Boiling and Condensation

Boiling
Dr. Chetan S. Mistry

Associate Professor,
Mechanical Engg. Dept.
Institute of Technology, Nirma University
BOILING HEAT TRANSFER
Evaporation
Occurs at the liquidvapor interface when
the vapor pressure is less than the
saturation pressure of the liquid at a given
temperature.
Water in a lake at 20C, for example, will
evaporate to air at 20C, since the
saturation
pressure of water at 20C is
2.3 kPa and
the vapor pressure of air at
20C is 1.4 kPa.
The drying of clothes, fruits, and
vegetables; the evaporation of sweat to cool
the human body; and the rejection of
waste
heat in wet cooling towers.
BOILING HEAT TRANSFER
Boiling
Occurs at the solidliquid interface when
a liquid is brought into contact with
surface maintained at a temperature
sufficiently above the saturation
temperature
of the liquid.
At 1 atm, for example, liquid water in
contact with a solid surface at 110C will
boil since the saturation temperature of
water at 1 atm is 100C.
Boiling is a complicated phenomenon
because of the large number of variables
involved in the process and the complex
fluid motion patterns caused by the bubble
formation and growth.
Boiling heat flux from a solid surface to the fluid

q& boiling = h(Ts - Tsat )
DTexcess = (Ts - Tsat ) = Excess temperature
Classification of boiling
Boiling is called pool boiling in the absence of

bulk fluid flow.
Any motion of the fluid is due to natural
convection currents and the motion of the
bubbles under the influence of buoyancy.
Boiling is called flow boiling (or forced

convection boiling) in the presence of bulk fluid
flow.
In flow boiling, the fluid is forced to move
in a heated pipe or over a surface by
external means such as a pump.
Subcooled (Local) Boiling
When the temperature of the main body

of the liquid is below the saturation
temperature.
Boiling is confined to a region in the
locality of the hot surface and is
appropriately called local or subcooled
boiling
Saturated (Bulk) Boiling
When the temperature of the liquid is

equal to the saturation temperature.
The bubbles start rising to the top. We
can see bubbles throughout the bulk of
the liquid so called bulk or saturated
boiling
POOL BOILING
In pool boiling, the fluid is not forced
to flow by a mover such as a pump.
Any motion of the fluid is due to
natural convection currents and the
motion of the bubbles under the
influence of buoyancy.
Boiling heat flux from a solid surface

to the fluid
q& boiling = h(Ts - Tsat )

DTexcess = (Ts - Tsat ) = Excess temperature
Natural Convection Boiling (to Point A on the Boiling Curve)
Bubbles do not form on the heating surface until the liquid is heated
a few degrees above the saturation temperature (about 2 to 6C for
water)
The liquid is slightly superheated in this case (metastable state).
The fluid motion in this mode of boiling is governed by natural
convection currents.
Heat transfer from the

heating surface to the
fluid is by natural
convection.
For
the
conditions
natural
convection
boiling ends at an excess
temperature of about
5C.
Nucleate Boiling (between Points A and C)
The bubbles form at an

increasing rate at an increasing
number of nucleation sites as
we move along the boiling
curve toward point C.
Region AB isolated
bubbles.
50 C DTexcess 10 0 C
Region
BC
numerous
continuous columns of vapor
in the liquid.
10 0 C DTexcess 30 0 C
Point A is referred to as the
Onset of Nucleate Boiling (ONB).
In region AB the stirring and agitation caused by the entrainment of

the liquid to the heater surface is primarily responsible for the increased
heat transfer coefficient.
In region AB the large heat fluxes obtainable in this region are caused
by the combined effect of liquid entrainment and evaporation.
For the entire nucleate boiling range, the heat transfer coefficient ranges
from about 2000 to 30,000 W/m2K.
After point B the heat flux
increases at a lower rate
with increasing DTexcess,
and reaches a maximum at
point C.
The heat flux at this point

is called the critical (or
maximum) heat flux, and
is of prime engineering
importance.
Transition Boiling (between Points C and D)
When DTexcess is increased past point C,

the heat flux decreases.
This is because a large fraction of the

heater surface is covered by a vapor
film, which acts as an insulation.
In the transition boiling
regime, both nucleate and
film boiling partially occur.
Operation in the transition

boiling regime, which is also
called the unstable film
boiling regime, is avoided in
practice.
For water, transition boiling
occurs over the excess
temperature range from about
30C to about 120C.
10
Film Boiling (beyond Point D)
Beyond point D the heater

surface
is
completely
covered by a continuous
stable vapor film.
Point D, where the heat flux
reaches a minimum is called
the Leidenfrost point.
The presence of a vapor film
between the heater surface
and the liquid is responsible
for the low heat transfer rates
in the film boiling region.
The heat transfer rate
increases with increasing
excess temperature due to
radiation to the liquid.
11
Burnout Phenomenon
A typical boiling process does

