Earth Science Reading

Reading Essentials
An Interactive Student Textbook

gpescience.com
Glencoe Science
To the Student
In todays world, knowing science is important for thinking critically, solving problems, and
making decisions. But understanding science sometimes can be a challenge.
Reading Essentials takes the stress out of reading, learning, and understanding science. This
book covers important concepts in science, offers ideas for how to learn the information, and
helps you review what you have learned.
In each chapter:
Before You Read sparks your interest in what youll learn and relates it to your world.
Read to Learn describes important science concepts with words and graphics. Next to the
text you can find a variety of study tips and ideas for organizing and learning information:
The Study Coach offers tips for getting the main ideas out of the text.
Foldables Study Organizers help you divide the information into smaller, easierto-remember concepts.
Reading Checks ask questions about key concepts. The questions are placed so you
know whether you understand the material.
Think It Over elements help you consider the material in-depth, giving you an
opportunity to use your critical-thinking skills.
Picture This questions specifically relate to the art and graphics used with the text.
Youll find questions to get you actively involved in illustrating the concepts you
read about.
Applying Math reinforces the connection between math and science.
Use After You Read to review key terms and answer questions about what you have
learned. The Mini Glossary can assist you with science vocabulary. Review questions
focus on the key concepts to help you evaluate your learning.
See for yourself. Reading Essentials makes science easy to understand and enjoyable.
Copyright by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the United
States Copyright Act, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any
means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
Send all inquiries to:
Glencoe/McGraw-Hill
8787 Orion Place
Columbus, OH 43240
ISBN 0-07-872557-7
Printed in the United States of America
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 047 09 08 07 06 05
Table of Contents
Copyright by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
To the Student . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
The Nature of Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

Science, Technology, and Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
Motion, Acceleration, and Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
The Laws of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52
Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
Work and Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
The Earth-Moon-Sun System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
The Solar System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .118
Heat and States of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140
Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160
Sound and Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178
Earths Internal Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .200
Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .220
Magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .238
Electromagnetic Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .254
Energy Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .272
Weather and Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .292
Classification of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314
Properties of Atoms and the Periodic Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . .326
Earth Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .344
Earths Changing Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .364
Chemical Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .388
Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .412
Solutions, Acids, and Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .432
Nuclear Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .452
Stars and Galaxies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .474
iii
Foldables
Foldables are easy-to-make, three-dimensional, interactive graphic organizers that
students create out of simple sheets of paper. These unique hands-on tools for studying
and reviewing were created exclusively for Glencoe by education specialist Dinah Zike.
Research shows (Bransford, 1979; Corno, 1994), study strategies help students understand, organize, remember and apply new information presented in science textbooks.
Some study strategies include concept mapping, highlighting, outlining, note taking,
summarizing, and underlining (Peverly, Probst, Graham & Shaw, 2003).
Organizing Foldables to make Chapter Projects:

For each chapter, students use 11"17" paper or 12"18" art paper to make projects
that act as portfolios for collecting student-made Foldables. These cumulative projects
act as study guides and are perfect for continuing to immerse students in concepts and
vocabulary as they progress through a chapter.
1. Have students write their names, date, period/class, and a main idea or a title on the
front of each chapter project. Some students might choose to illustrate the cover
using any of the following: original or traced illustrations or graphics, internet
printouts, photocopied pictures, original photographs, newspaper articles pertaining
to topic studied, or diagrams, tables, or charts.
3. Three of the five projects (Bound Book Project, Half-Book Project, and Shutterfold
Project) lend themselves to the use of whole sheets of notebook paper or photocopy
paper. Single or multiple sheets of paper can be stapled or braided onto these
projects. This allows essays and in-depth research projects to be included in chapter
study guides. Or, students can glue maps, charts, tables, photocopied activity sheets,
internet print-outs, and any other activities using a whole sheet of paper onto these
projects.
4. The Accordion Project lends itself to vertical Foldables such as those with two,
three, four, or more tabs. Two quarter sheets of notebook paper also fit on each of
the four sections of this project.
HINT: If you would like to place a whole sheet of paper into this project, fold it in
half or into fourths and then glue the folded paper onto one of the four sections.
iv
2. Quarter sheets and half-sheets of notebook paper are used in place of 3"5" and
4"7" index cards. These small sheets of paper are inexpensive and perfect for
recording terms and definitions, taking class notes and main ideas, outlining key
points, making concept maps or webs, sketching diagrams or observations, and
writing general information on a science person, place, or thing.
Organizing Foldables to make Chapter Projects:

continued
5. Pocket Projects are perfect for organizing and storing student work. Fold whole
sheets of paper and student-made Foldables so they will fit into the two or three
pockets of the chapter project. These act as portfolios for student work and notes.
6. Students can use the ideas presented in these chapters to design their own student
aids and project formats. It is much easier to store and display a Foldables project
than a poster board project.
Teaching Tips for Foldables

Do not ask middle school and high school students to carry glue and scissors from class
to class. Instead, set up a small table or rolling cart in the back of the classroom and
provide a few containers of glue, several pairs of scissors, containers of colored pencils,
a stapler, and anything else the students might need.
Turn one-gallon freezer bags into student portfolios. Students can carry their portfolios
in their notebooks if they place strips of two-inch clear tape along one side and punch
three holes through the taped edge. Cut bottom corners off the bag so it wont hold air
and will stack and store easily.
For additional information on Dinah Zike publications (Dinah Zikes Teaching Science
with Foldables) or workshops call 1-800-99DINAH or contact www.dinah.com.
The Nature of Science
1
section
The Methods of Science
What Youll Learn
how scientists solve

problems
why scientists use
variables
how to compare and
contrast science and
technology
Identify Highlight each

heading that is a question. Use
a different color of marker to
highlight the answers to the
questions.
Before You Read

When you hear the word scientist, what comes to mind?
Brainstorm some words that describe a scientist. Write them
on the lines below.
Read to Learn
What is science?
Science is not just a subject in school. Science is a way of
studying the world. The word science comes from a Latin
word that means knowledge. Science is a way to learn or
gain knowledge by observing and investigating.
Nature follows a set of rules. The rules for understanding
how the human body works are complicated. The rules for
understanding the pattern of Earth spinning once every 24 h
on its axis are simpler. Scientists ask questions to learn about
the natural world.
What are the major categories of science?

