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ChE 122 Lecture notes 01 INTRODUCTION TO

THERMODYNAMICS

monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 x

1012 hertz and that has a radiant intensity in
that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian.

DEFINITION OF THERMODYNAMICS AND

OTHER BASIC CONCEPTS
Thermodynamics a science which deals with
the transformation of energy of all kinds from
one from to another. It is an experimental
science based on principles that are generalized
from experience. These principles (1st and 2nd
laws) have no proof in the mathematical sence
but their validity lies in the absence of contrary
experience. The need to describe the operation
of a steam engine* paved the way to the birth
of thermodynamics as a science.
*steam engine is an engine that uses the expansion
or rapid condensation of steam to generate power

I. Definition of SI base units

(taken from
http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/current.html of the
National Institute of Standards and Technology)

Meter (m) the unit of length. The meter is

the length of the path travelled by light in
vacuum during a time interval of 1/299 792 458
of a second.
Kilogram (kg) the unit of mass. It is the only
base unit with a prefix. It is equal to the mass of
the international prototype of the kilogram.
Second (s) the unit of time. The second is the
duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the
radiation corresponding to the transition
between the two hyperfine levels of the ground
state of the cesium 133 atom.
Ampere (amp) the unit of electric current.
The ampere is that constant current which, if
maintained in two straight parallel conductors
of infinite length, of negligible circular crosssection, and placed 1 meter apart in vacuum,
would produce between these conductors a
force equal to 2 x 10-7 newton per meter of
length.
Kelvin (K) the unit of temperature. It is the
fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic
temperature of the triple point of water.
Mol (mol) unit of susbtance. The mole is the
amount of substance of a system which
contains as many elementary entities as there
are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon 12; When
the mole is used, the elementary entities must
be specified and may be atoms, molecules,
ions, electrons, other particles, or specified
groups of such particles.
Candela (cd) the unit of luminous intensity in
a given direction, of a source that emits

II. Basic parameters

a. Force: Newtons second law expresses force
as a product of mass and acceleration. It has a
derived unit (kg x m)/s2 with SI unit Newton.
Kilogram force (kgf) the force that
accelerates 1 kilogram of mass at 9.80665
meter per second per second. Since force and
mass are different concepts although they have
same units (kg) they must be distinguished and
will not cancel out! The dimensional constant g c
must
appear
to
make
the
equation
dimensionally correct. In English units a
parallelism can be made in the same way like
lbm and lbf.
gc = 9.80665 (kg-m)/(kgf-s2) = 1 (kg-m)/(N-s2)
(SI unit)
gc = 32.2 (lbm-ft)/(lbf-s2) (English units)
b. Weight :refers to the force of gravity on a
body and therefore correctly expressed in terms
of Newton or kgf; will vary depending on
location (i.e. weight on earth is different there
on the moon). Mass on the other hand is an
expression of the amount of substance in an
object; is constant.
c. Unit weight or specific weight () defined as weight (force) of substance per unit
volume (N/m3); for water: 9810 N/m3
d. Specific gravity or relative density
ratio of the density of a substance by the
density of a standard substance like water at
4oC.
e. Pressure: The pressure P of a fluid on a
surface is defined as the normal force exerted
by the fluid per unit are of the surface; unit is Pa
or N/m2.
Absolute pressure - measured from
the datum of absolute zero pressure or perfect
vacuum. Absolute pressure must be used in
thermodynamic calculations.
Atmospheric pressure pressure
caused by the weight of the atmosphere
Gage pressure pressure difference
between the system and the atmospheric

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pressure. An ordinary pressure gage will have a
reading of 0 if there is no excess pressure other
than the atmospheric pressure.
Vacuum pressure is a pressure which
is significantly lower than atmospheric pressure
Pressure equations:
(1) P = F/A
(2) P = gh = density x grav. acc. x height
(3) P = h = unit weight x height
(4) P2 = gh + P1 (in between points)
(5) Pabs = Patm + Pgage
(6) Pabs = Patm Pvacuum
f. Temperature term used to measure the
degree of hotness or coldness of an object
Celsius and Fahrenheit are arbitary
scales. On the other hand Rankine and Kelvin
are absolute scales. Always use absolute scales
in thermodynamic calculations (although a
change in K is same as change in 0C).
(1)
(2)