not follow the boiling curve
beyond point C.
When the power applied to the
heated surface exceeded the
value at point C even slightly,
the
surface
temperature
increased suddenly to point E.
When the power is reduced
gradually starting from point E
the cooling curve follows with a
sudden
drop
in
excess
temperature when point D is
reached.
12
Any attempt to increase the heat flux

beyond qmax will cause the operation
point on the boiling curve to jump
suddenly from point C to point E.
However, surface temperature that

corresponds to point E is beyond the
melting point of most heater
materials, and burnout occurs.
Therefore, point C on the boiling
curve is also called the burnout
point, and the heat flux at this point
the burnout heat flux.
Most boiling heat transfer equipment
in practice operate slightly below qmax
to avoid any disastrous burnout.
For cryogenic applications fluids with low boiling points such as Oxygen and
Nitrogen, The point E falls below the melting point of heater materials and
steady film boiling can be used in those cases without any danger of burnout
13
14
Heat Transfer Correlations in Pool Boiling
Boiling regimes differ considerably in their character.

Different heat transfer relations need to be used for different boiling
regimes.
In the natural convection boiling regime heat transfer rates can be
accurately determined using natural convection relations.
Nucleate Boiling
No general theoretical relations for heat
transfer in the nucleate boiling regime is
available.
Experimental based correlations are used.
The rate of heat transfer strongly depends
on the nature of nucleation and the type
and the condition of the heated surface.
16
Minimum Heat Flux
Minimum heat flux, which occurs at

the Leidenfrost point, is of practical
interest since it represents the lower
limit for the heat flux in the film
boiling regime.
Zuber derived the following expression
for the minimum heat flux for a large
horizontal plate
This relation above can be in error by
50% or more.
Transition
boiling
regime
17
FLOW BOILING
In flow boiling, the fluid is forced to move

by an external source such as a pump as it
undergoes a phase-change process.
It exhibits the combined

convection and pool boiling.
External flow boiling over a plate or

cylinder is similar to pool boiling, but the
added motion increases both the nucleate
boiling heat flux and the maximum heat
flux considerably.
The higher the velocity, the higher the

nucleate boiling heat flux and the critical
heat flux.
effects
of
Internal flow boiling, commonly referred to as two-phase flow, is much

more complicated in nature because there is no free surface for the
vapor to escape, and thus both the liquid and the vapor are forced to
flow together.
18
External Flow Boiling

Lienhard and Eichhron
For low velocity (Laminar flow region)
d
Ts
Tw
q& max
1
4 3
= r v h fg u 1 +

P We
For high velocity (Turbulent flow region)

1
r 34
r
l
rv
&q max = r v h fg u v +
1
169
P
19.2 P We 3
r vu 2 d
Where We = Weber number =
All properties are at Tsat

The two-phase flow in a tube

exhibits different flow boiling
regimes, depending on the
relative amounts of the liquid
and the vapor phases.
Note that the tube contains a
liquid before the bubbly flow
regime and a vapor after the
mist-flow regime.
Heat transfer in those two cases
can be determined using the
appropriate relations for singlephase convection heat transfer.
20
Liquid single-phase flow
In the inlet region the liquid is subcooled and heat transfer to the liquid is
by forced convection (assuming no subcooled boiling).
Bubbly flow
Individual bubbles
Low mass qualities
Slug flow
Bubbles coalesce into slugs of vapor.

Moderate mass qualities
Annular flow
Core of the flow consists of vapor

only, and liquid adjacent to the walls.
Very high heat transfer coefficients
Mist flow
A sharp decrease in the heat transfer

coefficient
Vapor single-phase flow
The liquid phase is completely

evaporated and vapor is superheated.
21
Flow regimes in Internal Flow Boiling
Applications of Boiling
House hold refrigerator ( refrigerant boiling)
Steam power plants boilers

Chemical industries boilers
Cooling of nuclear reactor by coolant boiling
Industrial kettles
Electronic component cooling by boiling of liquid in which these
are placed
Regenerative cooling of rocket motors
Condensation
Associate Professor,
Mechanical Engg. Dept.
Institute of Technology, Nirma University
Turbine
Boiler
Condenser
Condenser
Pump
Expansion
valve
Compressor
Evaporator
Condensation occurs when the temperature of a vapour is reduced

below its saturation temperature Tsat.
It is done by bringing the vapour into contact with a solid surface
whose temperature Ts is below the saturation temperature Tsat of the
vapour.
Condensation can also occur on the free surface of a liquid or even in
a gas when the temperature of the liquid or the gas to which the
vapour is exposed is below Tsat. The liquid droplets suspended in the
gas form a fog
CONDENSATION HEAT TRANSFER
Film condensation
Dropwise condensation
FILM CONDENSATION
80 C
Condensate wets the surface and forms a

