Detector

The simple gamma ray log (GR)

gives the radioactivity of the
three elements combined,

while the spectral gamma ray

log (NGS) shows the amount of
each individual element
contributing to this radioactivity.

API

100

Shaly Sand
Shale
Very Shaly Sand
Clean Limestone
Shale
Dolomite
Shale
Clean Sand
Volcanic Ash
Coal
Anhydrite
Shaly Sand
Halite (NaACl)
Volcanic Ash
Gypsum

Spectral Gamma Ray Log (NGT)

Curves
Total gamma ray
uranium corrected
gamma ray
thorium
uranium
Potassium

Units
API
API
PPM
PPM
% or PPM

Restrictions: Logging speed is very slow.

Abbreviations
SGR or GR
CGR
THOR or TH
URAN or U
POTA or K

 The three radioactive elements measured by the NGT

occur in different parts of the reservoir. If we know the
lithology, we can obtain further information.
In Carbonates:
U - indicates phosphates, organic matter and
stylolites.

Th - indicates clay content.

K - indicates clay content, radioactive evaporites.

 In Sandstones:

Th - indicates clay content, heavy minerals.

K - indicates micas, micaceous clays and
feldspars.

In Shales:

U - in shale, suggest a source rock.

Th - indicates the amount of detrital material
or degree of shaliness.

K - indicates clay type and mica.

-The simple gamma ray sonde

can

be

combined

in

many

tools; it is run both centered in

the

borehole

(sonic

and

resistively tools) or against the

borehole wall, that is eccentric
(density and neutron tools).

Comparison of GR log from centered

(DLL-MSFL GR) and eccentered
(LDL-CNL- GR) tools.

Depth of investigation :
-The depth from which radiations can be detected by the simple
gamma ray tool is generally small but difficult to be precise about.

- One experiment fount that 75% of radiations detected came from a

14cm radius and 25cm vertically above and below the detector.
-the volume of investigation can be considered to be approximately
20 cm vertically above and below the detector (Along the borehole )
and 10 cm radially .

Depth of investigation of the gamma ray tool.

Gamma Ray Responses for Sedimentary Rocks

Gamma Ray
0

api

150

Shale
Sand
Shale

Sand

Shale

Shale volume
0

api

150

135
90

1) Pick a clean GR response

Shale

3) Scale between
Sand
Shale

35

2) Pick a shale GR response

Vsh =

GR
GR

log

- Gr clean

shale

- Gr clean

GR 90 -> Vsh = 55%

Sand

Shale

Gamma ray logs are used for main purposes:

Correlation between wells.

Determination of bed boundaries (Top and Bottom).

Evaluation of shale content within a formation

Mineral analysis.

Resistivity Log

Electrical types
Conventional Current
Micro Log (ML)
Micro Lateral
Micro Normal
Short Normal
Long Normal
Lateral

Focused Current

Micro Spherically Focused

log
Latero Log Shallow (LLS)
Latero Log Deep(LLD)
Latero Log-3 (LL-3)
Latero Log-7 (LL-7)

theory

Conventional Tools Limitations Microresistivity Tools

Microresistivity devices are characterized
by short electrode spacings of only a few
inches. This limits such tools to very
shallow depths of investigation.
Microresistivity tools are useful in
determining the following:

flushed zone saturation, Sxo

residual oil saturation, (ROS)
hydrocarbon movability
invasion corrections to deep
resistivity devices

Which Resistivity Log are

recommended
Induction logs are recommended when:
The hole to be logged is filled with fresh water or
The hole to be logged is filled with oil-base mud
The hole to be logged was air drilled
The Rmf/Rw ratio is greater than 2.5
Resistivity rang Up To 200 OHMM

Which Resistivity Log are

recommended
Laterlog are recommended when:
The hole to be logged is filled with Saline water
The Rmf/Rw ratio is Less than 2.5
Resistivity rang Up To 40000 OHMM is Possible

Exercise
Rmf

Rw

0.1

0.02

0.2

0.045

0.15

0.1

which Type of Logging you choose

(Induction or Latero) in Porosity 15 % ?

