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Microbiological Treatment for Removal of Heavy Metals and Nutrients in FGD Wastewater

Microbiological Treatment for Removal of Heavy Metals

and Nutrients in FGD Wastewater
Stephen J. Shulder, Michael R. Riffe, and Richard J. Walp

ABSTRACT
In efforts to comply with the Clean Air Act many coal-fired fossil plants are installing wet flue gas desulfurization
(WFGD) systems, also known as scrubbers, to remove sulfur dioxide (SO2). Limestone slurry is injected into an
absorber to promote the formation of calcium sulfate (CaSO4) or gypsum. Chloride (chlorine in the fuel) becomes
dissolved and increases in the absorber loop, which can lead to a more corrosive environment. Inert matter in the
limestone also enters the absorber and must be reduced to meet the gypsum quality specification. To control the
buildup of chloride and fines in the flue gas desulfurization (FGD) system a continuous blowdown or purge stream is
utilized. Environmental regulations on the discharge of treated FGD wastewater are becoming increasingly more
stringent to control impacts on the receiving body of water (stream, lake, river, or ocean). These new limitations often
focus on heavy metals such as selenium and nutrients including nitrogen and phosphorus compounds. The FGD
chloride purge stream is typically treated by chemical addition and clarification to remove excess calcium and heavy
metals with pH adjustment prior to discharge. However this process is not efficient at selenium or nutrient removal.
Information on a new approach using biological reactor systems or sequencing batch reactors (SBRs) to achieve
reductions in selenium and nitrogen compounds (ammonia, nitrite, and nitrate) is discussed. A brief discussion on the
physical/chemical pretreatment is also provided

INTRODUCTION
Many coal-burning fossil plants utilize wet scrubbers to
remove sulfur dioxide (SO2) and sulfur trioxide (SO3) from
the flue gas to meet emission standards mandated by
their local or national regulatory agencies. These sulfur
species are a principal cause of "acid rain," which causes
environmental damage. Modern flue gas desulfurization
(FGD) systems are referred to as limestone forced oxidation (LSFO) systems. To maintain optimum operating conditions in a wet scrubber, a purge stream is discharged
from the system primarily for chloride control (for compatibility with the scrubber's materials of construction and
to maintain sulfur dioxide removal efficiency) and to a
lesser degree for fines control. This purge stream contains
pollutants from coal, limestone, and makeup water. It is
acidic, supersaturated with gypsum (CaSO4 2H2O), and
contains high concentrations of total dissolved solids
(TDS) and total suspended solids (TSS), composed primarily of gypsum, heavy metals, chlorides, magnesium, and
dissolved organic compounds. An example of a LSFO
system is presented in Figure 1.
The quantity and quality of the wastewater stream will vary
with the type of coal, limestone composition, type of
scrubber, makeup water and the gypsum dewatering

Limestone
Limestone
silo

Clean flue gas

Ball mill
Makeup water
Flue gas

Absorber

Purge to
FGD WWTP
Hydrocyclones

Air

Recycle
pump

Gypsum
Secondary
dewatering

Figure 1:
Limestone forced oxidation scrubber system.
WWTP wastewater treatment plant

2010 by Waesseri GmbH. All rights reserved.

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Microbiological Treatment for Removal of Heavy Metals and Nutrients in FGD Wastewater

system. In an increasing number of plants the source of

makeup water is reclaimed or recycled wastewater from a
municipal sewage treatment facility. The purge rate
required to maintain a target equilibrium chloride concentration is a function of the chloride content in the coal and
the rate of coal usage. Sources of wastewater from an
FGD system may include wastewater from the hydrocyclones in the gypsum dewatering system, settling
ponds, and runoff from the gypsum stacking piles.

A number of treatment options may be considered though

physical/chemical is the primary approach for suspended
solids and some heavy metal removal. Biological treatment has been demonstrated to effectively reduce selenium and certain nitrogen compounds. A typical wastewater stream characterization and effluent requirement is
provided in Table 1.