liquid film on the surface that slides down
under the influence of gravity.
Surface is blanketed by a liquid film of
increasing thickness, and this liquid wall
between the solid surface and the vapor
serves as a resistance to heat transfer
Liquid film
Condensate film thickness are thin heat transfer coefficients are
large
Example - Steam at a saturation temperature of 305 K condenses on
a 2 cm O.D tube with a wall temperature of 300 K
Average film thickness - 50mm (0.05 mm) and the average heat
transfer coefficient 11,700 W/m2.K
If the condensate flow rate is small, the surface of the film will be
smooth and the flow laminar because
Temperature difference is small
Wall is short
If the condensate flow rate is high, waves will form on the surface to
give wavy laminar flow
If the condensate flow rate is yet higher, the flow becomes turbulent
DROPWISE CONDENSATION
In drop wise condensation, the condensed vapour

forms droplets on the surface instead of a
continuous film, and the surface is covered by
countless droplets of varying diameters.
If the condensate does not wet the wall, because
either it is dirty or it has been treated with a nonwetting agent, droplets of condensate nucleate at
small pits and other imperfections on the surface,
and they grow rapidly by direct vapor
condensation upon them and by coalescence.
When the droplets become sufficiently large, they
flow down the surface under the action of gravity
and expose bare metal in their tracks, where
further droplet nucleation is initiated.
Droplets slide down when they reach a certain size, clearing the
surface and exposing it to vapor.
There is no liquid film in this case to resist heat transfer.
Heat transfer rates that are more than 10 times larger than those
associated with film condensation can be achieved with dropwise
condensation
Most of the heat transfer is through drops of less than 100mm
diameter
Thermal resistance of such drops is small; hence, heat transfer
coefficients for dropwise condensation are large;
values of upto 30,000 W/m2.K have been measured.
Hence, Drop wise condensation is preferred over film wise
condensation.
Considerable efforts are put for non-wetting heat exchanger surfaces
How to promote Drop wise condensation
By using various vapour additives and surface coatings.
If the surface is treated with non-wetting agent (stearic acid) to

promote dropwise condensation, the effect lasts only few days, until
the promoter is washed off or oxidized.
Continuous adding of the promoter to the vapour is expensive and
contaminates the condensate.
Bonding a polymer such as Teflon to the surface is expensive and adds
additional thermal resistance.
Gold plating is also expensive.
Because of lack of sustainability of dropwise condensation, present
day condensers are designed based on filmwise condensation.
Filmwise condensation conservative estimate
LAMINAR FLOW CONDENSATION ON A VERTICAL WALL
( Transition)
The first fundamental analysis leading to the determination of heat

transfer coefficient during film wise condensation of pure vapour on a
flat plate and a circular tube was given by Nusset in 1916.
According to Nusset,
Thickness of film depends on
Rate of condensation of water.
Rate at which condensate is removed from the surface.
Here Reynolds number
4m& l
Re =
ml p
Where m& l = Mass flow rate at x = L
ml = Dynamic viscocity of liquid @Tf
Tw + Ts
2
p = Perimeter = PD for vertical tube
Tf = Film temperature =
= w for verticle or incline plate of width' w'

= 2L for horizontal tube of length ' L'
According to Nusset,
1
gr l (r l - r v )k h 4
h = 0.943
ml (Ts - Tw )L
Where L = Length of tube in ' m'
3 '
l fg
kl = Thermal conductivity of liquid @Tf
rl = Liquid density @Tf

ml = Dynamic viscosity of Liquid in kgm/s @Tf
r v = Vapour density @Ts
Ts = Saturated temperature ( 0 C)
Tw = Wall temperature ( 0 C)
h 'fg = Modified latent heat
= h fg + 0.68c pl (Ts - Tw )
h fg = Latent heat @Ts

c pl = Specific heat of liquid @Tf
We know,
Q = hA(Ts - Tw )
and
Q = m& l h 'fg for laminar film condensation
If we consider
rl >> r v
1
-1
u 3
= 1.46 Rel 3 for Re 30
g
Where ul = Kinematic viscosity of liquid @Tf
h
kl
2
l
Condensation number
For inclined plate
h inclined = h ver (cos q )
Kutateladge relation
For transi tion region,
30 < Re < 1600
h
kl
2
l
Re
=
1.08 Re1.22 - 5.2
Labuntsov relation
For turbul ent region,
Re > 1600
h
kl
2
l
Re
8750 + 58 Pr - 0.5 Re 0.75 - 253
Condensation in horizontal tube, tube bank and sphere
For horizontal tube,

1
gr l (r l - r v )k h 4
h = 0.725
(
)
m
T
T
D
l
s
w
Where D = Outer diameter of tube in ' m'
3 '
l fg

