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Phase Diagrams
In metallurgy, the term phase is used to refer to a physically homogeneous state of
matter, where the phase has a certain chemical composition, and a distinct type of
atomic bonding and arrangement of elements. Within an alloy, two or more different
phases can be present at the same time. The images below show the phases in
aluminum-copper and iron-carbon alloys.

Al2Cu precipitates in an aluminum

Ferrite (white) and cementite (dark) in
matrix.
steel.
DoITPoMS Micrograph Library, Univ.
of Cambridge
Each phase within an alloy has its own distinct physical, mechanical, electrical, and
electrochemical properties. For example, in carbon steel, ferrite is a relatively soft
phase and cementite is a hard, brittle phase. When they are present together, the
strength of the alloy is much greater than for ferrite and the ductility is much better
compared to cementite. Thus, an alloy with more than one phase can be considered to
be a composite material.

The phases present in an alloy depend on the alloy composition and the thermal
treatment to which the alloy has been exposed. Phase diagrams are graphical
representations of the phases present in a particular alloy being held at a particular
temperature. Phase diagrams can be used to predict the phase changes that have
occurred in an alloy that has been exposed to a particular heat treatment process. This
is important because the properties of a metal component depend on the phases
present in the metal.
Phase diagrams are useful to metallurgists for selection of alloys with a specific
composition and design and control of heat treatment procedures that will produce
specific properties. They are also used to troubleshoot quality problems.
Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
An example of a commonly used phase diagram is the iron-carbon phase diagram,
which is used to understand the phases present in steel. The amount of carbon present
in an iron-carbon alloy, in weight percent, is plotted on the x-axis and temperature is
plotted on the y-axis. Each region, or phase field, within a phase diagram indicates the
phase or phases present for a particular alloy composition and temperature. For the
iron-carbon phase diagram, the phase fields of interest are the ferrite, cementite,
austenite, ferrite + cementite, ferrite + austenite, and austenite + cementite phase
fields.
The phase diagram indicates that an iron-carbon alloy with 0.5% carbon held at 900 C
will consist of austenite, and that the same alloy held at 650 C will consist of ferrite and
cementite. Furthermore, the diagram indicates that as an alloy with 0.78% carbon is
slow cooled from 900 C, it will transform to ferrite and cementite at about 727 C.

Aluminum-Copper Phase Diagram

Another commonly used phase diagram is the aluminum-copper phase diagram, which
is useful for understanding precipitation strengthening in Al-Cu alloys. The amount of
copper present in an alloy is plotted on the x-axis. The phase fields of interest are the
Al, , and Al+ phase fields on the left hand side. For precipitation strengthening an AlCu alloy, this phase diagram indicates the minimum temperature to which an alloy must
be heated to put all the copper in solution. This is indicated by the solvus line on the

phase diagram. The maximum amount of copper that can contribute to precipitation
strengthening is indicated by the maximum amount of copper (5.45 %) that can go into
solid solution in the aluminum.

Equilibrium Conditions
Phase diagrams indicate the relationship between the phases present, alloy
composition, and temperature under conditions of slow heating or cooling. Slow heating
or cooling allows the atoms within a metal to move around so that the alloy is at
equilibrium. However, with many heat treatment processes, a metal is exposed to fast
heating and cooling. Under these conditions it is possible to have phases missing or
present compared to what is indicated by the phase diagram. Therefore, it is also
important to understand the kinetics of phase transformations, i.e. the effects of
temperature, time, cooling rate, and heating rate on phase changes within an alloy.
This will be a topic of another article.
You can learn more about how to read and use phase diagrams in a few of our
courses. Metallurgy of Steel and Metallurgy of Steel Heat Treating teach about the ironcarbon phase diagram. Metallurgy of Precipitation Strengthening teaches about the
aluminum-copper phase diagram.