HUM 17-LOGIC

HISTORY OF LOGIC
Aristotle
- The father of logic
- First devised systematic criteria for analyzing and evaluating arguments
Syllogistic logic in which the fundamentals elements are terms; and
arguments are evaluated as good or bad depending on how the terms are
arranged.
Syllogisms
1. Categorical (moods, figures,
valid)

2. Hypothetical
3. Disjunction
4. Conditional

5.
Crysippus
- One of the founder of the stoic school
- Developed a logic in which the fundamental elements were propositions or
statements (can either be true or false)
6.
Galem
- He was a physician
- Developed the theory of the compound categorical syllogism
7.
Peter Abelard
- Developed a theory of universals or the so-called conceptualism.
- Conceptualism universal essences do not exist but similarities among
categories of experiences do.
o Thing = purpose
o Person = human soul (intellect & will)

8. CONCEPTS OF LOGIC (brain is not intellect)

9. Philosopher
10.
goal acquire knowledge
11.
tool reason
Study of reason as an instrument for acquiring knowledge
Method and techniques (ruiles)
12.
13.
NATURE OF LOGIC
Spontaneous Logic
o any activity guided by reason follows a certain order
o Common to all men: Man is a rational being. (reasoning)
Logic as an art
o to serve as a tool and as a norm for correct thinking
o practical end (outcome) what

Logic as a science
o to describe and analyze the reasoning process itself
o also known as speculative end studies ideas, judgments and reasoning
processes how
14.
15.Why is logic not referred as a science course:
- theres a tendency nowadays to restrict the word science to the so-called
empirical sciences such as physics.
16.
17.
LIMITS OF LOGIC
- it make no direct contribution to the content of our though
18.
19.
USEFULNESS OF LOGIC
- logic is not absolutely necessary to scientific work, but it is a useful and
advantageous tool for its perfection
o logic is not about analization
o you dont need to study logic in order to take scientific work)
- logic is not the foundation of scientific knowledge but only its tool
- logic gives us norms for recognizing good or bad thinking, and develops in us
a habit of analyzing our thoughts
- the study of logic will enable us to pinpoint the defects of faculty arguments
20.
21.
PRACTICAL USES
- dont argue with spiriutual arguments
- see your common grounds (moral grounds)
22.
23.2 KINDS OF LAW (Good for moral issues)
1) Natural Laws God given laws (basis for constitutional)
2) Constitutional Laws manmade laws (shouldnt go against the natural laws)
24.
25.
ARGUMENTS AND NON-ARGUMENTS
26.
An argument is an example of reasoning in which one or more
propositions (or statements) are offered as support, justification,
grounds, reasons or evidence for another proposition (could be either a
premise/conclusion).
- At least one premise, one conclusion
o Premise proposition which provide support, justification, or ground for
accepting the truth of other proposition
2 KINDS OF PREMISES = Major Premise (universal) & Minor
Premise
o Conclusion proposition that is supported by premises
28. Example] All film stars are celebrities. Chris Tiu is a film star. Therefore, Chris
27.

Tiu is a celebrity.

29.Premise Indicator since, because, for, in that, as given that, for the
reason that, in as much, owing to

30.Conclusion Indicator therefore, wherefore, thus, consequently, for this

reason, so, as , as a result, hence

31.Beginning if theres no conclusion indicator

32.End if theres a conclusion indicator
33.

34.Statements could either be true / false (truth values truth and

falsity)
35.Sentences cannot be identified as true / false
Questions, proposals, suggestions, commands, and exclamations usually
cannot and so are not usually classified as statements
Exclude is declarative
36.

37.NON-ARGUMENTS lacks support!

1. Warning
- An expression that is extended to put someone on guard against a dangerous
situation.
-

Ex. No Smoking!

38.
2. Piece of Advice
- An expression that makes a recommendation about some future decision
- Ex. Study hard to pass the subject.
41.

3. Statements of belief or opinion

- An expression about what someone happens to believe or think about
something.
-

Ex. I think he likes you.

42.The difference between piece of advice and the statements of belief

or opinion is the word I

43.

4. Report
- Consists of a group of statements that convey information about some topic
or event
- Give information to general public but not proven something.
44.

5. Expository Passage
- A kind of discourse that beings with a topic sentence (should be acclaimed
fact) followed by one or more sentences.
-

Ex. Man is composed of body and soul. The body is the material substance and the
soul is the immaterial substance
Ex. The Philippines is a democratic country. It allows the people to vote their
candidate.
topic sentence distinguishes the topic sentence
45.