Some power plants located on large flowing rivers may be

able to discharge their wastewater directly after the FGD
purge goes to an ash pond for suspended solids settling
and pH adjustment. The purge stream is often treated
prior to discharge into a receiving water body to remove
heavy metals and nutrients. The treated water typically
has discharge limits similar to other National Pollutant
Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) monitoring locations including total suspended solids (TSS) and pH,
< 30 mg L1 and 6.0 to 9.0, respectively. More specific
limits are based on the particular receiving stream. These
often include heavy metals such as mercury and selenium
or bio-nutrients, i.e., phosphate and nitrogen compounds.

OBJECTIVES OF TREATMENT

Parameter

Unit

The FGD wastewater treatment system (WWTS) should be

designed to meet the applicable discharge requirements
with a high degree of reliability so it does not impact the
availability of the power plant. A brief description of the
treatment objectives includes the following:
De-saturate the wastewater
The FGD chloride purge stream is supersaturated with
respect to gypsum. The FGD wastewater must be
de-saturated in order to prevent scaling or plugging of
the downstream treatment equipment and the final
discharge lines.

Influent Range

Typical Effluent Requirement

Conventional Treatment

Advanced Treatment

pH

4.55.5

6.09.0

TSS

5 00020 000

< 30

As

0.053.0

< 0.05

Cd

0.040.5

< 0.10

Cr

0.35.0

< 0.10

Cu

0.10.85

< 0.10

Hg

0.050.8

< 0.002

Ni

0.26.0

< 0.05

0.13.0

< 0.05

0.24.0

0.24.0

Zn

0.48.0

< 0.10

Cl

10 00050 000

10 00050 000

SO4

1 5008 000

8002 500

Ca

1 00020 000

5 00025 000

Mg

2005 600

2005 000

Total N

4090

4090

COD*

1004 500

1004 500

150

BOD

251 500

241 500

< 30

Pb
Se

mg L

0.100

Table 1:
Typical FGD wastewater influent and effluent quality.
COD chemical oxygen demand;

BOD biological oxygen demand;

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* biodegradable

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Microbiological Treatment for Removal of Heavy Metals and Nutrients in FGD Wastewater

Reduce suspended solids

Power plant discharge regulations usually require, as a
minimum, the reduction of suspended solids and pH
adjustment.
Adjust the pH to near neutral
The FGD wastewater will be acidic and most power
plant discharge permits will require the pH to be
adjusted to be in a range around neutral pH.
Reduce specific contaminants, e.g., mercury, selenium,
total nitrogen
Each power plant location will dictate what contaminants will be required to be reduced and what level of
concentration will be acceptable for discharge. This
can be the result of local, state, and national government requirements and is highly dependent upon the
receiving body of water characteristics and downstream uses.
Separate as much water from the solids to minimize
landfill expenses
The suspended solids in the FGD chloride purge stream
and solids precipitated in the WWTS will need to be
separated from the liquid phase, dewatered and land
filled. To reduce landfill and handling costs, it is important that the solids be dewatered to a high degree.
Produce treated water that meets the plant's discharge
permit
Since the power plant will be subject to self-reporting
or periodic sampling and reporting by regulatory agencies, it is important for the WWTS to reliably produce
treated water that conforms to the discharge permit for
the plant to avoid fines or forced reduced operating
capacity by the agencies.
Provide a highly reliable system that meets all of the
treatment requirements and which also has a high avail-

ability to support the continuous operation of the power

plant
In conjunction with the above objective, the treatment
plant must be both reliable and afford a very high
degree of availability, or the plant may be forced to
reduce its operation at significant cost to the owner.
Green technology
By removing contaminants considered to be harmful to
the environment, the utility is more environmentally
friendly.

