Effect of Reactive Power on Electricity Generation, Transmision and Distribution

3.1 chapter overview

Inthis chapter the effect of reactive power on power system performance and the design (rating) of
equipment are described. The transmission of reactive power through line and transformers as well as
the supply of reactive power by generators in power stations requere a higher rating of the equipent.
The transmission of reactive power also couseses an increased voltage drop in any aquitment, which
influences significantly the voltage control in power systems.
3.2 loading generator and equitment
The oscillation of reactive power between generation or sourse ( generator and / or capasitors) and
consuption or drain (motor and/or load) causes reactive currents and,from this,additional loading of
any equipment (lines, transformator, swichgear ) between the source and drain of reactive power. The
apparent power and apparent current can be calculated from

s= P2 +Q2
I=
I=

( 3.1)

S
3 . U

( 3.2a)

P
3 . U .cos 1

( 3.2b)

Example: the current to transmit active power P = 300 kW at voltage U = 400 V with
I =433 A. If the active power is transmitted at

cos 1=1 is

cos 1=0.5 , the current is I = 866 A. The current to

be to be transmitted incereases with decreasing fundamental frequency figure 3.1 outlines the
relationship between

cos 1 and the current.

Figure 3.1 apparent current in relation to

cos 1 at constant active power

A low fundamental frequency power factor, that is a high reactive load, requires an increased
rating of generator in power stations, an increased rated power of transformers and a higher crosssection of cables, conductor and transmissions lines. A low fundamental frequency power factor

cos 1 increases the current losses in equipmen and increases the voltage drops. This is of gread
importance in long transmission lines rather that in short lines.
For the operation of electrical power system, including generating plants, transmission and
distribution levels, it is important to transmit the electrical power with a fundamental frequency power
factor

cos 1 at the highest possible value,that near cos 1 = 1.

3.3 power system losses

When considering power system losses, espocially the losses of lines, the effect of a low

Pv

can be seen clearly. The losses

increase quadratically with decreasing

cos 1

cos 1 (e.g. in a

three-phase line)

Pv =

I . P2
k A U 2 cos 1

(3.3)

Where
A = cross-section
I = maximum cable length
P = active power to be transmilled
K = electrical conductivity
U = phase-to-phase voltage

cos 1 = fundamental frequency power factor

Example: the transmitted power P = 300 kW at
( equal to 2% ) which increase to

cos 1 = 1 causes power losses

Pv

= 6 kW

Pv = 16.7 kW ( equal to 5.5% ) if the power is transmitted at

cos 1 = 0.6.
Power losses are very important when extending power system on any voltage level,that is, at
the transmission and distribussion line are proportional to the squere of the squere of the current. The
current hear losses for a three-phase transmission line are

PV =3 I 2 R L
Where

( 3.4 )

R L=

conductor resistance

I = line current
By improving the fundamental frequency power factor from

Figture 3.2 indicates the loss reduction factor

to

cos 1d

k PV :

the losses are reduced by the loss reduction factor

k PV =1

cos 1a

cos 1 a
cos 1 d
k PV

(3.5)

in relation to

cos 1a

cos 1d

as

cos 1a =0.6

to

with

parameter.
Example: the improvement in the fundamental frequency power factor from

cos 1d =0.8 raduces the losses by 43.8%; the imporment semilary to the line losses. The
transformer losses

PV

PFe and copper losses

consist of iron losses

PCu . The iron losses are

identical to the no-load losses and are independent of the current. The copper losses vary with the
squere of the current and depend on

cos 1 :

PV =PV + PV

P
PV cos 1

(3.6)

Figture 3.3 indicates the typical range of losse of transformers of differient types.

Figure 3.2 loss redacton

factor of the existing

cos 1a and the required cos 1d

Figure 3.3 iron and copper

losses of transformers:

1, transformers with very low losses; 2, transformers with reduced losses; 3, transformers with normal
losses.
Example: the total losses of a transformers with rated power
300 KW at the fundamental frequence power factor

PV =1150 w+6000 w

S r =500 kVA and actual loading P =

cos 1=0.7 ar given by

( 500300KVAKw 0.7 )

= 5558 W

( transformator losses are as in figure 3.3 normal losses,parameter 3).