K = OC + 273
R = oF + 460

III. Work, Energy and Heat (details in lecture

02)
a. Energy is a property of objects which can
be transferred to other objects or converted into
different forms. WORK and HEAT are means of
which we can transfer or transform energies;
both work and heat only exist in transit. Without
energy, there can be no work or heat flow that
can happen.
b. Heat (Q) - cannot be stored within a body;
energy in transit; appears only when changes
occur in the system
c. Work (W) - energy is transferred through
work whenever force F is applied to a body that
causes it to move or displaced at a distance d.
Work can be work non-flow or work steady flow
depending on the thermodynamic system
involved. Unit is Nm or Joule.
Flow work work done in pushing a
fluid across a boundary represented by Wflow =
PV
Shaft work work done by or on the
fluid flowing through a piece of equipment and
transmitted by a shaft which protrudes from the
equipment and which rotates or reciprocates
Power is the rate of doing work
expressed as work per unit time (horsepower,
watt)
IV. Laws of thermodynamics

These laws are primitive and cannot be derived

from anything more basic.
Zeroth law thermal equilibrium
First law energy conservation
Second
law
- direction
of
energy
transformation
Third law - entropy of perfect crystal at abs.
zero is zero
1. Zeroth law of thermodynamics - states
that if two closed system with different
temperatures are brought together in thermal
contact with a third system, the heat will flow
from the system with a high temperature to the
system with low temperature until bodies reach
thermal equilibrium with each other. Another
form of statement is if two thermodynamic
system are each in equilibrium with a third
system, then they are in thermal equilibrium*
with each other.
*equilibrium denotes static condition or absence of change
or any tendency toward change on a macroscopic scale

2. First law of thermodynamics Although

energy assumes many forms, the total quantity
of energy is constant and when energy
disappears
in
one
form
it
appears
simultaneously in other forms.
-law of conservation of energy
- energy of universe is constant (Clausius)
3. Second law of thermodynamics
-Clausius: It is impossible to create a device in
which the only effect is to transfer heat from
low temperature to high temperature.
-Kelvin-Planck: It is impossible to construct a
heat engine which, while operating in a cycle
produces no effects except to do work and
exchange heat with a single reservoir.
- The entropy of an isolated system never
decreases.
- No actual or ideal heat engine operating in
cycles can convert into work all the heat
supplied to the working substance; it must
reject some heat.
4. Third law of thermodynamics
The third law of thermodynamics is sometimes
stated as follows, regarding the properties of
systems in equilibrium at absolute zero
temperature: The entropy of a perfect crystal at
absolute zero is exactly equal to zero.
Calculation examples:
1. Mass vs Weight.

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An astronaut weighs 730 N in Texas where the
local acceleration of gravity is 9.792 m/s 2. What
are the astronauts mass and weight on the
moon where g = 1.67 m/s2?
Ans. Mass = 74.55 kg (independent of location);
weight on moon = 124.5 N

2. Density and Specific gravity

a. A piece of unknown material has an
intricate shape. It has a mass of 126 g. You
submerge it to find it displaces 422 ml of water.
What is the specific gravity of the piece? Ans.
0.30

b. A bar measures 12 mm x 20 mm x 1
m. It has a specific gravity of 2.78. Determine
its mass. Ans. 667.2 g
3. Pressure
a. A 5,000 ft well is filled with mud with
unit weight 11.2 lbf/gal. Determine the pressure
at the bottom of the well in psi. Ans.2,909 psi
b. Determine the pressure in kPa, 34 m
below the ocean. Ans. 333.5 kPa
c. The pressure 6m above the bottom of
the tank containing a liquid is 90 kPa. If the
pressure at 4m is 103 kPa, determine the sp. wt.
of the liquid in kN/m3. Ans. 6.5kN/m3