PHYSICAL/CHEMICAL PROCESS
A physical/chemical treatment system designed for treatment of an FGD chloride purge stream is comprised of a
precipitation/chemical adsorption treatment train, solids
settling and filtration equipment, sludge dewatering equipment, and chemical feed/storage facilities. A typical physical/chemical treatment system is depicted in Figure 2.
The chloride purge stream is directed to equalization tanks
or basins to smooth out any variations in flow or chemical
composition and maintain a consistent, homogeneous
feed to the downstream treatment equipment. Other internal process streams associated with WWTS operation,
such as floor and equipment drains and filtrate from
sludge dewatering operations, are also routed to the
equalization tank for reprocessing.
The wastewater originates from the gypsum dewatering
system's two-stage hydrocyclone unit and will contain
about 0.52.0 % total suspended solids. An equalization
tank receives the absorber purge, promoting flow and
chemical stabilization to minimize frequent fluctuations to
the downstream treatment process. In some cases a
primary clarifier is used to reduce the fines if the absorber

Figure 2:
Physical/chemical treatment system
for FGD wastewater.
RX1 reaction tank 1
RX2 reaction tank 2

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Microbiological Treatment for Removal of Heavy Metals and Nutrients in FGD Wastewater

chemistry becomes fines limited (i.e., chlorides are not the

controlling factor and the purge rate is in excess of that
required to control chlorides). This is generally the case
when a poorer quality limestone is used in the absorber. It
is acceptable to return the "excess" purge to the absorber
after suspended solids removal via a primary clarifier to
supplement the absorber makeup water. A polymer may
be added to aid in precipitating the suspended solids
though it may not be necessary for those systems that
recycle sludge. Effluent from the primary clarifier usually
contains a total suspended solids level of less than
1 000 mg L1. Pumps transfer the wastewater from the
equalization tank to reaction tank No. 1, where alkali is
added (usually hydrated lime, but sometimes caustic) to
raise the pH to about 8.59.2 and for gypsum de-saturation of the wastewater. Proper pH control is essential to
optimize the effectiveness of the other reagents added to
precipitate heavy metals and to avoid magnesium precipitation, which would increase the precipitated solids,
impact the efficiency of the dewatering unit, and increase
scaling potential.
Recycle of seed sludge from the clarifier to reaction tank
No. 1 provides sites for gypsum crystal growth to aid in
the de-supersaturation, which also prevents scale on the
downstream equipment. The alkali also precipitates abundant metals, such as aluminum, iron, and heavy metals as
metal hydroxides.
Metal sulfides have much lower solubility than metal
hydroxides. Thus, in order to meet the low effluent requirements for heavy metals, organosulfide is dosed into the
reaction tank No. 1 to further precipitate the heavy metals.
A product provided by Degussa, TMT-15 (triazine
trithione trisodium salt), has been effective in reacting with
heavy metals. Nalco has also developed a proprietary
polymeric organosulfide that has been reported to also
reduce soluble mercury [1].
For flocculation, an iron salt such as ferric chloride (FeCl3)
is added to reaction tank No. 2. The iron salt helps denser
flocs form, enhancing clarifier performance. Some other
metals, non-metals, and organic matter will also co-precipitate. After the flocculation step, polymer is added in an
inline mixing zone prior to a solids contacting clarifier
(SCU) to aid in coagulation and solids settling. Hydrochloric acid is used to lower the clarifier effluent pH to near
neutral, which prevents scaling in downstream equipment.
Gravity filtration polishes the treated effluent to enhance
TSS and metals reduction prior to discharge. A coagulant
and/or coagulant aid may also be added upstream of the
filter to enhance removal of fine suspended solids and
phosphate.
Backwash reject from the gravity filter returns to the
equalization tank for reprocessing. The treated effluent
usually flows to the plant's ash pond or is mixed with cool-

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ing system effluent prior to discharge to the final receiving

water body.
Pumps send the clarifier sludge, usually in the range of the
solid mass fraction of 1020 %, to an agitated sludge
holding tank prior to being dewatered in filter presses on a
batch basis. The sludge tank volume is sized consistent
with the utility's plans for filter press operation during the
week, weekends, and holidays.
The most common filter press being used for FGD wastewater sludge is the recessed chamber press. However, for
very large sludge production (greater than 100 000 kg per
day dry solids), belt filter presses may be used. The dewatered solids, or "filter cake," are discharged from filter
presses at the solid mass fraction of 4055 % to roll-off
boxes or to truck trailers and are disposed of in nonhazardous lined landfills, either onsite or offsite. Some
presses are equipped with isolation valves in the event a
chemical cleaning is needed to clean the filter elements.
A more detailed discussion on FGD wastewater treatment
is provided in [1].

