Computer generated holograms: an historical review

G. Tricoles

Since Gabor's first hologram, the meanings of that term have grown with increased use of the invention.
Computers expanded applications further, and this paper surveys the methods and techniques of computer
generated holograms.

1.

A.

Introduction

Holograms; Holography

In the beginning, a hologram was a tangible record of

an intensity pattern that was formed when a wave
scattered by an object interfered with a coherent reference wave. The first holograms were formed by Gabor
in research on reducing aberrations of electron microscopes.' These holograms were utilized in optical experiments

to demonstrate

a new two-step

imaging

principle. In the first step, an illuminated object scattered a field which interfered with the reference wave;
in Gabor's experiments the reference wave was the
wave bypassing the object. The interference pattern
exposed a photographic plate; the developed plate was
called a hologram. In the second step, the hologram
was illuminated to produce an image, which occurred
on the optical axis.

A hologram's appearance usually differs from the

object's, but holographic images are remarkably realis2
tic. Many holographic images are three-dimensional ;
disfor
holograms
in
interest
this property stimulated
plays. Leith and Upatnieks used a reference field that
was from a coherent beam that was distinct from the
object wave; this procedure produced a pair of off-axis
images.

The term holography in analogy to photography has

emerged to describe the expanding applications and
techniques of holograms. In addition to imaging, holograms are directly useful for diagnostics without image formation because they are interferograms. Holograms are useful as optical elements to correct

The author is with General Dynamics, Electronics Division, P.O.

Box 85227, San Diego, California 92138.
Received 15 March 1987.
0003-6935/87/204351-10$02.00/0.
1987 Optical Society of America.

aberrations; this kind of application motivated Gabor's original work. Holograms are also useful for data
storage. Some of the applications exploit the separation of the process into two steps; the separation of
formation and reconstruction provides an interval for
analysis and processing.
Optical data processing for synthetic aperture radar
stimulated interest in holography during the 1960s.
Much of this work was done at the University of Michigan.3 Formation was done at centimeter wavelengths,
which differ from visible reconstruction wavelengths.
Gabor's experiments with visible light and their connection to DeBroglie waves further illustrate wavelength diversity between formation and reconstruction.
Since Gabor's 1948 publication, the meaning of the
term hologram has grown to include many applications
over a wide range of wavelengths in both electromag-

netics and acoustics.4 9 The first half of the word

hologram stems from the Greek word for all; the second
half suggests a record. The idea is that a hologram
records both phase and amplitude in the form of an
intensity pattern. Polarization information was not
considered in the early days. The potential of holography for applications has stimulated diverse formation experiments, and as a result descriptions of holograms often include several adjectives; some are
mentioned later.
The meaning of the word hologram has grown also
because holograms can be generated by computers.
Computer generated holograms (CGH) have many
useful properties. For example, an object need not
exist; an ideal wavefront can be computed on the basis
of diffraction theory and encoded into a tangible hologram. Such holograms can be optical elements.
CGHs can be synthesized for optical filters. The synthesis of holograms is connected to inverse scattering,
itself a broad discipline.
This paper describes methods and techniques of
CGH from an historical and broad view. Some details
are mentioned but only partially; more complete descriptions are in the References and Bibliography.
15 October 1987 / Vol. 26, No. 20 / APPLIEDOPTICS

FNC 1032

4351

B.

Computer Generated Optical Filters

Computer generated holograms are similar to computer generated filters which were studied for optical
signal processing of synthetic aperture radar data.10
The detection problem involved filtering noisy 2-D
signals or sets of noisy 1-D signals, which were recorded on photographic film. Filtering was done with a
coherent optical system consisting of a point source,
collimating lens, Fourier transform lens, and imaging
lens; a signal was inserted in the front focal plane of the
transform lens and a filter in its back focal plane. For
noise additive to the signal, the transform and filtering
reduced the noise amplitude. The basis of the method
was to modulate a spatial carrier, that is, form a deformed grating. Modulated carriers were also described in Refs. 2 and 3. Kozma and Kelly, at the
University of Michigan, constructed 1-D filters that
operated on phase-only by computing the signal's Fourier transform, drawing a black and white 1-D grating,
and photographically reducing the drawing to produce
a filter transparency. These filters, which were developed for the detection of signals in noise, were precursors of computer generated holograms.
C.

Overall Process of Computer Generated Holography

An overall schema for computer generated holography is shown in Fig. 1. It includes the following entities and processes:
Object The object need not exist physically; it can
be imaginary or idealized. The object can radiate or
be illuminated by an external source.
Wave Propagation Wave propagation is computed with theories appropriate for Fraunhofer, Fresnel,
or near-field diffraction; the theories may be vector or
scalar.
Hologram Surface The object-scattered field is
evaluated on a hypothetical surface which is usually
flat.
Hologram Fabrication The field on the hologram
surface is represented by a transparency produced by a
computer driven plotter, laser beam, or electron beam
on correspondingly diverse materials. Scale reduction
is usually necessary for reconstruction with visible
light or other radiation of similar wavelength.
Hologram The computer generated hologram is a
tangible mask with spatially variable transmittance.
Reconstruction The hologram is illuminated, and
diffracted energy propagates to a detector.
Detector Photographic film is a common detector,
but other sensors such as charge-coupled devices can
be used. For microwaves small antennas and receivers
have been utilized.
D.

Computer Generated Holograms

Computer generated holograms were described by

Brown and Lohmann in 1966.11 Motivation included
optical spatial filtering, which they experimentally
demonstrated for 2-D objects. Imaging also was demonstrated. In addition, Ref. 11 pointed outtwo important general aspects of computer generated holograms.
4352

APPLIEDOPTICS / Vol. 26, No. 20 / 15 October 1987

OBJECT

WAVE PROPAGATION
_

HOLOGRAM
SURFACE
_-O

I_

HOLOGRAM
FABRICATION

HOLOGRAM

(
*
DETECTOR
( RECONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 1. Schema of computer generated holography.

One aspect is that the object need not exist; therefore, idealized wavefronts can be produced. This attribute underlies application to optical testing with
holograms and the generation of optical elements.
The second aspect is that hologram synthesis is the
opposite from usual diffraction problems in which the
diffracting object is given and the diffracted field is
sought. Instead, the image is prescribed, and the diffracting object, the hologram, is sought; thus holography is connected to inverse scattering.
The work of Brown and Lohman stimulated interest
in applications and research on computer generated
holograms.
Research emphasized (1) methods for representing,
or encoding, computed wavefront data into, tangible
holograms and (2) the consequences of approximations in formats and computer aided graphic methods;
Sec. II briefly describes this work. Many applications
have been made; Sec. III summarizes them and presents a chronological distribution of publications as a
means of showing trends.
II.

Types of Computer Generated Holograms

A.