By

improving

cos 1=1,

the

fundamental

the losses are redcate to

frequency

power

factor

to

nearly

PV = 3310 W. The saving is

approximately 2250 W.the ennergi saviing for am 8-houre shift and 220 working
days per year is abaut 3956 kWh/a.
3.4 Generators
Generator in power stations are designet for a definet apperent power at a defined fundamental
frequency power factor, called rated power

Sr

at rated fundamental frequency power factor

cos 1r . the maximal active power at fixed apparent power of the generator depends on the
fundamental frequence power factor

cos 1 of the system load. Figure 3.4 outlines the operating

limits (power chart) of a synchronous generator.

Assume the generator is operating at reted fundamental frequency power factor

cos 1r

with rated apparent power as indicated in figure 3.4. The rated fundamental frequency power factor

normally is the range of

cos 1r =0.80.85 . A reducated fundamental frequency power factor

cos 1 is only pissible when the reactive power is reduced, due to an increase in the rotor current,
needed for exitation of the generator. An increase in the fundamental frequency power factor above its
rate value is possible, but only with reducate reactive power, because the active power is limited by
the limited power of the turbine.

Figure 3.4 operating limits (power chart ) of a synchronous generator.

To increase the generation of reactive power by generators in power stations (power plants),
two alternative are possible.

Generator have to be operated with partial load only,this measure raquires higher investment

costs and leads to a lower plant effciency due to operating with partial load.
Generator with rated funddamental frequency power factor cos 1r

0 have to be

installed,this type of generator is called a phase-pshift generator. In addition to the higher

inversrmment costs for the phase-shift generator, additional losses, depending on its effciency,
will occur.
A suittable selection and design of generator, particulary for use in combined head and power
plants in industry, will gain in inportance in the futurre. Due to the daily and seasonal variation of the
fundamental frequency power factor of the consumer load, determination of the average fundamental
frequency power factor of the generator is very inportant for optimal design of the geerator and even
for the turbine unit.
3.5 voltge drop
3.5.1 General
The permissible voltage drop i electrical power systems is defined in IEC 60038 for different
standartizerd voltages. Furthermore, requedments for the permissible voltagges in power systems are
defined in DIN EN 50160, describing parameters for voltage quality in low-and medium-voltage
systems. Busides techmical standards, economic and oprational reasons are also of importance, such
as the operating costs of energy transfer resulting, relatively large cross-sections are requared,which

correspondingly requires increased investment in insulation, transmission towers, cable rights-of way,
and so on.
Determination of the permissible voltage drop and,from this, the selection of a suitable crosssection of conductor are determined by operational requirements with regat to the electricity
consumer, for which a suitable voltage quality as definet in DIN EN 50160 should be ensured.
Figure3.5 outlines the voltage drop in electrical power systems, for example in any equipment
such as a line or transformer, for different fundamental frequency power factor.
As cn be seen from figure 3.5, the total voltage drop consists of two parts, the ohmic voltage
drop

UR

at the ohmic part of the system impedance and reactive voltage drop

UX

at the

reactive part of the system impedance. While the ohmic voltage drop in the case of connection point
with respect to the system voltage

U N , the reactive voltage drop is negative only for lagging

current, that is the reactive fundamental frequency power factor, as indicated in figure 3.5b. with
increasing fundamental frequency power factor up to

cos 1 = 1.0 and further in the capacitive

range with leeding c urrent, the reactive voltage drop becomes zero ( cos 1 = 1.0) and willbe
positive ( cos 1

in the capasitive range) with respect to the system voltage

U N ,thus increasing

the voltage at the connection point, as outlined in figure 3.5c. the reactive part of the voltage drop
gains in importance,espectially in medium-and high-voltage systems. The voltage drop can be
calculated as

| U| U=R1 I cos 1 + X 1 I sin 1

(3.7)

Figure 3.5 voltage drop in electrical power system: (a) sigle-line diagram with ohmic-reactive load;
(b) vector diagram with

cos 1=0.7 and 1,0.