6. Illustration
- An expression involving one or more examples that is intended to show what
something means or how it is done.
- topic sentence giving examples
46.

7. Explanation
- Explanandum
o describes the events (accepted fact)
o explain why is something like that
- Explanants
o the statements or group of statements that purports (to make sense
of) to do at the explaining (non-argument)

Ex. The Philippines is a democratic country because it allows its citizens to vote for
their preferred candidate. (Explanandum underlined)

The difference between Explanans and Premise is that the explanans explain
why is something like that while the premise is to prove that the proven is
true.
47.

8. Conditional
- If/else statement

48. DEDUCTIVE & INDUCTIVE

ARGUMENT
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE
TWO KINDS OF ARGUMENTS:

49.

Does not lie solely in the words used

Comes from the relationship the author of the argument takes there to be between
premises & conclusion.
53.
INDUCTIVE
50.
DEDUCTIVE
Intended by the arguer to be - Intended by the arguer merely to
establish or increase the probability of its
(deductively) valid, that is, to provide
conclusion.
a guarantee of the truth of the
conclusion
provided
that
the - The premises are intended only to be so
strong that, if they were true, then it
arguments premises (assumptions)
would be unlikely that the conclusion is
are true.
false.
The premises are intended to provide
such
strong
support
for
the - There is no standard term for a
successful inductive argument. But its
conclusion that, if the premises are
success or strength is a matter of degree,
true, then it would be impossible for
unlike with deductive arguments.
the conclusion to be false.
An argument in which the premises - Does not think that the truth of the
premises definitely establishes the truth of
do succeed in guaranteeing the
the conclusion, but nonetheless believes
conclusion is called a (deductively)
that their truth provides good reason to
valid argument. If a valid argument
believe the conclusion true
has true conclusions, then the
Might conclude with some claim about a
argument is said to be sound.
group based only on information from a
A deductive argument is valid or else
sample of that group.
invalid.
Induction refers to the process of
Believes that the truth of the
advancing an inductive argument, or
premises definitely
establishes the
making use of reasoning ( reasoning from
truth of the conclusion (due to
the specific to the general)
definition, logical entailment, logical
- Example: Every time Ive walked by that
structure, or mathematical necessity)
dog, he hasnt tried to bite me. So, the next
Deduction refers to the process of
time I walk by that dog he wont try to bite
advancing or establishing a deductive
me.
argument, or going through a process
54.
of reasoning
(reasoning from the
55.
general to specific)
Example: Its sunny in Singapore. If its

sunny in Singapore, he wont be

carrying an umbrella. So, he wont be
carrying an umbrella.
51.
52.
56.

57.

58. SIMPLE APPREHENSION, JUDGMENT, AND

REASONING
-

59. SIMPLE ARREHENSION (output ideas)

Concept as the product of simple apprehension
First step in the process of understanding
Man has not only intelligence but also sensibility
o External Senses
seeing, hearing, touching, smelling & tasting that we are in direct
contact w/ reality
1. Are not in direct contact with reality
2. Depend on the external senses for their supply
3. Elaborate on the data of the external senses and communicate
with intelligence
o Internal Senses
Instinct the power to feel the good or ill of the sensible experience
without thinking (ex. Hotpot)
Memory the power to recognize past experience precisely as past
Imagination the power to reproduce the sense experiences and
elaborate them
Consciousness the internal sensibility which makes the animal or
man conscious of sensible objects
60.

61.
THE INTELLIGENCE HAS NO INBORN OR INNATE
IDEAS 7 YRS OLD AS THE AGE OF REASON THE
UNDERSTANDING BEGINS IN SENSES

62.