= h fg + 0.68c pl (Ts - Tw )

If we consider
rl >> r v
1
1
u 3
= 1.51 Rel 3 for Re 30
g
Where ul = Kinematic viscosity of liquid @Tf
h
kl
Re =
2
l
4m& l
2m& l
=
ml 2 L ml L
For sphere,
gr l (r l - r v )k h
h = 0.826
ml (Ts - Tw )D
3 '
l fg
Comparing the relation for vertical and horizontal tube of

diameter D and Length L
hver
D
= 1.29
hhoriz
L
If we assume h ver = h horiz

L = 2.77 D
For L > 2.77 D
The heat transfer coefficient will be higher for horizontal position.
So it is common practice to place tubes in horizontal to maximize
the heat transfer coefficient on the outer surafece of tube
Condensation in horizontal tube bank
For horizontal tube bank with N tubes,

hDN = 0.725
ml (Ts - Tw )ND
Where D = Outer diameter of
3 '
l fg
4
1
=
hhoriz
N 4
tube in ' m'

= h fg + 0.68c pl (Ts - Tw )

Chen' s mdified equation for horizontal tube bank with N tubes,

0.2c pl (Ts - Tw )
(N - 1)
hDN = 0.725 1 +
h fg
ml (Ts - Tw )ND
Where D = Outer diameter of tube in ' m'
3 "
l fg

h"fg = Chen' s modified latent heat
3
= h fg + c pl (Ts - Tw )
8
Condensation inside the horizontal tube
Film condensation on the outer surfaces of tubes and other geometries,

which is characterized by negligible vapor velocity and the unrestricted
flow of the condensate.
Most condensation processes encountered in refrigeration and airconditioning applications, however, involve condensation on the inner
surfaces of horizontal or vertical tubes.
Heat transfer analysis of condensation inside tubes is complicated by
the fact that it is strongly influenced by the vapor velocity and the rate
of liquid accumulation on the walls of the tubes
Dropwise Condensation
Dropwise condensation has been studied experimentally for a number

of surfacefluid combinations.
Of these, the studies on the condensation of steam on copper surfaces
has attracted the most attention because of their widespread use in
steam power plants.
P. Griffith (1983) recommends these simple correlations for

dropwise condensation of steam on copper surfaces,
h D,C = 51,104 + 2044Ts
220 C < Ts < 100 0 C
h D,C = 255310
Ts > 100 0 C
For steam
m& DC r D g
=
m& FC 24.2 ml m& FC
2
l

Boiling and Condensation

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Boiling

Dr. Chetan S. Mistry

BOILING HEAT TRANSFER

BOILING HEAT TRANSFER

Boiling heat flux from a solid surface to the fluid

DTexcess = (Ts - Tsat ) = Excess temperature

Boiling is called pool boiling in the absence of

Boiling is called flow boiling (or forced

Subcooled (Local) Boiling

When the temperature of the main body

Saturated (Bulk) Boiling

When the temperature of the liquid is

Boiling heat flux from a solid surface

q& boiling = h(Ts - Tsat )

Dr. Chetan S. Mistry

Natural Convection Boiling (to Point A on the Boiling Curve)

Heat transfer from the

Nucleate Boiling (between Points A and C)

The bubbles form at an

In region AB the stirring and agitation caused by the entrainment of

The heat flux at this point

Transition Boiling (between Points C and D)

When DTexcess is increased past point C,

This is because a large fraction of the

Operation in the transition

Dr. Chetan S. Mistry

Film Boiling (beyond Point D)

Beyond point D the heater

A typical boiling process does

Dr. Chetan S. Mistry

Any attempt to increase the heat flux

Dr. Chetan S. Mistry

However, surface temperature that

Dr. Chetan S. Mistry

Dr. Chetan S. Mistry

Heat Transfer Correlations in Pool Boiling

Boiling regimes differ considerably in their character.

Minimum Heat Flux

Minimum heat flux, which occurs at

Dr. Chetan S. Mistry

In flow boiling, the fluid is forced to move

It exhibits the combined

External flow boiling over a plate or

The higher the velocity, the higher the

Internal flow boiling, commonly referred to as two-phase flow, is much

External Flow Boiling

For high velocity (Turbulent flow region)

All properties are at Tsat

The two-phase flow in a tube

Dr. Chetan S. Mistry

Liquid single-phase flow

Bubbles coalesce into slugs of vapor.

Core of the flow consists of vapor

A sharp decrease in the heat transfer

Vapor single-phase flow

The liquid phase is completely

Flow regimes in Internal Flow Boiling

Dr. Chetan S. Mistry

House hold refrigerator ( refrigerant boiling)

Steam power plants boilers

Dr. Chetan S. Mistry

Dr. Chetan S. Mistry

Condensation occurs when the temperature of a vapour is reduced

Dr. Chetan S. Mistry