Detour Phase Holograms

The first computer generated holograms were made

by Brown and Lohmann.11 The holograms, intended
for Fraunhofer diffraction, were formed by computing
the image's Fourier transform and representing the
transform values in a mask that had transparent apertures in an otherwise opaque screen. Because the
mask's transmittance had values of zero or unity, the
holograms were called binary. The transform plane
was subdivided into regions of equal size, or cells.
Three ways of representing the data were presented.
In two, each cell contained an aperture, whose height
or width depended on the transform magnitude at the
center of the cell; in the other, each cell contained two
apertures whose total width depended on the transform's magnitude. In all three representations, the
lateral positions of an aperture was proportional to the
transform's phase at the center of its cell. This lateral

vY

<'V

m8v

FREG

1MG

HOLO

SOU

Fig. 3. Optical setup for reconstruction with a point source (SOU)

at x0. HOLO, IMG, and FREQ are, respectively, the hologram,

and frequency planes.

oximage,
VX
nav
Fig. 2.

Typical cell in a binary hologram.

Position indices are

and lateral displacement frc

and m. Width is CMv,height Wnmbp,
the cell center is PmbIv.
(Av/v)

shift led to the name detour phase, in analogy to d

fraction gratings with unequally spaced rulings.

> (Ax/6x)

= (AxAv) .

(4)

In fact, 6vwas taken to be (Ax)-1 on the basis of the

sampling theorem.
To develop expressions for aperture dimensions,
consider Eq. (1) and apply scalar diffraction theory to
the left-hand side. The hologram's transmittance is

Brown and Lohmann's 1966 paper was significa

It demonstrated imaging and matched filtering; it a]

stimulated much research and many applicatioi
However, according to Lohmann and co-workers, t
paper was intuitive so in 1967 they presented a mc

H(vx,vy) =

analytical connection between reconstructions and I

logram configurations and a discussion of approxin
tions.
To describe the approximations wecollect and into
pret some formulas given by Lohmann and Paris
The reason for the approximations is to describe t
amplitude reconstructed from the hologram in t

rectl[vx

(n + Pn00 )bv]/cb5vl
(5)

X rect[(vy - m5v)/Wnmbv]I

The rectangle functions describe the aperture dimensions in a cell as in Fig. 3. Illumination by a plane wave

produces complex amplitude

(6)

h = f fH(vP,vy)E[(x + xo)v, + yvyldvxdvy

form of a Fourier series, which is equated to a Fouri

series representation of the image. In the procei

formulas result for dimensions of cells as shown in F

2
= c(av) sinc[cbv(x + Xo)] By

Wnm

2.

The aim is a hologram with transmittance H(v.,v

which produces an image amplitude u(x,y) when ill
minated by a plane wave exp(i27rvxxo) = E(vxxo) in t
arrangement of Fig. 3, where XH = Xfvx and Yh = Xf

(7)

For the right-hand side of Eq. (1) the described image

u(x,y) in its Fourier representation with the tilde signifying the transform is

The requirement is that h(xy) the amplitude diffra

ed by the hologram be proportional to that of the ima

+yvy)dpxdvy.
=f f (v.,vY)E(xvx
-_ ~~~~u(xy)

in a finite region; that is,

(1)

h(x,y) = const. u(x,y).

+ x)(n + Pnm) + ym].

sinc(yWnmbv)Et6v[(x

With the image width Ax and height Ay,the diffract ted

amplitude is

(8)

Consider the Fourier sampling theorem

a= uja(n/Ax,m/Ax)
n m

h(x,y) = rect(x/Ax) rect(y/Ay)

SSH(vx,vy)E[(x + xo)vx + yvy]dv~dvy,

where rectz has a unit value for

Izi <

1/2

(2)

and zero

otherwise.
The hologram is represented by sampled values.
The number of samples depends on image size and
image resolution. If Axis the resolution element size in
the image, the number of resolvable points in the image is, with Ax= (Av)-1,
2
N = (A)/(bX)

2
= (AX4A)(Av).

(3)

The
N is called the number of degrees of freedom.
2
hologram is assumed to have at least N points to
preserve information; thus

sinc(vxAx

(9)

n) sinc(vyAx - m).

With Eq. (9), Eq. (8) gives

u(x,y) = rect(x/Ax)
X rect(y/Ax)

u(n6v,m5)E[6v(xn + ym)].

(10)

n m

To satisfy the condition in Eq. (1), Eq. (7) is approximated to equal Eq. (10) term by term. The result is
2
(51v) WnmE [xobv(n + Pnm)]

const. a(n~v,mbv),

(11)

is defined as c(5v) AnmE('kmm/

where const. 11(n6v,mbv)
the magnitude and phase of
are
cnm
and
Anm
and
27r),
the transform C1. Thus
15 October 1987 / Vol. 26, No. 20 / APPLIEDOPTICS

4353

Wnm
Pnm + n

Anm;
nm/27rx6v.

(13)

In words, Wnmcontrols magnitude; Pnfl controls phase.

If x 0 is chosen so that x05v is an integer M,
Pn- '

n./2,W.

(14)

Equation (14) shows that the lateral displacement is

proportional to the phase of the transform, an important relation, which has intuitive meaning as the phase
difference of waves originating from two separated
Huygens sources.
In equating terms on both sides of Eq. (1), in the
forms in Eqs. (7) and (10), some approximations are
necessary in Eq. (7). These are as follows:
sinc[cbv(x + x0 )J
sinc(yWnmnv)
E(xPnm.v)

constant in 4x1 < x/2;

(15)

1 in y < (Ax/2);

(16)

1 in x

(17)

<

Ax/2.

The approximation of Eq. (17) has been called detour

phase error; it has been extensively studied.1 2"14 It can
give inhomogeneous image intensity, which can be
more noticeable near image edges. The approximation of Eq. (16) reduces image brightness but does not
affect quality. The approximation of Eq. (15) produces inhomogeneous intensity; it has been called aperture error.
Despite the approximations, detour phase holograms are quite useful in imaging and filtering. In
practice, distortions can be reduced by reducing cell
size. However, as applications progress and requirements become more stringent, the approximations
should be recalled. Reference 14 discusses a relationship between image error and the SNR.
Detour phase holograms contain additional approximations that can degrade images. Some of these errors also occur in other types of computer generated
holograms, but for convenience the errors are described in this section.
Computer generated holograms represent sampled
data. Transform values are computed at discrete
points, and plotters often have a finite number of
positions. This sampling can introduce aliasing error,
which causes intensity in higher-order images to ap1 51 6
pear in lower orders.

An error, called a quantization error, occurs when a

finite number of phase or intensity values is plotted in

the hologram.17"18 The consequence is false images.

An error known as gap and overlap occurs when phase

exceeds jar. This ambiguity can be eliminated by
restricting the spacing between adjacent apertures.' 9
Finally, a truncation error occurs when the hologram is
smaller than the spatial extent of the transform. 4
B.

More Detour Phase Holograms

Lee developed a method that is based on decomposing the Fourier transform of the object into four quadrature components, which were represented by the real
non-negative functions.2 0 The phase of each compo4354

APPLIEDOPTICS / Vol. 26, No. 20 / 15 October 1987

nent was coded into sampled functions, and the sum of

the four functions represents the sampled function.
Lee called this method delayed sampling. It does not
require phase quantization.
The four functions are represented in a hologram by
apertures at four laterally displaced, or shifted, positions within each cell of the hologram plane. The
method does not require phase quantization because
the transmittance of each cell varies. In computing
the object's transform, the sampling rate along the
horizontal vxaxis in Fig. 2 is 4 times that in the orthogonal v direction. Plotting was quantized because the
hologram plotter was quantized. Lee demonstrated
images for a binary object and a continuous tone object.
Hsueh and Sawchuck 2 l developed binary holograms, called double-phase holograms, by decomposing the hologram transmittance into two-phase quantities. Each cell was divided into two subcells, which
were laterally separated. Each subcell contained two
transparent slits in an opaque background; slit widths
were half of the cell width for diffraction efficiency.
The vertical position of each slit was determined by the
decomposed phase of the Fourier transform according
to the detour phase principle. Consequently, even
and odd diffraction orders were vertically displaced.
Noise caused by subcell displacement and phase coding were analyzed; noise reduction methods were discussed. Visible images from holograms were presented.
Burckardt developed an approach that utilized
three components.2 2
C.

