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SELECTION
(2) Characteristics, such as electrical conductivity, thermal coefficient of expansion, and thermal
conductivity, are important considerations for selection of materials.
For instance, cupronickel (90-10 CuNi) are excellent materials for heat exchanger tubes in thermal
desalination plants employing raw seawater, because of their excellent conductivity and corrosion
resistance.
(3) Factors, such as yield strength, tensile strength, fatigue strength and creep strength are crucial
to design as they dictate the ability of a product or component to withstand different types of
stresses imposed upon them while in service.
Mechanical properties are also affected by environment. For instance, the yield strength of steels
may be significantly reduced by saline water over a period of time.
Aircraft flying at lower altitudes in sea coastal areas beset with high humidity, salt particles and
temperatures exceeding 50C, suffer loss of performance. The maximum takeoff weight is
considerably reduced when the temperature exceeds 40C
(4) (a) Materials selected should be compatible with the environment. They must possess sufficient
resistance to corrosion for the designed life.
(b) Appropriate preventive maintenance practice must be adopted to maintain the integrity of the
equipment/component.
The selection of materials must be based on an extensive knowledge of the service environment.
It is to be realized that the behavior of a material may dramatically change when exposed to a
corrosive environment. The behavior of materials largely depends upon the following:
(a) Corrosive medium parameter.
(b) Design parameters.
(c) Materials parameters.
Surface modification procedures, such as cladding, galvanizing and metallizing (metallic coatings)
increase the resistance of the materials to corrosion.
Salvage or Recycling
Often it might be cost-effective to use an expensive material if it can be recycled with a high salvage
value on completion of the useful life of the equipment/product. Environmental considerations
also demand the recycling of metallic materials.
There are a vast number of material/operational environment combinations, and each can form the
basis for potential corrosion problems to occur.
Of the 103 plus elements in a Periodic Table, approximately 80 are metals, each possessing different
mechanical, chemical, and physical properties. Although all these metals can corrode, they do it in
many different manners. Furthermore, most of these metals have been alloyed to make tens of
thousands of different alloys.
From a purely technical standpoint, an obvious answer to corrosion problems would be to use more
resistant materials. In many cases, this approach is an economical alternative to other corrosion
control methods.
Unanticipated corrosion problems will always occur, and correcting them may require a reactive
approach.
Lists of questions that should be answered in order to estimate the corrosion behavior of
materials either in service or considered for usage.
Greater volume allows for higher velocities and a larger injection plume at the
injector to improve distribution.
Better control over final pH as the larger flow volume is easier to control.
Temperature rise of 0.5%-3% dilute acid due to the heat of reaction of the acid
with water is much lower, and allows for easier handling with common piping
materials.
This can eliminate PTFE lined steel piping which is recommended for
concentrated acid dilution systems.
During system shutdown, the acid that remains will mix with the water, and will
not settle at the bottom of the piping in a corrosive, viscous puddle.
Care must be taken when choosing materials for diffusers or injectors that can
withstand sulfuric acid across during dilution process. Various polymeric materials
can be used.
Metals
Carbon Steel
Carbon Steel is often found in the piping of concentrated sulfuric acid. It is not
recommended as it will quickly degrade in the presence of acid and water.
Stainless Steel
Stainless Steel has some resistance to sulfuric acid. 316L S.S. often is used as piping
material around the quill (never use stainless steel for the quill) with good success.
We will discuss only two alloys, Alloy 20 & Hastelloy C-276.
Alloy 20
Alloy 20 (20Cb-3) is one of the so-called "Super" stainless steels that was designed for
maximum resistance to acid attack. It's nickel, chromium, molybdenum and copper
content contribute to its overall resistance to chloride stress corrosion cracking and
general pitting attack.
The alloy is stabilized with columbium to minimize carbide precipitation during
welding. It has good mechanical properties and can be fabricated with comparative
ease.
Corrosion can occur on a Alloy 20 quill if concentrated sulfuric acid is allowed to react
with the water and reach the high temperatures of approximately 150F, particularly if
the concentration even temporarily reaches the 30-80% region, which can easily
occur.
Due to the metal material, longer quills can be supplied compared to teflon without
bending or breaking.
Hastelloy C-276
Hastelloy C-276 is a good choice for nearly all concentrations of sulfuric acid as long as
temperatures are managed.
At higher temperatures, corrosion rates will likely be unacceptable.
Corrosion can occur on a Hastelloy quill if concentrated sulfuric acid is allowed to react
with the water and reach the high temperatures of approximately 150F, particularly if
the concentration even temporarily reaches the 30-80% region, which can easily
occur.
Hastelloy C-276
Cast irons have carbon content between 2 and 4%, and often significant amounts of carbon and
smaller amounts of other elements. The following factors determine the properties of cast iron:
Chemical composition of cast iron
Rate of cooling of the casting in the mold
The type of graphite formed.
(5) Seawater
(6) Calcium nitrate
(7) Sodium hydroxide
(8) Sodium nitrate
Graphite Corrosion
Cast iron is prone to selective leaching in soft water, acidic water, brackish water and water
containing low levels of hydrogen sulfide. Observed in gray cast iron.