63.EXT
ERN
AL
SEN
SES

67.Sen
sibl
e
asp
ects
of
an

64.INTERNAL
SENSES

65.INTELLECT

66.
C

68.Sensible
aspects
of an
object
which
processes
data

69.Intelligible
aspects
(what makes
a thing
essence of
an object)

70.
O

obje
ct
-

71.
72.
Judgments
Second step in the process of understanding
When our minds begin to compare to put realities together
The process of understanding where in the mind grasps the compassion of
being as well as the order of beings to one another or how they are related to
one another
73.
74.Simple Apprehension is either true or not a simple apprehension.
It can be true, and can be wrong, but cannot never be false.
You get it or you dont get it.
75.Judgment is either true or false.
76.
77.
Truth and Certainty
Possible to have true statement without certainty
Possible to have false statement with firm certainty
Truth = Universal Truth OBJECTIVE BASIS
Certainty = Your Belief SUBJECTIVE STATE
o Two causes of certainty:
Certain based on evidence empirical data
Certainty based on authority
Human faith (GOD GIVEN LAWS) vs CERTAIN BASED ON EVIDENCE
o Certain Based on Evidence Empirical data Humans can fail into
error
o Hagiographers inspired by the Holy Spirit
78.
79.
Reasoning
3rd step
Intuitively Reasoning (Angel)
o
o
o
o

No step by step processes

Know anything instantly
Dont have external senses
Through external senses, you know that you have the body.

Discursive Reasoning
o Step by step processes
o Humans
80.
81.
PROCESS OF UNDERSTANDING
82.
Syllogism
Categorical Syllogism
an argument consisting of exactly three categorical propositions
o major premise (general)
o minor premise (specific)
o conclusion
three terms of categorical syllogism
o (P) Major Term predicate of the CSs conclusion
o (S) Minor Term subject of the CSs conclusion

(M) Middle Term not part of the conclusion & connector

83.
** Copula verb that connects the minor term and the major
term
84.
** Quantifiers quantifiers (All, Some, No)
85.EXAMPLES:
86.No P are
91.All men
96.Some birds are
M.
are mortal.
sparrows.
87.Some M
92.Socrates is
97.All birds are
are not S.
a man.
mammals.
88.Therefore
93.Therefore,
98.Therefore, some
, some S
Socrates is
mammals are
are not P.
mortal.
sparrows.
89.
94.*M = none
99.
90.STANDAR
95.NOT IN
100.
STANDARD
D FORM
STANDARD
FORM
FORM
101.
102.
RULES TO DISTINGUISH OF STANDARD FORM
All term should appear twice in the given proposition.
The major premise should contain the major term.
The minor premise should contain both the minor term and the middle term.
103.
104.
Moods
the mood of a categorical syllogism consists of the letter names of the
categorical propositions that make it
A, E, I, O (came from Latin forms)
o AffIrmo: I affirm A and I
o nEgO: I deny E and O
105.
A universal affirmative / applies to possible causes (All S is P)
I particular affirmative / applies to certain cases (Some S is P)
E universal negative / not applicable to all cases (No S is P)
O particular negative / not applicable to some cases (Some S is
not P)
106. ** There are 44 = 256 possible answers.
107.
108.
109.
110.
111.
FI
FI
FI
FI
o

112.
A

113.
E

114.
IA

115.
A

116.
E

117.
A

118.
AI

119.
IA

120.
AI

121.
EI

122.
O

123.
EI

124.

125.

126.

127.

EI

EI

128.

129.

130.
E

131.

132.

133.

134.
A

135.

136.
The moods of a
categorical syllogism
consists of the letter
names of the categorical
propositions that make it
up.

137.
138.
SIMPLE TIPS TO BE OBSERVED:
FIRST FIGURE
1 The major premise must be universal. (A, E)
2 The minor premise must be affirmative. (A, I)
SECOND FIGURE
1 The major premise must be universal.
2 At least one premise must be negative.
THIRD FIGURE
1 The minor premise must be affirmative. (A, I)
2 The conclusion must be particular
FOURTH FIGURE
1 If the major premise is affirmative, the major premise must be universal.
2 If the minor premise is affirmative, the conclusion must be particular.
3 If a premise (and the conclusion) is negative, the major premise must be
universal.
139.
140.
RULES FOR MAKING VALID CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
A valid categorical syllogism only has three terms: (the major, the minor, and
the middle term)
141.

2
3
4
5
6
7

MAJOR TERM MIDDLE TERM MINOR TERM

> Connects the major and the minor term.

Each term of a valid categorical syllogism must occur in two propositions of

the argument.
If both premises are affirmative, then the conclusion must be affirmative.
If one premise is affirmative and the other is negative, the conclusion must
be negative.
No valid categorical proposition can have two negative premise.
At least one premise must be universal in a valid categorical syllogism.
If a premise is particular the conclusion must also be particular.
142.
143.
144.
145.
146.
FI
FI
FI
FI
147.
M

148.
P

149.
M

150.
P

151.
S

152.
S

153.
M

154.
M

155.
S

156.
S

157.
S

158.
S

159.