Nondetour Phase Holograms

Lee developed binary computer generated holograms that did not utilize the detour phase concept.2 3
The holograms were based on considering the computed hologram as an interferogram. Positions and
widths of the fringes were determined as the set of
points satisfying inequalities involving the phase of
the reconstructed wave. Experiments demonstrated
reconstruction of spherical, conical, and helical wavefronts.
Lee later applied the view of computer generated
holograms as interferograms to two problems of detour
phase holograms.2 4 One problem was sampling at discrete points in the hologram plane. The other problem was to phase variations exceeding 27r. Methods
for encoding both amplitude and phase were described.

The spatial bandwidths of Lee-type nondetour

phase holograms have been analyzed with frequency

modulation theory; a quantization error model was
presented.

25

Burch developed holograms that encoded the Fourier sine and cosine transforms of real functions that
describe objects.2 6 Holograms are optically recorded
by adding a bias term to the sum of the transforms.
The reconstructions give pairs of off-axis holograms,
but the on-axis light, corresponding to the object's

30

autocorrelation, is lower than that for holograms

formed with an inclined reference beam.
Awavefront reconstruction devicethat is similar to a
lens has been developed.

2728

25

This device, called a

kinoform, resembles a blazed dielectric transmission

grating. Kinoforms are useful as optical filters with
noncoherent light. They have high diffraction efficiency compared with many kinds of holograms. They
diffract on-axis rather than into off-axis orders as do
sampled holograms or holograms formed with an in-

20.
PAPERSPERYEAR

10 4.

5.

clined reference beam.

Ill.

Literature Survey

A.

Temporal Distribution of Publications

another matter.) This analysis included approximately 200 papers published in the 21 years from 1966
through 1986. The bibliography is somewhat arbitrary. It includes papers from the followingjournals:

Applied Optics;
ChinesePhysics;
Electronicsand Communicationsin Japan;
ElectronicsLetters;
IEEE Transactionson Computers;
Journal of the OpticalSociety of America,Including A;

Laser Optoelektronika;
Nouvelle Revue d'Optique
Onde Electronique;
Optica Acta;

OpticalEngineering;
Optics Communications;
OpticaPura Appl;
Optik

Proceedingsof the IEEE;

Reviewof the ElectricalCommunicationLaboratories (Tokyo).
It also includes papers in SPIE Proceedings and
Proceedings of the Optical Computing Conference.
However, it excludes abstracts of the annual meeting
of the Optical Society of America and summaries of
papers presented at the International Commission of
Optics meetings.
No claim is made that the set of approximately 200

papers includes all on computer generated holography.

Some recent books contain useful reviews.2 9 -31
As a basis for discussion consider Fig. 4, which shows

a plot of the number of papers published in each year

from 1966through 1986. In 1966 one paper by Brown
and Lohmann was published. The number per year
has an increasing trend until it reaches a maximum of
fifteen papers in both 1974 and 1975. A minimum
occurs in 1977 and 1978 with an increase to a second

maximum of twenty-five papers in 1983. The maximum is followed by a decrease to thirteen papers in
1986; this maximum exceeds the minimum of seven
papers in 1977 and 1978. The number of papers may
not reliably show interest in and vigor of a field, but it

LOAN

. .~ - - 66

Fig. 4.

An analysis of the temporal distribution of published papers suggests some trends. (Publications are
only one possible measure of activity; significance is

is 4.

68

70

72

|----t-s---

74

IliiiiilI I I
.

78
76
YEAR

80

.l

82

84

86

Number of CGH papers published per year.

does show activity.

Publication is affected in a com-

plicated way by the maturity of a field because applications stimulate research and vice versa. Research
funding may also influence activity.
As a matter of interest we note that the 1985 Annual
Meeting of the Optical Society of America had three
papers on CGH; the 1986 meeting had five.
Although Sec. III.B describes applications, we anticipate it and state that the maxima in 1975 and 1983
have an interpretation. In 1975, eight of the fifteen
papers were on techniques (methods and theory) of
computer generated holography, and four were on optical elements with one or two on other applications.
In 1983, ten papers of twenty-five were on optical
processing, eight on holographic techniques, and seven
on optical elements. This analysis is somewhat approximate because some papers fall into two classifications. Nevertheless, the nature of papers in the two
years suggests that in 1975 emphasis was on improving
CGH and that in 1983 the application of optical processing emerged.
B.

Applications

Computer generated holograms now have several

diverse uses which are grouped into broad categories as
follows. Specific topics illustrate the nature of the
categories.
Diagnostic and Testing acoustic mapping of the
earth, determining particle sizes and scattering properties, analyzing fiber optical modes, analyzing vibrations, visualizing aberrations.

Digital and OpticalInterconnects sequential op-

tical logic operations, digital optical architecture and

computing.
High-Energy Physics character detection, processor alignment.
Imaging and Display map displays, map transformations, hologram scaling, colored displays, 3-D displays, reduced quantization error, electron microscopy, image processing and deblurring, stereoscopic
displays.

Improved Holographic Techniques computa-

tional efficiency, photographic film and alternate recording materials, detour phase and quantization er15 October 1987 / Vol. 26, No. 20 / APPLIEDOPTICS

4355

Table 1. Number of Papers on Each ApplicationArea per Year

High-

Diagnostic
Inter
energy Imaging Holographic Inverse
Year and testing connects physics display techniques scattering
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986

data
Optical
Medicine Memories processing elements Scanners
1
2

1
2
4
1

1
1

2
1
1

1
1
3
1
2

1
1

8
2
4
2
1
1
2
1
4
2
2

3
4
8
3
4
7
5
4
1
2
8
2
4
2

rors, signal-to-noise ratio; nondetour phase holograms,

hologram recording methods, diffraction efficiency,
large object formats, encoding representations, phase
encoding, iterative methods for incomplete data, formation with electron or laser beams, sampling methods, plotters, multiple-exposure holograms, Fresnel
diffraction, polar geometries, multiplexing.
Inverse Scattering acoustic imaging, wave aberration retrieval, eigenfunctions expansion of scattered
field and synthesis.
Medicine diagnostics, therapy.
Memories synthesis, error rates.

Optical Data Processing filtering, correlation,

pattern recognition, map transformation, imaging on

curved surfaces, coordinate transformations, integral
transforms, image deblurring, digital optical computation, hybrid computation, rotation-invariant processing, shift-invariant processing, spectrum analysis,
nonlinear processing, code translation.
Optical Elements synthesis of optical elements,
application to testing optical elements, interferometry, real-time interferometry, wavefront synthesis,
aspheric surface testing, aberrations, laser beam uniformity, wavelength diversity, partitioned elements,
Fresnel region CGH, volume holograms, wave polar-

ization, diffraction pattern sampling, tandem elements.