Resistivity Log
Deep (True)
Resistivity

Medium (Transition
Zone) Resistivity

Shallow (Flushed
Zone) Resistivity

Focused Electrode Resistivity Tools

Micro

Spherically Focused Log (MSFL)

Dual Laterolog Tool (DLL)

EXAMPLE LOG WITH RESISTIVITY

0

GR

SP
-160 MV
CAL
6

150

0.2

40

0.2

16

0.2

LLD
LLS
MSFL

200
200
200

RHOC
1.95
2.95
CNLLC
0.45
-0.15

DT
150 us/f 50

LLD
0.2

200

10700

LLS

0.2

200
MSFL

0.2
10800

10900

Resistivity
Log

200

Micro Spherically Focused log (MSFL)

Measures flushed zone resistivity (Rxo)
when run with other resistivity logs
Indicate moveable hydrocarbons
Estimate invasion diameter when used
with deeper reading resistivity devices
Delineate thin beds

Run in both fresh and saltwater based

drilling fluids
Combinable with other logging tools
including DIL and DLL
A depth of penetration of about 4

Laterologs
Laterolog tools were developed for high salinity drilling muds, applied to
drill through salt layers,
Both the induction and laterolog tools are superior to the older ES tools
to obtain a reliable value of the true resistivity of the uninvaded
formation.
They are also provide better resolution of thin beds, Both modes of the
dual laterolog have a bed resolution of 2 feet.
Focusing electrode systems are available with deep and medium
depths of investigation.

Dual Laterolog (DLL)

Distinguish

between saltwater-bearing and

hydrocarbon bearing formations.
Determine

true formation resistivity

(Rt) for calculating water saturation
Estimate

invasion diameters
Indicate moveable hydrocarbons
Focused

measurements with high vertical

resolution and deep depth of investigation.
Accurate

deep (LLd) and shallow (LLs)

formation resistivity measurements.
Run

in saltwater-based drilling fluids,

but may also be used in fresh waterbased drilling.

Laterologs: (LL)
It is a type of modern electrodes which have a number of electrodes.
LL3 has 3 current emitting electrodes (vertical resolution is 1 ft).
LL7 has 7 current emitting electrodes (vertical resolution is 3 ft).
LL8 is similar to the LL7, but has the current return electrode
(vertical resolution is 1ft).

LL3

LL7

High-Resolution Induction Tools

Invasion

Shale
Zero
Permeability
No Invasion

Low Invasion
Water Bearing
Zone

Low Invasion
Oil Bearing Zone

Transition
Zone
water

Transition
Zone
Oil

LLS

LLD

MSFL

When MSFL = LLS = LLD

this indicates zero or very shallow invasion.
- When MSFL > LLS = LLD
this indicates moderate invasion.

- When MSFL > LLS > LLD

which indicates deep invasion.

When MSFL = LLS > LLD

This response indicates very deep invasion.

Resistivity

0.2

Ohmms
1

10

2000

100

1000

Shale
Sand
Shale
Shallow
Hydrocarbon
Sand
Deep

water
Shale

Resistivity
0.2

Ohms
1

10

100

2000

Basic Archie resistivity formula:-

1000

Sw =
Shale
Sand
Shale
400

a
n

Rw
m

Rt

Sw = water saturation
Rw = formation water resistivity
Rt = formation resistivity
= porosity
a, m, n are constants
(default a=1, m=2, n=2)
Example porosity = .26 (26%)

Sand

0.3

Sw = 100%
Rw = .02 (at reservoir temp)

Shale

Sw = 3%

Borehole Imaging Methods

Describe structures and features such as faults and fractures,
Define and characterize sedimentary bodies and environments,
Determine sedimentary dip direction,
Recognize and evaluate thin beds and internal bed characteristics