MICROBIOLOGICAL PROCESS
Biological treatment may be used to reduce selected
heavy metals, organics, and total nitrogen (ammonia,
nitrite, and nitrate). Sequencing batch reactors (SBRs)
have been installed downstream of physical/chemical
treatment to accomplish these objectives. The pH of the
clarifier effluent is reduced to near neutral with hydrochloric acid, to avoid adding additional sulfate from sulfuric
acid, upstream of the biological process. A dechlorination
system may be required to eliminate any free chlorine
residual. The source of the chlorine is most likely from
dilution or cooling water (if non-contact heat exchangers
are not used).

Advanced Treatment for Selenium Reduction

Process Description
A fixed-film biological treatment system has been developed to reduce total selenium in a bio-reactor [2]. It is a
continuous process based on a hydraulic retention time of
approximately 68 h. Activated carbon is used as a support media on which site-specific naturally occurring bacteria will grow. Since the carbon content of the wastewater
is not sufficient to promote growth, a carbon source like
molasses along with micronutrients is needed to promote
growth of a stable microbiological population. Under
anoxic or anaerobic conditions the oxidized forms of selenium, selenite (Se VI) and selenate (Se IV), are reduced to
form elemental selenium and captured on the media bed.
The selenium reduction process is arranged as a two-

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Microbiological Treatment for Removal of Heavy Metals and Nutrients in FGD Wastewater

stage process consisting of two or more primary bio-reactors followed by second stage bio-reactors for polishing. A
process flow diagram for a selenium reduction system is
shown in Figure 3.
The pH adjusted effluent from the physical/chemical system flows by gravity to a break tank. The temperature
should be reduced to less than 37.8 C (100 F) using a
non-contact heat exchanger or dilution water.
Each bio-reactor contains a bio-matrix (medium) for
microbial growth. Activated carbon is used as the media
on which selected microorganisms will grow and be
retained within the system. Activated carbon is employed
due to the very large surface area available for microbial
growth. Moreover, a majority of the surface area is protected within crevices of the carbon particles, thus sheltering bio-mass growths from shear and abrasive forces.
Nutrient-containing microbial cultures and other process
balancing compounds are injected into the influent to
each stage to promote microbial cell growth. Blending of
the nutrient feed with the flow stream is achieved by an
inline static mixer.
The effluent from the first stage bio-reactors flows by
gravity to second stage transfer tanks for subsequent
transfer by the second stage transfer pumps to the second stage bio-reactors. The effluent from the second
stage bio-reactors flows by gravity to the treated effluent
(backwash) storage tanks and subsequent discharge.
Subject to the final effluent discharge required, the
advanced treated effluent may be conveyed to the point of
discharge or be transferred to downstream gravity filters
for enhanced TSS and metals reduction prior to discharge.
Periodically, the bio-reactors will undergo a backwash
cycle to remove captured elemental selenium and suspended solids (dead biomass). The source of the backwash water will be the treated effluent stored in the backwash storage tank. The backwash wastewater generated
during a backwash cycle will be conveyed to the backwash waste holding tank for subsequent transfer by the
backwash waste return pumps at a low hydraulic rate to
the equalization tank of the physical/chemical treatment
system for subsequent reprocessing. The cycle is short
(1020 min) to remove only a portion of the attached biomass. This equates to a backwash cycle of an individual
cell every two to three days.