Carbon steels are a series of alloys of carbon and iron containing up to about 1% carbon and up
to 1.65% Mn, with elements added in specific quantities for deoxidization and residual quantities
of other elements.
In these steels carbon is the major strengthening element.
Advantages easy availability, low price, a satisfactory rate of corrosion and ease of fabrication.
On exposing to water, iron corrosion products would be formed and may create operational
problems of equipment and plants.
Factor affecting corrosion Dissolved oxygen, pH, Temperature, material factors, Alkalies,
Hydrogen attack, geothermal fluids (deficient in O2 but H2S present), CO2 corrosion in oil and gas
fields.
These are alloys of iron, chromium and other alloying elements that resist corrosion in several
environments.
A steel cannot be called stainless unless it has a minimum of 12% of chromium as chromium is
the major element responsible for corrosion resistance. Cr itself is a reactive element, however, its
alloys passivate and show excellent resistance to corrosion in many environments.
There are several classes of stainless steels categorized by their microstructures:
(1) Ferrite Ironchromium + low carbon (between 12 and 25% chromium and less than 0.1% C).
Non-hardenable steels, consists of iron, has a BCC structure, shows good resistance to stress
corrosion. In a high purity variety total C+N content is below 250 ppm. This improves pitting and
crevice corrosion resistance.
(2) Martensitic. Ironchromium + higher amount of carbon (1218% Cr and between 0.1 and
1.2% carbon). They can be hardened by heat treatment. Heat treatment can result in high tensile
strength. Used in applications requiring moderate corrosion resistance plus high strength and
hardness.
(3) Austenitic. FCC iron (1626% Cr, more than 6% Ni and carbon as low as 0.1% or even less).
They are non-magnetic and cant be hardened by heat treatment. They have better corrosion
resistance than martensitic and ferritic steel in general.
Ferritic and austenitic steel can be hardened only by cold working.
(4) PH (Precipitation hardening) These are ironchromiumnickel alloys containing
precipitating element, such as Al. Strength is achieved by precipitation hardening heat
treatment. One example is (177 PH) steel containing 0.09 C17 Cr7 Ni1.0 Al1.0 Mn.
Hardened and strengthened by solution quenching followed by annealing at 800-1000oF for a
long duration. Used in aircraft and missile industry.
Nickel (Ni)
Ni reduces the corrosion rate and is thus advantageous in acid environments.
Molybdenum (Mo)
Molybdenum substantially increases the resistance to both general and localized corrosion.
Copper (Cu)
Copper enhances the corrosion resistance in certain acids.
Silicon (Si)
Silicon increases the resistance to oxidation, both at high temperatures and in strongly oxidizing
solutions at lower temperatures.
Carbon (C)
Carbon reduces the resistance to intergranular corrosion. In ferritic stainless steels carbon
will strongly reduce both toughness and corrosion resistance.
Nitrogen (N)
Nitrogen increases the resistance to localized corrosion, especially in combination with
molybdenum. In ferritic stainless steels nitrogen will strongly reduce toughness and corrosion
resistance.
Titanium (Ti)
Titanium is a strong carbide former. In austenitic steels it is added to increase the resistance to
intergranular corrosion but it also enhances the mechanical properties at high temperatures. In
ferritic stainless steels titanium is added to improve toughness and corrosion resistance by
lowering the amount of interstitials in solid solution.
Niobium (Nb)
Niobium is a strong carbide former. As titanium it promotes a ferritic structure. In austenitic steels
it is added to improve the resistance to intergranular corrosion but it also enhances mechanical
properties at high temperatures.
Aluminium (Al)
Aluminium improves oxidation resistance, if added in substantial amounts. It is used in certain
heat resistant alloys for this purpose.
Sulphur (S)
Sulphur is added to certain stainless steels, the free-machining grades, in order to increase the
machinability. At the levels present in these grades sulphur will substantially reduce corrosion
resistance, ductility and fabrication properties, such as weldability and formability.
Cerium (Ce)
Cerium is one of the rare earth metals and is added in small amounts to certain heat resistant
steels and alloys in order to increase the resistance to oxidation and high temperature corrosion.
Depth of Immersion
Materials partially immersed undergo a
heavier corrosion attack than materials
fully immersed.
Metal samples are most severely attacked
in tidal zone.
Effect of pH and oxygen content on seawater pitting of aluminum alloy tubes based on 30day tests
Intergranular Corrosion
Observed in Al alloys when the acid environment in the pits lead to attack on grain boundaries.
In AlMg alloys (5xxx), phases such as Mg2Cl3, may precipitate at the grain boundaries. AlMg
alloys (5xxx) containing less than 3% Mg, are resistant to intergranular corrosion.
In the 2xxx series, a more noble precipitate, such as CuAl2 may be formed leaving the areas
adjacent to the grain boundaries more reactive promoting their dissolution in the acid pit.
The 6xxx series show susceptibility to intergranular corrosion because of the formation of Mg2Si
precipitate if excessive silicon is present.
Alloys of 7xxx series are prone to intergranular attack because of the formation of a CuAl phase.
By eliminating the sites of pitting or crevice corrosion and minimizing the potential difference
between the grain boundaries and matrix by appropriate heat treatment, intergranular attack can
be minimized or eliminated.