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Pain is a common and distressing symptom in critically ill patients. Uncontrolled pain places patients at risk
for numerous adverse psychological and physiological consequences, some of which may be life-threatening.
A systematic assessment of pain is difficult in intensive care units because of the high percentage of patients
who are noncommunicative and unable to self-report pain. Several tools have been developed to identify objective measures of pain, but the best tool has yet to be identified. A comprehensive search on the reliability and
validity of observational pain scales indicated that although the Critical-Care Pain Observation Tool was superior to other tools in reliably detecting pain, pain assessment in individuals incapable of spontaneous neuromuscular movements or in patients with concurrent conditions, such as chronic pain or delirium, remains an
enigma. (Critical Care Nurse. 2013;33[3]:68-79)
ain is an important problem in the intensive care unit (ICU), and inadequate pain
assessment and management have been linked to increased morbidity and mortality.1 The physiological response to pain is almost universally adverse, causing potentially fatal unstable hemodynamic status, alterations in immune system functioning,
hyperglycemia, and increased release of catecholamine, cortisol, and antidiuretic hormones.2 Moreover, uncontrolled pain has been implicated in a variety of psychosocial effects,
including depression, anxiety, delirium, posttraumatic stress disorder, and disorientation.3 Despite
the acknowledgment that pain is a common stressor in the ICU,4 high rates of uncontrolled pain in
critically ill patients remain common.5 This situation can be attributed, in part, to circumstances,
such as mechanical ventilation or unstable hemodynamic status, that preclude the assessment of
pain by self-report. Despite strong evidence that documentation of pain assessment improves pain
management and decreases patients pain, no pain assessment instrument has been universally
recommended for use in critically ill patients incapable of self-reporting.6
CNE
This article has been designated for CNE credit. A closed-book, multiple-choice examination follows this article,
which tests your knowledge of the following objectives:
1. Describe the impact of uncontrolled pain on critically ill patients
2. Identify 2 validated pain scales for critically ill patients
3. Describe instrument reliability and validity when considering pain scales for critically ill patients
2013 American Association of Critical-Care Nurses doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.4037/ccn2013804
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Author
Mindy Stites is a critical care clinical nurse specialist at the University
of Kansas Hospital, Kansas City, Kansas, and a recent graduate of the
University of Missouri, Sinclair School of Nursing, Columbia, Missouri.
Corresponding author: Mindy Stites, RN, MSN, APRN, ACNS-BC, CCNS, CCRN, 231 Edgewood
Dr, Wellsville KS, 66092 (e-mail: mindystites@gmail.com).
To purchase electronic or print reprints, contact The InnoVision Group, 101 Columbia,
Aliso Viejo, CA 92656. Phone, (800) 899-1712 or (949) 362-2050 (ext 532); fax, (949)
362-2049; e-mail, reprints@aacn.org.
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Table 1
Definitiona
Research term
Construct validity
Content validity
The degree to which the items in an instrument adequately represent the universe of content for the concept
being measured
Criterion validity
The degree to which scores on an instrument are correlated with some external criterion
Discriminant validity
An approach used to construct validation that involves assessing the degree to which a single method of
measuring 2 distinct constructs yields different results (ie, the presence or absence of pain)
Interrater reliability
The degree to which 2 raters or observers, operating independently, assign the same ratings or values for an
attribute being measured or observed
Internal consistency
The degree to which the subparts of an instrument are all measuring the same attribute or dimension, as a
measure of the instruments reliability
Sensitivity
The ability of screening instruments to correctly identify a case, that is, to correctly diagnose a condition
Specificity
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Table 2
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Table 3
Item
Facial expression
Description
Relaxed
Scorea
1
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Table 4
Indicator
Description
Score
Facial expression
Relaxed, neutral
Tense
0
1
Grimacing
Absence of movements
Protection
Restlessness
Muscle tension
Evaluation by passive flexion and
extension of upper extremities
Relaxed
Tense, rigid
Very tense or rigid
0
1
2
0
1
2
0
1
2
Body movements
OR
Vocalization (extubated patients)
Total, range
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0-8
73
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been favorable for both the BPS and the CPOT; both tools
indicated a statistically significant increase in scores after
a painful procedure was performed. However, the studies by Payen et al26 and Young et al30 also indicated an
increase in the BPS score after a nonnociceptive procedure, making the specificity of the instrument a concern.
Although the sensitivity and specificity of the CPOT
have been investigated,32 no data on sensitivity or specificity of the BPS have been reported. An interesting finding is the mean at-rest scores, which were elevated with
both tools (BPS score, 3.7; CPOT score, 0.27). These findings suggest baseline pain is present in a majority of critically ill patients, consistent with the results of a previous
study29 on characteristics of pain in the ICU.
An important finding of the validity testing of both
tools is a lack of strong correlation of the observational
pain tools with patients self-reports. The correlation was
especially
poor when Although multiple observational pain scales
are available, few have been reliable and
patients
were scored valid across a multitude of patient populaas having no tions and settings.
pain (BPS
score, 3; CPOT score, 0), and only a few patients had no
pain on self-report scales. These findings suggest that
although scores increased during nociceptive procedures, indicating the presence of increased pain, the BPS
and the CPOT may not be useful tools for establishing the
severity of pain. Attempts to validate the tools as a method
of assessing pain severity have not been successful.41
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Table 5
Research study
Behavioral Pain Scale (BPS)
Payen et al,27 2001
Reliability findings
Validity findings
No data
Interrater agreement:
Before implementation, 73%-91%
After implementation, 86%-100%
No data
Discriminate validity:
Original NVPS, 135.86; P < .001; n = 122
Revised NVPS, 145.05; P < .001; n = 122
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Discriminate validity:
Mean score at rest, 0.19
Mean score noxious stimuli, 0.44
Construct validity: correlation of NVPS
and NRS poor, 0.38, (P < .1)
Abbreviations: FLACC, Face, Legs, Activity, Cry, Consolability scale; FPT, Faces, Pain, Thermometer scale; ICC, intraclass coefficient; NRS, Numerical Rating Scale;
VRS-4, Verbal Rating Scale 4.
Conclusion
The rates of uncontrolled pain in critically ill patients
remain unacceptably high. A systematic assessment of
pain should be done routinely, and self-report by the
patient should be the primary basis for pain evaluation
whenever possible. The routine assessment of pain with
an observational pain assessment instrument can decrease
ICU length of stay; decrease the duration of mechanical
ventilation; and increase the satisfaction of patients,
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To learn more about using pain scales in critically ill patients, read
Patient Satisfaction and Documentation of Pain Assessments and
Management After Implementing the Adult Nonverbal Pain Scale
by Topolovec-Vranic et al in the American Journal of Critical Care,
July 2010;19:345-354. Available at www.ajcconline.org.
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