Advanced Treatment for Nitrogen Reduction

Process Description
Nitrogen will exist in a number of forms including ammonia, nitrite, nitrate, and complex sulfur-nitrogen compounds. The sulfur-nitrogen compounds will not be
removed by the biological treatment process. Total nitro-

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Figure 3:
Advanced treatment for total selenium reduction.
HX heat exchanger

gen reduction is a more complicated biological process

than that for selenium reduction as it requires a series of
denitrification/nitrification steps. The process of converting ammonia nitrogen to nitrate is referred to as nitrification and is carried out in an aerated environment.
Denitrification converts nitrates and nitrites to nitrogen gas
in an anoxic environment. The SBR system is an activated
sludge process in a true batch mode. The treatment system consists of influent and effluent storage (equalization)
tanks, bio-reactors, blowers, continuous backwash gravity filters for additional suspended solids and phosphorus
reduction, and associated chemical feed and storage
equipment [3]. A process flow diagram for a nitrogen
reduction system is shown in Figure 4.
The pH adjusted effluent from the physical/chemical system flows by gravity to a break tank. The temperature
should be reduced using a non-contact heat exchanger or
dilution water as the treatment system utilizes mesophilic
bacteria for nitrogen reduction.
The influent tank provides storage of the physical/chemical clarifier effluent, which is continually mixed with a jet
motive pump. Dilution water may be added to reduce the
level of total dissolved solids (TDS), controlled by online
conductivity, and temperature to a range of 20 000 to
30 000 S cm 1 and less than 35 C (95 F), respectively.
The pH should be in the range of 6.4 to 7.2 while the oxidationreduction potential (ORP) should be in the range of
150 to +150 mV depending on the amount of free chlorine present. A carbon "food" source is typically added to
the influent tank though it could also be added to the inlet
of the SBR. Carbon addition is necessary since the wastewater does not contain sufficient organic matter to sustain
biological growth. A recommended carbon source is
MicroCg, which contains approximately 5.5 % methanol
with a chemical oxygen demand of 670 000 mg L1 and
trace nutrients for a denitrification system. A typical feed
rate is 1 to 10 mg L1 as product (approximately 3.5 parts
of carbon to one part of nitrate and 10:1 COD (chemical

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Anoxic Fill/Denitrification
During this step effluent from the SBR is loaded with
food from the influent tank using SBR feed pumps without aeration. The influent comes into contact with the
settled biomass in the sludge blanket to create a high
food to mass (F:M) ratio. Soluble biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD) is absorbed and stored in the biomass.
During this step the facultative organisms will utilize
and consume the available nitrate as an oxygen source
as the dissolved oxygen level will be low.

Figure 4:
Advanced treatment for total nitrogen reduction.
HX

heat exchanger

SBR sequencing batch reactor

oxygen demand) to N ratio). Foam may develop in the

process and is generally an indication of a problem.
White-colored foam is indicative of nutrient deficiency or
toxicity. It can also be the result of a low (very negative)
ORP and the growth of sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB).
Another symptom of SRB growth is a higher level of TSS
in the decant water as the biomass does not separate as
well in the settling step. Either a spray system or a chemical defoamant feed system may be utilized to control the
level of foam.
The batch biological process consists of five basic cycles
that take place in the SBR tanks: anoxic fill and aerated fill,
react, settling, decant, and idle/sludge wastage. Acclimation or growth of microorganisms will begin almost immediately once seeding has taken place (activated sludge
from a municipal treatment plant or sludge from another
organic process such as a sugar refinery plant is introduced into the SBR). The seed sludge should be approximately 10 % of the total aeration volume. However, it may
take upwards of three months to achieve adequate nitrogen reduction since the seed sludge is likely not from a
high chloride concentration process and initially a large
percentage (up to 50 %) of the biomass will perish until
the organisms become acclimated to the higher TDS
water. Not all steps will be required for a given wastewater
as the process is optimized based on the type and
concentration of the nitrogen compounds. Each step is
described briefly below.