It can be seen from figure 3.5 that the voltage drop can be reduced by improving the
fundamental frequency power factor.
3.5.2 Transferable Power of Lines and Voltage Drop
The voltage drop of transmission line,mainly respented by a series conection of resistance R an
inductance L as outlined in figure 3.5, can be calculated in the case of a normal lengh of lines for
three-phase AC systems for a given fundamental frequency power factor of the load(at the end of the
line)from

R cos 1 +L sin 1
(3.8a)
U 3 ph= 3 I
And in the case of two phases from

R cos 1 +L sin 1
(3.8b)
U 2 ph=2 I
For a leading fundamental frequency power factor,the voltage drop may be a voltage increase. The
maximal permissible voltage drop in a three-phase AC system is

u=

100 P l 100 3 l cos l

=
2
U A k
k A U

(3.9)

And for this the maximal transferable power will be

u U 2 A k (3.10)
Pmax =
100 l
The relative loss in transmittable power

p as a percentage is
p=

Where
A = cross-section
l

= maximum cable length

I = line current
P = active power to be transmitted
k = electrical conductivity
U = phase-to-phase voltage
u = realive voltage (%)
cos

1 = fundamental frequency power factor

u
(3.11)
(cos 1) .2

example: the transmittable active power of a copper cable with a cross-section of 35 mm 2

is increasing nearly linearly in the range of fundamental frequency power factor

cos 1=0.40.8 . if the fundamental frequency power factorr is increased further, the increase
in the transmissiontable power is even greater. As can be seen from figure 3.6, the transferable power
at a given voltage drop is almost doubled is the fundamental frequency power factor cos 1

is

improved from 0.65 to 1.0.

Figure 3.6 transmittable power and fundamental frequency power factor in the case a copper cable
with a cross-section of 35 mm2.
3.5.2.1 Determination of Average Fundamental Frequency Power Factor
Normally a number of consumers (loads) haning different power and different fundamental frequency
power factor are connected to the power system. In order to plan the requered reactive power
compensation it is necessary to determine the average fundamental frequency power factor of the
total consumer load. As the power of the induvidual consumer load normally differs, the calculation of
the pure mean value of the average fundamental frequency power factor taking account of the
different power can be calculated from
n

P i cos 1 i

cos 1m = i=1

Pi
i=1

Where

(3.12)

Pi= active power of consumer i

cos 1i =

fundamental frequency power factor of consumer

The avarage fundamental frequency power factor can also be determinet

graphically as described below and out lined in figure 3.7.
The graphical method for determining the a average fundamental
frequency power factor is based on vector addition of the individual consumer
loads. The example in figure 3.7 sums a load of 8 kw with
of 5 kW with

Figure

cos 1=0.9 and a load

cos 1=0.6 , corresponding to the

3.7

Graphical

determination of average fundamental frequency power factor for different loads.

OA
Vector

OB . By adding the two vectors, the vector

and

OC for the total load indicates a

total load of 12.55 kW with average fundamental frequency power factor

cos 1=0.78 .

in the

case of more than two loads, a similar construction adding all loads has to be applied.
3.5.3 Transformer Voltage Drop
The simplified equivalent circuit of a transformer,suitable for the analysis of short-circuit and loading
conditions, consist of a resistance, reprenting the ohmic winding losses or copper losses, and a
reactance,representing the leakage inductance. As already outlined in figure 3.5 the voltage on the
secondary side of the transformer is reduced while loading the transformer. The upper part of figure

3.5 is outlined in more detail in figure 3.8. the voltage drop

can be estimated with sufficient

accuracy from

U U R cos 1+ U X sin 1
For a partial loading of the transformer, the voltage drop