Scanners field flatness, curvature correction,

graphics scanners, beam steering.

A perspective on the growth of computer generated
holography can be obtained from Table I which plots
the number of papers in the bibliography for each
category of application by year.
Work on improving holographic techniques has persisted for twenty years. An obvious reason is the need
for better performance for new applications; another
reason may be intellectual motivation to understand
4356

Optical

APPLIEDOPTICS / Vol. 26, No. 20 / 15 October 1987

1
1
1
4
1
1

1
3
1

2
1
3

4
1

1
1
1
5
10
8
5
3

1
2
2
3
3
7
4
7
2

approximations. Interest in optical data processing

has continued from the start of computer generated
holograms; activity has increased in the past several
years. Work continues on imaging and display but at a
decreasing pace. Optical elements have been studied
consistently; the number of papers has recently increased.

A new application,

interconnects

for com-

puters, has emerged.

Although forecasting the future is risky, it seems
plausible that interest will continue in computer generated holograms. Research is being done on increasing the efficiency of methods for producing holograms
and controlling diffraction for interconnects and processing. Finally, the educational potential of computer generated holograms merits consideration.
It is a pleasure to thank Reiner Eschbach of the
University of California, San Diego, and Olaf Bryngdahl of the University of Essen for helpful comments
and discussions. It is also a pleasure to thank my
thesis advisor and mentor Adolf Lohmann of the University of Erlangen-Nuremberg. Professor Lohmann
introduced me to computer generated holograms almost twenty years ago during a course on optical information processing at the University of California, San

Diego.
References

1. D. Gabor, "A New Microscopic Principle," Nature London 161,

777 (1948).

2. E. N. Leith and J. Upatnieks, "Wavefront Reconstruction with

Continuous Tone Objects," J. Opt. Soc. Am. 53, 1377 (1963).

3. L. J. Cutrona et al., "A High Resolution Radar Combat Surveillance System," IEEE Trans. Military Electron. MIL-5, 127 (1961).
4. M. Francon, Holography (Academic, New York, 1974).

5. G. W.Stroke, An Introduction to Coherent Optics and Holography (Academic, New York, 1966).

6. J. B. DeVelis and G. 0. Reynolds, Theory and Application of'

Holography (Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1967).

7. H. J. Caufield and S. Lu, The Applications of Holography

(Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1970).
8. B. P. Hildebrand and B. B. Brenden, An Introduction to Acoustical Holography (Plenum, New York, 1972).
9. G. Tricoles and N. Farhat, "Microwave Holography: Techniques and Applications," Proc. IEEE 65, 108 (1977).
10. A. Kozma and D. L. Kelly, "Spatial Filtering for Detection of
Signals Submerged in Noise," Appl. Opt. 4, 387 (1965).
11. B. R. Brown and A. W. Lohmann, "Complex Spatial Filtering
with Binary Masks," Appl. Opt. 5, 967 (1966).
12. A. W. Lohmann and D. P. Paris, "Binary Fraunhofer Holograms, Generated by Computer," Appl. Opt. 6, 1739 (1967).
13. J. Bucklew and N. C. Gallagher, Jr., "Detour Phase Error in the
Lohmann Hologram," Appl. Opt. 18, 575 (1979).
14. J. Bucklew and N. C. Gallagher, Jr., "Comprehensive Error
Models and a Comparative Study of Some Detour Phase Holograms," Appl. Opt. 18, 2861 (1979).
15. W. T. Cathey, Jr., "The Effect Of Finite Sampling in Holography," Optik 27, 317 (1968).
16. J. Bucklew and N. C. Gallagher, Jr., "Aliasing Error in Digital
Holography," Appl. Opt. 15, 2183 (1976).
17. J. W. Goodman and A. M. Silvestri, "Some Effects of Fourier
Domain Phase Quantization," IBM J. Res. Dev. 14, 478 (1970).
18. P. S. Naidu, "Quantization Noise in Binary Hologram," Opt.
Commun. 15, 361 (1975).
19. B. R. Brown and A. W. Lohmann, "Computer Generated Binary
Holograms," IBM J. Res. Dev. 13, 168 (1969).
20. W.-H. Lee, "Sampled Fourier Transform Holograms Generated
by Computer," Appl. Opt. 9, 639 (1970).
21. C. K. Hsueh and A. A. Sawchuck, "Computer Generated Double
Phase Holograms," Appl. Opt. 17, 3874 (1978).
22. C. B. Burckhardt, "A Simplification of Lee's Method of Generating Holograms by Computer," Appl. Opt. 9, 1949 (1970).
23. W.-H. Lee, "Binary Synthetic Holograms," Appl. Opt. 13, 1677
(1974).
24. W.-H. Lee, "Binary Computer Generated Holograms," Appl.
Opt. 18, 3661 (1979).
25. N. C. Gallagher, Jr., and J. A. Bucklew, "Nondetour Phase
Digital Holograms: An Analysis: Errata," Appl. Opt. 19, 4266
(1980).
26. J. J. Burch, "A Computer Algorithm for Synthesis of Spatial
Frequency Filters," Proc. IEEE 55, 599 (1967).
27. L. B. Lesem, P. M. Hirsch, and J. Jordan, Jr., "Kinoforms," IBM
J. Res. Dev. 13, 150 (1969).
28. J. C. Patau et al., "Incoherent Filtering Using Kinoforms," IBM
J. Res. Dev. 14, 485 (1970).
29. W. J. Dallas, "Computer Generated Holograms," in The Com-

puter in Optical Research, B. R. Frieden, Ed. (Springer-Verlag,

W. Richter, R. Burow, and G. Hebermehl, "Synthetische Hologramme," Monatsber. Dtsch. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 13, 98 (1971).
A. P. Anderson and J. Duvernoy, "Enhancement of Optically Reconstructed Images from Microwave Holograms," Opto-electronics 4,
57 (1972).
A. F. Fercher and M. Kriese, "Binary Synthetic Holograms for
Testing Aspherical Optical Elements," Optik, 35, 168 (1972).

B. F. Fedorov and R. I. Elman, "Differentiating Effect of a Binary

Hologram," Sov. J. Opt. Technol. 39, 381 (1972).

K. G. Birch and F. J. Green, "Application of Computer Generated

Holograms to Testing Optical Elements," J. Phys. D 5, 1982
(1972).
A. Bruel and J. C. Cuzaux, "Realisation Par Calculateur de Plans de
Memoire Holographique de Masse," Onde Electron. 52, 439
(1972).
P. L. Ransom, "Synthesis of Complex Wavefronts," Appl. Opt. 11,
2554 (1972).
G. Ketterer, "Binary Synthetic Holograms Based on Systems of
Concentric Rings," Optik 36, 565 (1972).

A. F. Fercher, M. Kriese, and J. Kuehn, "Adjustment of Synthetic

Holograms with Spherical Reference Waves," Optik 36, 547
(1972).
J. C. Wyant and V. P. Bennett, "Using Computer Generated Holograms to Test Aspheric Wavefronts," Appl. Opt. 11, 2833 (1972).