PowerPlant Chemistry 2010, 12(12)

Aerated Fill/Nitrification
During this step the blowers are used to add oxygen to
the system and the organisms convert the available
ammonia nitrogen to nitrate. The biomass metabolizes
the food (soluble BOD) that has been stored, referred to
as a "feast environment." The dissolved oxygen level
will be high. The jet motive pumps circulate the biomass and incoming wastewater. The SBR feed pumps
are shut off at the end of the fill process. This step may
not be necessary if the wastewater has a low ammonianitrogen concentration.
Denitrification
A secondary denitrification phase may be utilized in the
fill cycle if the concentration of nitrates is elevated. The
blowers are turned while the jet motive pumps continue
to mix the biomass and incoming wastewater. The system will return to an anoxic state where nitrates are
used as the oxygen donor and the food source is relatively high from the wastewater.
React
This process involves a number of nitrification and de nitrification steps to convert any remaining ammonia
and nitrite to nitrate followed by nitrate conversion to
nitrogen gas. The filling cycle is complete and no more
food (influent) enters the SBR. During nitrification the
blowers are turned on and the biomass metabolizes
food it has absorbed. The dissolved oxygen (DO) will be
high during the nitrification stage and is controlled by a
combination of online DO and ORP measurements.
During the denitrification the blowers are turned off
while the jet motive pump continues to circulate the
tank contents. The dissolved oxygen level will be low
and the ORP will decrease (become negative). The
number of nitrification/denitrification steps is determined by grab sample testing and analyzing for ammonia, nitrite, and nitrate. The last step in the react
sequence is gas stripping to remove the nitrogen gas
formed from the conversion from NO3 to N2 (g). Blowers
are turned on to aerate the reactor and the biomass
enters a "famine state" as there is minimal food available. This will facilitate a rapid growth once the following batch process is initiated. The biomass will break up
and allow the trapped nitrogen gas to escape into the
atmosphere. The ORP should not be allowed to go too

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Microbiological Treatment for Removal of Heavy Metals and Nutrients in FGD Wastewater

reducing (negative) in the denitrification phase to avoid

anaerobic growth of sulfate reducing bacteria and the
formation of hydrogen sulfide.
Settle
Following the react step the blowers and jet motive
pumps are idle and the biomass is allowed to settle. No
influent is introduced or effluent decanted. The reactor
is under true quiescent conditions and the liquids and
solids will separate with 100 % of the reactor available
for settling. The relative loading rate during clarification
is zero for the batch reactor.
Decant
Once the separation is complete the decant step is initiated to remove water from the upper section of the
SBR. The initial flow is returned to the SBR inlet tank
with a higher level of suspended solids in the decant
pipe and the remainder going to the SBR effluent tank.
The decant step is not a timed event and the control
valve closes when the bottom water level is reached.
The vessel will await the next batch in the idle mode
with the jet motive pump off.
Idle/Sludge Wasting
As the amount of biomass continues to grow a percentage needs to be removed. The process can be performed once per day or during each batch cycle with
the varying amount of time based on sludge level. The
sludge is combined with the sludge from the primary
clarifier and/or solids contact clarifier from the physical/chemical process. Sludge removal can also occur
during the decant step. If during the idle step the ORP
drops below 350 mV, the jet motive pump and blower
may be started to increase the dissolved oxygen to
minimize generation of hydrogen sulfide.

SUMMARY
Biological treatment systems can be utilized successfully
to reduce certain heavy metals and nutrients found in FGD
wastewater. The following issues should be considered in
the system design:
Dilution water to reduce the temperature and total dissolved solids levels (chloride) of the inlet water.
Dechlorination system for dilution water that may contain free available chlorine.
Available heating system for operation in winter months
or if low FGD purge flow allows temperature to drop
below optimal level for biogrowth.
Provision of redundant analyzers for key control parameters, which should include pH, ORP and DO.
Ability to keep biomass in dormant, viable state during
low flow conditions that may require carbon and nitrogen sources.
Installation of a maintenance tank that may be used as
either an inlet or effluent tank in the event one of the
two is not available or needs to be out of service for
repair.
Multiple reactors to provide flexible operation and
maintenance.
Verification of the analytical test methodology for nitrogen compounds in the discharge permit. The total kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) procedure will measure all of the
nitrogen compounds including the sulfur-nitrogen compounds.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
During shutdown periods or when the influent flow is significantly lower than design (infrequent batches), additional steps are necessary to sustain the biomass. A
nitrate source should be added such as sodium nitrate
along with the carbon source to the SBR. The react
sequence should be followed with reduced operating
times and likely only a single nitrification/denitrification
cycle. There will not be any water to decant though a small
amount of sludge wastage may be recommended periodically.