Figures location
of the middle term.

160.
161.
EXAMPLES:
162.
All W are P.
163.
Some W are M.
164.
Therefore, some P
are M.
165.
FORM
166.
167.

MOOD: AII
FIGURE: 3
VALID

STANDARD
MOOD: AAA
FIGURE: 1
VALID

175.
176.
Some gamblers are
cheaters.
177.
Some Filipinos are
gamblers.
178.
Some Filipinos are
cheaters.
179.
FORM
180.
181.

186.
FORM
187.
188.

STANDARD

168.
169.
All politicians are
good in rhetoric.
170.
All councilors are
politicians.
171.
Therefore, all
councilors are good in
rhetoric.
172.
FORM
173.
174.

185.
Therefore, all cats
are pigs.

STANDARD
MOOD: III
FIGURE: 1
INVALID

182.
183.
Some animals are
pigs.
184.
All cats are
animals.

STANDARD
MOOD: IAA
FIGURE: 1
INVALID

189.
190.
No P is M.
191.
All M is S.
192.
Hence, some S is
not P.
193.
FORM
194.
195.

196.
197.
198.
199.
200.
music
201.
kids.
202.
music

STANDARD
MOOD:
FIGURE: 4
INVALID

Some kids are

lovers.
Some Filipinos are
Some Filipinos are
lovers.
203.
FORM
204.
205.

STANDARD
MOOD: III
FIGURE:
INVALID

206.
207.
No country is
leaderless.
208.
No ocean is a
country.
209.
No ocean is
leaderless.

210.
FORM
211.
212.

213.
214.

STANDARD
MOOD: EEE
FIGURE: 1
INVALID

Some M are not P.

215.
216.

Some S are M.
Some S are not P.
217.
FORM
218.
219.

STANDARD
MOOD: OIO
FIGURE: 1
INVALID (6)

220.
-

FALLACIES

Are false, illogical, misleading or deceptive arguments.

221.
GENERAL FALLACIES:
-

1 FALLACIES OF OUT OF TOPIC

ignores the topic and instead attacks the character or personality of the
opponent
A Argumentum ad populum (Appeal to The People)
> ignores the topic and appears to the passions and prejudices of the
people
1 Argumentum ad misericordiam (Appear to Pity)
an attempt to divert attention from the topic by arousing pity
and sympathy for the accused
*ADD SCENARIO
EX. He had been brutally mutilated. They have his hand.
Blahblahblah
2 Argumentum ad invidiam (Appear to angel)
attempt to divert attention from the topic by arousing against to
accused
222.
B Argumentum ad Hominem
> ignores the topic and instead attacks the character or personality of
the opponent
> EX. Topic (Beauty) || Opponent (Ugly Talking)
223. Who are you to tell me what beauty is, look at yourself!
224.
C Argumentum ad Baculum (Appeal to the rod or stick)
> ignores the topic and instead uses physical force or moral pressure
> EX. If youll not be able to find I will fail you.
225.

2 FALLACY OF NO PROOF
-

assumes as proof an unproved proposition that is the same as the conclusion

A Non Probata (Not proving)
assumes the conclusion under the guise of unproved synonyms
words
226.

3 FALLACY OF WEAK PROOF

no valid/conclusive connection between the proof/reason given and the

conclusion to be proven
EX. Shes wearing eye glasses so shes smart.
EX. Youre teaching in a sadistic way so all of us will fail.
227.
A Simple Non Sequitor (Simple It Does Not Follow)

> Assumes that a conclusion is proven or valid although theres no

logical conclusion between the proof given and the conclusion to be
proven
> EX. The Ferrari car of my friend is fast, so my car is fast.
228.
B Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hor (After this, Therefore, Because of)
> improperly concluding that this one thing is caused by another
> *ADD EXPERIENCE
> EX. Last time that youre here something bad happened to me, now
that youre here something bad will happen to me.
229.
C Argumentum ad Ignorantum
> assumes that a conclusion is valid because the conclusion has not
been proven false
230.
-

4 HASTY GENERALIZATION

draws a universal conclusion from one or a few instances

*ADD OBSERVATION
EX. All girls in Maam Genas class is pretty. Therefore, all girls in Mapua are
pretty.
231.

5 MULTIPLE QUESTIONS

implies one or more other question with false suppositions