T. Kawatani, "Recording Methods and Noise Characteristics in

Computer Generated Holograms,"Rev. Electr. Commun. Lab. 21,
1 (1973).

A. F. Fercher, P. Shalicky, and J. Tomiser, "Compensation of Plot

Distortions in Digital Plotting Systems," Opt. Laser Technol. 5,75
(1973).
A. F. Fercher, R. Torge, and R. N. Wilson, "Optical Testing by
Means of Synthetic Holograms," Opt. Commun. 7, 363 (1973).

A. Fercher and R. Torge, "Holographic Real-Time Interferometry,"

Bundesminest. Forsch. Technol. Forschungsber. Entwicklung 7301 (1973).
D. MacQuigg, "Complex Wavefront Synthesis by Multiple Exposure
Holography," Opt. Commun. 8, 76 (1973).
D. C. Chu, J. R. Fienup, and J. W. Goodman, "Multiemulsion OnAxis Computer Generated Holograms," Appl. Opt. 12, 1386
(1973).
L. Gallagher and B. Liu, "Methods for Computing Kinoforms,"
Appl. Opt. 12, 2328 (1973).
T. Tcchudi, G. Herziger, and A. Engle, "Particle Size Analysis Using
Computer-Synthesized Holograms," Appl. Opt. 13, 245 (1974).

0. Bryngdahl, "Optical Map Transformations," Opt. Commun. 10,

164 (1974).
Y. Aoki and Y. Suzuki, "Hologram Conversion by Computer," Proc.
IEEE 62, 643 (1974).

Berlin, 1980), p. 291.

30. D. Schreier, Ed., Synthetische Holografie (Physik-Verlag, Location, 1984).
31. W.-H. Lee, "Computer Generated Holograms," Prog. Opt. 16,
121 (1978).

D. C. Chu and J. R. Fienup, "Recent Approaches to Computer

Bibliography
E. 0. Brigham et al., "Fast Fourier Transform and Its Applications,"

T. Yatagai, "Three DimensionalDisplays Using Computer-Generat-

Generated Holograms," Opt. Eng. 13, 189 (1974).

T. C. Strand, "Signal/Noise in Analog and Binary Holograms," Opt.

Eng. 13, 219 (1974).

J. R. Fienup and J. W. Goodman, "New Ways to Make ComputerGenerated Color Holograms," Nouv. Rev. Opt. 5, 269 (1974).

in Proceedings,Twentieth IEEE Southwestern Conference

(1968).

D. Silverman, "Mapping the Earth With Elastic Wave Holography,"

IEEE Trans. Geosci. Electron. GE-7, 190 (1969).
J. C. Wyant and M. P. Givens, "Effects of Photographic Gamma on
Hologram Reconstructions," J. Opt. Soc. Am. 59, 1650 (1969).
R. A. Gabel and B. Liu, "Minimization of Reconstruction Errors

With Computer Generated Binary Holograms,"Appl. Opt. 9,1180

(1970).

A. J. Macgovernand J. C. Wyant, "Computer Generated Holograms

for Testing Optical Elements," Appl. Opt. 10, 619 (1971).

ed Holograms," Opt. Commun. 12, 43 (1974).

B. R. Clay and D. A. Gore, "Holographic Moving Map Display," Opt.
Eng. 13, 435 (1974).
W. J. Dallas, "Magnitude Coupled Phase Quantization," Appl. Opt.
13, 2274 (1974).
W.-H. Lee and 0. Bryngdahl, "Imaging on Curved Surfaces," Opt.
Comm. 12, 382 (1974).
W. R. Fenner and G. E. Stewart, "Ultrasonic Holographic Imaging
System for Medical Applications," Acoust. Hologr. 5, 481 (1974).

T. H. Demetrakopoulos and R. Mittra, "Diffraction and Optical

Reconstruction of Images from Suboptical Diffraction Patterns,"
Appl. Opt. 13, 665 (1974).

15 October 1987 / Vol. 26, No. 20 / APPLIEDOPTICS

4357

J. Fleuret, "Calcul D'Hologrammes a Niveaux Continus de Gris

Application a la Synthese D'Une Memoire," Nouv. Rev. Opt. 5,
219 (1974).

M. Tanaka and Y. Nishimura, "Characteristics of Recording and

Readout of Magnetic Holograms on Mn Bi Te Films," Electron.
Commun. Jpn. 58, 145 (1975).

W. Witz, "Ein Neues Verfahren zur Herstellung Synthetischer Hologramme Fuer die Erzeugung von Wellenflaechen," Optik 42,287
(1975).
R. E. Haskell, "Synthetic Holograms and Kinoforms," Opt. Eng. 14,
195 (1975).
R. S. Powers and J. W. Goodman, "Error Rates in Computer-Generated Holographic Memories," Appl. Opt. 14, 1690 (1975).

T. Tschudi, P. Rohrbach, and G. Herziger,"Scattering Functions of

Particles With Diameters Between One and Twenty Micrometers," Optik 43, 175 (1975).
R. E. Burge and R. F. Scott, "Optical Filtering for Phase and Ampli-

tude Determination in Full Bright Field Electron Microscopy,"

Optik 43, 301 (1975).

R. A. Gabel,"Reconstruction Errors in Computer Generated Binary

Holograms:

A Comparative Study," Appl. Opt. 14, 2252 (1975).

H. Becker and W. J. Dallas, "Improving Binary Computer Generated Holograms," Opt. Commun. 15, 50 (1975).

0. Bryngdahl, "Computer Generated Holograms as Generalized

Optical Elements," Opt. Eng. 14, 426 (1975).
W.-H. Lee, "Contour Map Display Using Computer-Generated Holograms," Appl. Opt. 14, 2447 (1975).
A. F. Fercher and H. Sprongl, "Hilfe Synthetischer Hologramme,"
Feinwerktech. Messtech. 83, 309 (1975).
T. Takahashi, K. Konno, and M. Kawai, "Some Improvements in

Computer Holograms for Testing Aspheric Surfaces," Jpn. J.

Appl. Phys. 14, Suppl. 14-1 (1975).

P. Chavel and S. Lowenthal, "Method of Incoherent Optical-Image

Processing Using Synthetic Holograms," J. Opt. Soc. Am. 66, 14
(1976).

0. Bryngdahl and W.-H. Lee, "Laser Beam Scanning Using Computer-Generated Holograms," Appl. Opt. 15, 183 (1976).
T. Takahashi, K. Konno, M. Kawai, and M. Isshiki, "Computer
Generated Holograms for Testing Aspheric Lenses," Appl. Opt.
15, 546 (1976).

J. P. Hugonin and P. Chavel, "Complement to the Theory of Lohmann Type Holograms," Opt. Commun. 16, 342 (1976).
K. Nagai and M. Suzuki, "Line Printer Displayed Binary Holograms

Generated by the Phase Reference Method," Electron. Commun.

Jpn. 59, 99 (1976).

0. Bryngdahl, "Heterodyne Shearing Interferometers Using Diffractive Filters with Rotational Symmetry," Opt. Commun. 17,43
(1976).

K. Nagashima and T. Asakura, "Reconstruction from Computer

Generated Holograms Displayed by a Line Printer," Opt. Commun. 17, 273 (1976).