720

The authors would like to acknowledge that the system

described in the Advanced Treatment for Selenium Reduction Process Description section of this article is GE
Power & Water's ABMet Selenium Reduction System.

REFERENCES
[1]

Higgins, T. E., Sandy, A. T., Givens, S. W., Power

2009, 153(3), 34.

[2]

Blankinship, S., Power Engineering 2009, 113(9), 64.

[3]

Riffe, M. R., Heimbigner, B. E., Kutzora, P. G.,

Braunstein, K. A., MEGA Symposium, 2008 (Baltimore, MD, U.S.A.), Paper #33.

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Microbiological Treatment for Removal of Heavy Metals and Nutrients in FGD Wastewater

Paper presented at the 30th Electric Utility Chemistry

Workshop, Champaign, IL, U.S.A., June 810, 2010.

THE AUTHORS
Steve J. Shulder (B.S., Environmental Chemistry, and
George H. Cook Scholar, Rutgers, The State University of
New Jersey, M.S., Environmental Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania,
both in the U.S.A.) is an associate at Structural Integrity
(SI) Associates in the Annapolis Office. He is responsible
for conducting cycle chemistry and flow-accelerated corrosion program assessments in addition to evaluations of
plant chemical auxiliary systems. He has also supported
EPRI projects dealing with corrosion fatigue on riser and
supply tubes and interim chemistry guidelines for aircooled condensers. Before joining SI Steve Shulder was a
supervising engineer with Constellation Energy for 24
years in Baltimore, Maryland, where he was responsible
for the management of the fossil plant chemistry programs. He was the lead chemical engineer for the development of Constellation's merchant fleet of simple and
combined cycle plants. Steve Shulder developed a plant
chemistry assessment program and performed assessments at wholly owned and partner plants. He was the
process engineer for a scrubber project and wastewater
treatment systems.

PPChem

Chemistry and of the Properties of Steam Subcommittee.

He is a past chairman of the Mid Atlantic Utility Chemistry
Association.
Michael R. Riffe (B.S., Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, U.S.A.) has 38 years of
experience specializing in providing water and wastewater
solutions for industrial applications. He has been involved
in the design, execution, start-up and performance testing of ten FGD wastewater treatment systems. Michael
Riffe is the applications engineering manager at Siemens
Water Technologies, General Industry Solutions in
Warrendale, PA, U.S.A. (www.water.siemens.com).
Richard Walp (B.S., Chemical Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, U.S.A.) has 22 years of experience as a process engineer specializing in industrial water
and wastewater treatment. He has been involved in the
design, specification, procurement, construction and
startup of three flue gas desulfurization wastewater treatment systems. Richard Walp is a consulting engineer at
URS Corporation in Princeton, New Jersey. URS Corporation is a leading provider of engineering, construction
and technical services for public agencies and private
sector companies around the world (www.urscorp.com).

CONTACT
Steve Shulder is the author or coauthor of a variety of
papers and has given presentations on power plant cycle
chemistry, makeup and wastewater treatment including
zero liquid discharge, and environmental systems for
water and air emissions. He is a member of the ASME
Research Committee on Power Plant and Environmental

Stephen J. Shulder
Structural Integrity Associates
Annapolis, MD 21401
U.S.A.
E-mail: sshulder@structint.com

All for Chemistry in Power Plants

Worldwide

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