U is proportional to the rated load

U ( U R cos 1+ U X sin 1 )
The relative reactive voltage drop

(3.13a)

I
Ir

(3.13b)

U X is called the leakage voltage:

U X = U 2k U 2R

The relative ohmic voltage drop

UR

(3.14)

is determined from

Ur=

P kr
100
Sr

(3.15)

Figure 3.8 Transformer voltage drop and kopps triangle

Table 3.1 tentative values of

S (kVA)

UR ()
U X (%)
Pkr ( kW )

100
1.75
3.60
1.75

160
1.43
3.72
2.35

U R ,U X and

250
1.30
3.72
3.25

Pkr

400
1.15
3.83
4.60

630
1.03
3.86
6.50

Where

U k = impedance voltage
U r = ohmic part of impedance voltage
U X = leakage voltage (reactive part of impedance voltage )
Pkr

= rated short-circuit losses

Sr

= rated apparent power

U1

= transformer voltage at high-voltage side(input voltage)

U 2=

transformer voltage at low-voltage side (full-load voltage

or output voltage )

U =

I r =
cos 1=

voltage drop
rated current

fudamental frequency power factor

U R ,U X and

Table 3.1 outlines some tentative values of

Pkr of transformers

according to DIN 42500.

Note that, in relation to table 3.1, the recommended impedance voltage of low-voltage
transformers in distribution systems is

U k =4

in order to limit the permissible voltage drop. Low-

voltage transformers in industrial systems have a more preferable impedence voltage of

U k =6

in

order to limit short-circuit currents.

Example:

the output

S r =2500 kVA

(secondary voltage)

at rated load and

U k =6 . The ohmic voltage drop

Pkr =24 kW and the rated impedance

UR

as

U R=

Pkr
100
Sr

U R=

24 kW
100 =0.96
2500 kVA

The leakage voltage

UX

is calculated from

U X = U 2k U 2R
U X = 620.96 2=5.92
The voltage drop is

U U R cos 1+ U X sin 1
U 0.96 0.8+5.92 0.6=4.32

of a transformer with

cos 1=0.8 is to be determined. The short-

circuit losses as on the nameplate are

voltage

U2

of the transformer is calculated

cos 1 : normal

Figure 3.9 voltage drop and fundaental frequency power factor

losses; 2, reduced losses

Figure 3.9 indicates the voltage drop of transformers with normal and reduced
losses depending on the fundamental frequency power factor.
3.6 Available Power of Transformers
The nameplate raiting of transformers is expressed as apparent power, becouse
it corres ponds at a given voltage (rated voltage) to the highest current (rated
current). The active power to be transferred throughh the transformer is a

cos 1

of the load to be

The higher the fundamental frequency power factor

cos 1 , the higher

function of the fundamental frequency power factor

supplied.

the available active power to be supplied by the transformer. The improvement is

calculates as

S=

1
1

P=K P (3.16)
cos 1 a cos 1 d

Where

S=

additional available apparent power

K=

improvement factor

P=

active power

Example: A transformaer having rated apparent power

loaded with active power

P=200 kW

in the case of

S r =400 kVA

cos 1=0.5 .

is fully

improving the

fundamental frequency power factor to

active power to power
loading will be

cos 1=0. 8

P=320 kW , and for

will increase the available

cos 1=1. 0

the permissible

P=400 kW ,which is equal to the rated apparent power.

Figure 3.10 improvement factor K for increase of active power depending on

different fundamental frequensy power factor.
Figure 3.10 indicates the improvement factor K for different values of the
fundamental frequency power factor.
3.7 Summary
The transmission of

the reactive power through transmission and distribution

lines and through transformers has many disadvantages with respec to power
system construction and operation. The active losses (transformers) are
increased as well. Futhermore, the voltage drops in the system are increased,
resulting in the need to choose a higher regulation range of tap-changers for the
transformets.