0. Ersoy, "Construction of Point Images With the Scanning Electron Microscope: A Simple Algorithm," Optik 46, 61 (1976).
D. Casasent and C. Szczutkowski, "Optical Mellin Transforms Using
Computer Generated Holograms," Opt. Commun. 19, 217 (1976).

T. Yatagai, "Stereoscopic Approach to 3-D Display Using Computer-Generated

Holograms," Appl. Opt. 15, 2722 (1976).

A. A. Friesem and D. Peri, "Coherent Optical Image Deblurring

Using Computer Generated Holograms," Opt. Commun. 19, 382
(1976).

H. Bartelt, W. J. Dallas, and A.W. Lohmann, "Computer Generated

Spatial Filters for Large Optical Formats," Opt. Commun. 20, 50
(1977).
T. Ike, N. Nagao, and N. Masato, "Quantization Error Minimizing

Method for Computer Generated Hologram," Electron. Commun.

Jpn. 60, 117 (1977).

4358

APPLIEDOPTICS / Vol. 26, No. 20 / 15 October 1987

M. D. Calhoun and F. M. Ingels,"Comparison of DigitallySimulated

Holographic

Images with Actual Holographic Images," in Pro-

ceedings, Southeast Conference 1977, IEEE Catalog 77CHO

(1977), p. 311.

T. F. Krile et al., "Space Variant HolographicOptical Systems Using

Phase-Coded Reference Beams," Proc. Soc. Photo-Opt. Instrum.
Eng. 118, 6 (1977).
W.-H. Lee, "Two-Dimensional

Laser Beam Deflections Using Com-

puter Generated Holograms," Proc. Soc. Photo-Opt. Instrum.

Eng. 126, 84 (1977).

T. Yatagai, "Interpolation Method of Computer-Generated Filters

for Large Object Formats," Opt. Commun. 23, 347 (1977).

H. Bartelt, "Space Multiplexing With Computer Holograms," Opt.

Commun. 23, 203 (1977).

K. Nagashima and T. Asakura, "Phase Coding Effects in the Computer Generated Holograms Displayed by a Line Printer," Optik
50, 53 (1978).

T. Yatagai and H. Saito, "Interferometric Testing With Computer

Generated Holograms: Aberration Balancing Method and Error
Analysis," Appl. Opt. 17, 858 (1978).

G. Hutton, "Fast Fourier Transform Holography: Recent Results,"

Opt. Lett. 3, 30 (1978).

H. 0. Bartelt and K. D. Foerster, "Computer Generated Holograms

With Reduced Phase Errors," Opt. Commun. 26, 12 (1978).
H. Terajima, T. Fujioka, and M. Nakajima, "Synthetic Hologram
Made by Variable Magnification Imaging System," Opt. Commun. 27, 41 (1978).

K. Nagashima and T. Asakura, "Simple Computer Generated Holograms Displayed by an X-Y Plotter," Opt. Laser Technol. 10, 310
(1978).

M. Onoe and M. Kaneko, "Computer Generated Pure Binary Hologram," Electron. Commun. Jpn. 62, 118 (1979).
P. M. Emmel and K. M. Leung, "New Instrument

for Routine

Optical Testing of General Aspherics," Proc. Soc. Photo-Opt.

Instrum. Eng. 171, 93 (1979).
K. Osuk, J. C. Wyant, and C. R. Hayslett, "10.6 Micrometer Interfer-

ometric Testing of Infrared Optical Components and Aspherics,"

Proc. Soc. Photo-Opt. Instrum. Eng. 190, 99 (1979).

J. Fienup, "Iterative Method Applied to Image Reconstruction and

to Computer Generated Holograms," Proc. Soc. Photo-Opt. Instrum. Eng. 207, 2 (1979).
M. Onoe and M. Kaneke, "Characteristics of Three-Dimensional
Reconstructed Images from a Computer Generated Hologram,"
Electron. Commun. Jpn. 62, 101 (1979).
S. P. Alameida, S. K. Case, and W. J. Dallas, "Multispectral Size-

Averaged Incoherent Spatial Filtering," Appl. Opt. 18, 4025

(1979).
V. Srinivasan, C. P. Wong, and M. I. Wang, "Single-Step Continuous

Tone Computer Generated Holograms," Electron. Lett. 16, 213

(1980).

J. R. Fienup, "Iterative Method Applied to Image Reconstruction

and to Computer Generated Holograms," Opt. Eng. 19, 297
(1980).
W.-H. Lee, "Techniques for Recording Holographic Lenses for Infrared Wavelengths," Opt. Commun. 34, 29 (1980).

S. Zembutsu and Y. Torii, "Computer Generated Holograms Using

(Se, S)-Based ChalcogenideAmorphous Film," Opt. Commun.34,
19 (1980).

J. S. Loomis, "Computer Generated Holography and Optical Testing," Opt. Eng. 19, 679 (1980).

D. A. Brueck and K. S. Langenberg, "Basic Pitfalls in Numerical

Reconstruction of Flaws With Acoustic Holography," Proc. IEEE
Ultrason. Symp. IEEE Catalog 80CH1602-2 (1980), p. 994.

N. C. Gallagher, Jr., and J. A. Bucklew, "Nondetour Phase Digital

Holograms:

An Analygig: Errata," Appl. Opt. 19,4266 (1980).

D. Psaltis et al., "Accurate Numerical

Computation

by Optical

Convolution," Proc. Soc. Photo-Opt. Instrum. Eng. 232, 160

(1983).

(1980).

J. Maeda and K. Murata, "Retrieval of Wave Aberration From Point

Spread Function or Optical Transfer Function Data," Appl. Opt.
20, 274 (1981).
S. Yokozeki, "Interferometric Testing of Optical Aspheric Surfaces," Opt. Lasers Eng. 2, 71 (1981).
F. Gori and L. Ronchi, "Degrees of Freedom for Scatterers with
Circular Cross Section," J. Opt. Soc. Am. 71, 250 (1981).
W.-H. Lee, "Method for Converting a Gaussian Laser Beam Into a
Uniform Beam," Opt. Commun. 36, 468 (1981).
S. K. Case, P. R. Haugen, and D. J. Lokberg, "Multifacet Holographic Optical Elements for Wavefront Transformations," Appl. Opt.
20, 2670 (1981).
T. Yatagai, K. Choji, and H. Saito, "Pattern Classification Using

Optical Mellin Transform and Circular Photodiode Array," Opt.

Commun. 38, 161 (1981).
V. Srinivasan, M. H. Er, and J. P. Er, "Pulse Width Modulated
Computer Generated Holograms," J. Phys. E 14, 1141 (1981).
R. M. Vasu and G. L. Rogers, "Image Deblurring With Computer
Generated Double Phase Holograms," Pattern Recognition, 14,
297 (1981).

K. Winick, "Designing Efficient Aberration-Free Holographic

WaveLenses in the Presence of a Construction-Reconstruction
length Shift," J. Opt. Soc. Am. 72, 143 (1982).
J. R. Leger and S. H. Lee, "Hybrid Optical Processor for Pattern
Recognition and Classification Using a Generalized Set of Pattern
Functions," Appl. Opt. 21, 274 (1982).
R. C. Fairchild and J. R. Fienup, "Computer Originated Aspheric
Holographic Optical Elements," Opt. Eng. 21, 133 (1982).
S. K. Case and P. R. Haugen, "Partitioned Holographic Optical
Elements," Opt. Eng. 21, 352 (1982).
V. N. Karnaukhov, N. S. Merzlyakov, and N. yu. Ovechkis, "Synthesis of Hybrid Optical-Digital Rainbow Holograms and Stereo
Holograms," Opt. Commun. 42, 10 (1982).
G. D. Mountain, J. F. Ward, and R. E. Burge, "Evaluation of a

Method for Producing On-Axis Complex Computer Generated

Holograms-I,"

T. Minemoto and T. Nonami, "Recording a Binary Computer Generated Hologram on a Thermoplastic Film," Opt. Commun. 47,97

Optik 61, 263 (1982).

J. Jahns and A. W.Lohmann, "OTF Synthesis: LowPass and Band

Pass Filters Realized by Periodic Replication of the Pupil Function," Opt. Commun. 42, 231 (1982).
G. D. Mountain, J. F. Ward, and R. E. Burge, "Evaluation

of a

Method for Producing On-Axis Complex Computer Generated

Optik 61, 335 (1982).
Holograms-2,"
P. K. Murphy and N. C. Gallagher, "Hexagonal

Sampling Tech-

niques Applied to Fourier and Fresnel Digital Holograms,"J. Opt.

Soc. Am. 72, 929 (1982).
I. Prikryl, "Holographic Maps," Appl. Opt. 21, 2882 (1982).
H. Bartelt and S. K. Case, "High Efficiency Hybrid Computer Generated Holograms," Appl. Opt. 21, 2886 (1982).
E. Barrier, et al., "Constructing an Optimal Filter for an Optical
Processor for Particle Physics," Opt. Commun. 43, 1 (1982).
Y. N. Hsu and H. H. Arsenault, "Optical Pattern Recognition Using
Circular Harmonic Expansion," Appl. Opt. 21, 4016 (1982).

M. Kujawinska, "Analysis of the Product and Sum Type MultiExposure Synthetic Holograms," Opt. Commun. 44, 85 (1982).
B. Prowe, "Computation Method for Interferogram-like Binary Holograms for Testing Optical Elements," Optik 63, 203 (1983).
D. Casasent and J. Chen, "Nonlinear Local Image Processing Using
Coherent Optical Techniques," Appl. Opt. 22, 808 (1983).

H. Y. Wu et al., "Fresnel Detour Phase Circular Computer Generated Holograms," Opt. Commun. 45, 155 (1983).

P. Ambs, J. Gresser, and J. Hueber, "Use of Fresnel Synthetic

Holograms in an Optical Processor," Opt. Commun. 46,79 (1983).
M. J. Yzuel et al., "Use of Commercial Fine-Grain Films for Com-

puter-Generated Holograms," Opt. Laser Technol. 15,138 (1983).

R. J. Perlmutter and S. S. Friedland, "Computer Generated Holograms in Biology and Medicine," IEEE Comput. Graphics Appl. 3,
47 (1983).
Y. Saito, S. Komatsu, and H. Ohzu, "Scale and Rotation Invariant

Real Time Optical Correlator Using Computer Generated Holograms," Opt. Commun. 47, 8 (1983).

Y. Ishii, "Reflection Holographic Scanners With Field Curvature

Corrections," Appl. Opt. 22, 3491 (1983).
Y. Ishii and K. Murata, "Reflection Holographic Lens Having Nonspherical Wavefront Designed by Computer," Opt. Commun. 47,
303 (1983).
A. W. Lohmann and C. Thum, "Two Way Code Translation by
Computer Generated Holographic Filters," Opt. Commun. 46, 74
(1983).
0. Bartelt, A. W. Lohmann, W. Freude, and G. K. Grau, "Mode

Analysis of Optical Fibers Using Computer Generated Matched

Filters," Electron. Lett. 247 (1983).
H. J. Tiziani, "Contactless Optical Measuring Techniques in Real
Time," Laser Optoelektron.

15, 315 (1983).

Y. N. Hsu and H. H. Arsenault, "Statistical Performance of the

Circular Harmonic Filter for Rotation Invariant Pattern Recognition," Appl. Opt. 22, 2804 (1983).

H. Tiziani, "Application of Interferometry for Testing Macro/Microgeometry of Optical Surfaces," Proc. Soc.Photo-Opt. Instrum.
Eng. 381, 000 (1983).

M. Kujowinska,"Quality Optimization of Multi-Exposure Synthetic Holograms by Means of the Product-sum-type Holograms,"

Opt. Appl. 13, 459 (1983).
A. F. Fercher, "New Interferometers for Optical Testing," Laser
Optoelektron. 15, 301 (1983).

K. Nagashima and T. Asakura, "Computer-Generated Line Holograms Using an X-Y Plotter," Opt. Laser Technol. 15, 133 (1983).
M. Kujawinska, "Fourier Spectrum Analysis of Multi-exposure Synthetic Holograms," Opt. Acta 30, 139 (1983).

P. Chavel et al., "Architectures for a Sequential Optical Logic

Processor," Proc. Int. Opt. Comput. Conf. IEEE Catalog
83CH1880-4 (1983), p. 6.

B. K. Jenkins and T. C. Strand, "Computer Generated Holograms

for Space Variant Interconnections of Optical Logic Systems,"
Proc. Soc. Photo-Opt. Instrum. Eng. 437, 110 (1983).

R. M. Squires and J. P. Allebach, "Digital Holography-A Guide to

Reducing Quantization and Phase Encoding Errors," Proc. Soc.
Photo-Opt. Instrum. Eng. 437, 21 (1983).
M. J. Yzuel et al., "The Use of Commercial Fine Grain Film for
Computer Generated Holograms," Opt. Laser Technol. 15, 132
(1983).

J. L. Freyer, R. J. Perlmutter, and J. W.Goodman, "Digital Holography: Algorithms for Electron Beam Lithography and Three Dimensional Display," Proc. Soc. Photo-Opt. Instrum. Eng. 437, 38
(1983).

R. Hauck and 0. Bryngdahl, "Computer Generated HologramsWith

Pulse Density Modulation," J. Opt. Soc. Am. 1, 5 (1984).
Y. H. Wu and P. Chavel, "Cell-Oriented On-Axis Computer-Generated Holograms for Use in the Fresnel Diffraction Mode," Appl.
Opt. 23, 228 (1984).

B. Thirion and J. Gresser, "Optical Processor With a Liquid Crystal

Light Valve," J. Opt. 15, 25 (1984).

B. Doerband and T. J. Tiziani, "Design of a Compensating System

for the Interferometric Testing of Aspherical Surfaces," Optik 67,
1 (1984).

15 October 1987 / Vol. 26, No. 20 / APPLIEDOPTICS

4359

J.-Z. Jiao, B. Wang, and H. Liu, "Wigner Distribution Function and

Optical Geometrical Transformation," Appl. Opt. 23,1249 (1984).

J. M. Tedesco and R. C. Fairchild, "Design and Fabrication of

Aspheric Holographic Optical Elements Using Computer Gener-

H. Bartelt, "Computer-Generated HolographicElement With Opti-

ated Holograms," Proc. Soc. Photo-Opt. Instrum. Eng. 523, 277

mum Light Efficiency," Appl. Opt. 23, 1499 (1984).

Y. Ishii and K. Murata, "Flat-Field Linearized Scans With Reflec-

(1985).

D. Casasent and S. Jian-Zhong, "A Computer Generated Hologram

for Diffraction Pattern Sampling," Proc. Soc. Photo-Opt. In-

tion Dichromated Gelatin Holographic Gratings," Appl. Opt. 23,

1999 (1984).
H. Wuestenberg,

U. Haufe, and A. Erhard, "Contribution

strum. Eng. 523, 227 (1985).

R. K. Kostuk, J. W. Goodman, and L. Hesselink, "Optical Imaging

to the

Ultrasonic Detection and Sizing of Inner Wall Surface-Breaking

Applied to Microelectronic Chip-to-Chip Interconnections,"

Cracks in Pipes," Mater. Eval. 42, 1142 (1984).

Appl. Opt. 24, 2851 (1985).

J. Cederquist and A. M. Tai, "Computer Generated Holograms for

J. L. Horner and J. R. Leger, "Pattern Recognition With Binary

Geometric Transformations," Appl. Opt. 23, 3099 (1984).

B. K. Jenkins et al., "Sequential Optical Logic Implementation,"
Appl. Opt. 23, 3455 (1983).

Phase Only Filters," Appl. Opt. 24, 609 (1985).

G. Neugebauer, R. Hauck, and 0. Bryngdahl, "Computer Generated

Holograms:
(1985).

A. Ono and J. C. Wyant, "Plotting Errors Measurement of Computer

Generated Holograms Using an Improved Interferometric Meth-

H. 0. Bartelt, "Application of the Tandem Concept: An Element

od," Appl. Opt. 23, 3905 (1984).

J. C. Wyant, B. F. Oreb, and P. Hariharan, "Testing Aspheric Using

With Optimum Light Efficiency," Appl. Opt. 24, 3811 (1985).

D. Just, R. Hauck, and 0. Bryngdahl, "Computer Generated Holo-

Two-Wavelength Holography: Use of Digital Electronic Techni-

grams: Structure
(1985).

ques," Appl. Opt. 23, 4020 (1984).

J. Kedmi and A. A. Friesem, "Optimal Holographic Fourier Transform Lens," Appl. Opt. 23, 4015 (1984).
H. H. Arsenault, Y. N. Hsu, and K. Chalasinska-Macukow, "Rotation Invariant Pattern Recognition," Opt. Eng. 23, 705 (1984).
Y. Quanshu and W. Gao, "A Laser Scanner Applicable to Scanning
Any Graphics," China Phys. 4, 150 (1984).

R. R. Kallman, "Optimal Low Noise Phase Only and Binary Phase

Only Optical Correlation Filters for Threshold Detection," Appl.
Opt. 25, 4216 (1986).

D. Casasent, S.-F. Xia, J.-Z. Song, and A. J. Lee, "Diffraction Pat-

J. Montilla, E. Sauras, and F. Checa, "Investigation of Computer

tern Sampling Using a Computer-Generated

Opt. 25, 983 (1986).

Generated Holograms," Opt. Pura Appl. 17, 83 (1984).

J. Goodman et al., "Optical Interconnects for VLSI," Proc. IEEE 72,

Hologram," Appl.

F. Wyrowski, R. Hauck, and 0. Bryngdahl, "Computer Generated

Holograms: Defect Resistance by Object Phase Manipulation,"

850 (1984).

B. K. Jenkins, et al., "Architectural Implications of a Digital Optical

J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 3, 1840 (1986).

D. Leseberg, "Computer Generated Holograms: Display Using One
Dimensional Transform," J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 3, 1846 (1986).

Processor," Appl. Opt. 23, 3465 (1984).

A.A. Sawchuck and T. C. Strand, "Digit Optical Computing," Proc.

IEEE 72, 758 (1984).
S. M. Arnold, "Electron Beam Fabrication of Computer-Generated
Holograms," Opt. Eng. 24, 803 (1985).
D. W. Sweeney and N. C. Gallagher, Jr., "Reflective Optical Elements for Use in the Microwave Region," Proc. Soc. Photo-Opt.
Instrum. Eng. 523, 262 (1985).
Y. Ishii and K. Murata, "Simulation of Aberrations Using Binary
Computer Generated Holograms," Optik 69, 65 (1985).

N. Ohyama et al., "The Dynamic Zone Plate Interferometer for

Measuring Aspherical Surfaces.
(1986).

Part 2," Opt. Commun. 56, 369

D. Casasent and W. A.Rozzi, "Computer Generated and Phase Only

Synthetic Discriminant Function Filters," Appl. Opt. 25, 3767
(1986).

P. Haugen, S. Rychnovsky, and A. Husain, "Optical Interconnects

D. Casasent, "Computer Generated Holograms in Pattern Recogni-

for High Speed Computing," Opt. Eng. 25, 1076 (1986).

B. D. Clymer and J. W. Goodman, "Optical Clock Distribution
Silicon Chips," Opt. Eng. 25, 1105 (1986).

of Mode Cou-

pling in a Multimode Graded-Index Fiber Caused by Periodic

Microbends Using Computer Generated Spatial Filters," Opt.

to

F. Mok, et al., "Real Time Computer Generated Holography by

Means of Liquid Crystal Television Spatial Light Modulator,"

Commun. 55, 403 (1985).

Opt. Lett. 11, 748 (1986).

W. A. Rozzi and D. Casasent, "Frequency Domain Synthesis of

Modified Matched Spatial Filter," Opt. Lett. 10, 517 (1985).
B. Doerbrand and H. J. Tiziani, "Testing Aspheric Surfaces With
Computer Generated Holograms: Analysis of Adjustments and

J. Kedmi and A. A. Friesem, "Optimized Holographic Optical Elements," J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 3, 2011 (1986).

C. Frere, D. Leseberg, and 0. Bryngdahl, "Computer Generated

Holograms of Three-Dimensional Objects Composed of Line Segments," J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 3, 726 (1986).
K. Nagashima, "Improvement of Images Reconstructed from Com-

Shape Errors," Appl. Opt. 24, 2604 (1985).

A. Ono and J. C. Wyant, "Aspherical Mirror Testing Using the

Computer Generated Hologram with Small Errors," Appl. Opt.

puter Generated Holograms Using an Iterative Method," Opt.

24, 560 (1985).

Laser Technol. 18, 157 (1986).

APPLIEDOPTICS / Vol. 26, No. 20 / 15 October 1987

J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 2, 644

Methods," Opt. Eng. 24, 171 (1985).

H. Akahori, "Spectrum Leveling by an Iterative Algorithm With a
Dummy Area for Synthesizing the Kinoform," Appl. Opt. 25, 802
(1986).

strum. Eng. 465, 29 (1984).

4360

Manipulation,"

E. N. Leith and P. Voulgaris, "Multiplex Holography: Some New

D. Psaltis, F. Mok, and G. P. Euny, "On the Use of Litton MagnetoOptic Device in Optical Processors," Proc. Soc. Photo-Opt. In-

tion: A Review," Opt. Eng. 24, 724 (1985).

V. P. Garitchev et al., "Experimental Investigation

Carriers of Polar Geometry," Appl. Opt. 24, 777