A Build Vocabulary
Make the following Foldable to

help you learn key terms from
this section. You will need to
make more than one Foldable.
Variable
Dependent
Variable
Independ
ent
Variable
Constan
Control
Scientif
ic
Metho
d
Hypothe
sis
Experi
ment
CHAPTER 1 The Nature of Science
Science covers many different topics. These topics fall

under three main categories: life science, Earth science, and
physical science. Life science is the study of living things.
Earth science is the study of Earth and space. Physical science
is the study of matter and energy. In this book, you will study
mainly physical science. You also will learn how these three
main categories sometimes overlap.
How does science explain nature?

Scientific explanations help explain the natural world.
Scientists investigate and use technology to get new information.
Sometimes, this new information causes scientific explanations
to change. In the 1700s, most scientists thought heat was a fluid.
After many studies, they concluded heat is not a fluid.
chapter
Scientific Methods
A scientific method is a set of steps used in an investigation.
Scientists follow steps similiar to those listed below when
doing an investigation. These steps guide the scientist. Some
steps may be repeated. Other steps may be skipped. The
flowchart below shows six common steps found in scientific
methods.
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1.
Draw Conclusions
Why might steps in
scientific methods be
skipped or changed?
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Picture This
2.
Interpret Why are there

two arrows leading to
different parts of the
chart at the bottom?
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bdYZaheVXZh]jiiaZWZhi#
Reading Essentials
Stating a Problem Many scientific investigations begin with

a question about how or why something happens in nature.
The problem is stated as a how or why question.
Sometimes a question is asked because scientists want to
improve upon something. Early work on guided missiles
showed that the nose cones needed a material to protect
them from heat. Later, National Aeronautic and Space
Administration (NASA) scientists wanted to find a material
to protect the space shuttle from the heat and forces of
re-entry into Earths atmosphere.
Research List two

places where you might
find information on the
development of the
space shuttle.
Forming a Hypothesis A hypothesis is a possible

explanation for a question or problem based on what you
know and what you observe. A scientist who forms a
hypothesis must be certain it can be tested. NASA scientists
knew that a certain ceramic material had been used to protect
the nose cones of guided missiles. They hypothesized that a
ceramic material might also protect the space shuttle.
Testing a Hypothesis Some hypotheses are tested by
making observations. Building a model may be the best way
to test a hypothesis. Scientists may also use an experiment
to test a hypothesis. The experiment looks at how one thing
affects another under controlled conditions. NASA scientists
built model space shuttles and covered them with various
materials. They tested the models in simulated re-entry
environments to see which material gave the best protection.
4.
Define What are the two

kinds of variables that are
tested in experiments?
Variable An experiment usually has at least two variables. A

variable is a factor that can cause a change in the results of
an experiment. Suppose you set up an experiment to see
which fertilizer makes plants grow biggest. First, you need to
think of all the factors that can make a plant grow bigger.
These might include the type of plant, amount of sunlight,
amount of water, type of soil, and amount of fertilizer.
In this experiment, the amount of growth is one variable. It
is a dependent variable because its value changes according
to the changes in other variables. The other variable is the
amount of fertilizer. The independent variable is changed to
see how much it affects the dependent variable.
3.
Researching and Gathering Information It is important

to study a problem before any testing is done. Sometimes
someone has already solved a similar problem. NASA
scientists gathered information about melting points and
other properties of various materials that might be used.
They also performed tests on newly created materials.
Constants and Controls To keep an investigation fair, all

other factors must be the same. A constant is a factor in an
experiment that does not change. In the fertilizer experiment,
the constants are the amount of water and sunlight the plants
get and the temperature at which the plants are kept. These
are the same for all plants tested. Three plants get different
amounts of fertilizer, which is the independent variable.
A control is used to compare the results of the experiment.
One plant is a control and does not get any fertilizer, but does
get the same sunlight, water, and temperature as the other
plants. Suppose after several days that the control plants grow
between 2 and 3 cm. If the unfertilized plant grows only 1.5
cm, you might infer that the greater growth of the fertilized
plants was caused by the fertilizer.
5.
Classify Is the plant that

receives no fertilizer in the
plant experiment a variable,
a constant, or a control?
6.
List two reasons why data
Analyze the Data An important part of any experiment is

recording observations and organizing information. All
results and observations should be recorded during an
experiment. Many important discoveries have been made
from unexpected results. The information or data should be
organized into an easy-to-read table or graph. Later in this
chapter, you will learn how to show your data.
Understanding what the data and observations mean is
also important. The data must be organized logically. Poorly
organized data may lead to a wrong conclusion. Scientists
share their data through reports and meetings. Scientists may
disagree about certain data, no matter how well the data is
presented.
Drawing Conclusions Scientists look at their data and decide
if the data support the hypothesis. If the data is the same
after many experiments, the hypothesis is supported. If the
hypothesis isnt supported, scientists may change it or the
experiment.
Sometimes others dont agree with the conclusions, so they
design new experiments to test the hypothesis. In time, data
will support a valid hypothesis.
must be organized.
Being Objective Scientists must avoid a bias. A bias occurs

in an experiment when a scientist expects something to
happen and lets this influence how the results are viewed.
Scientists try to reduce bias whenever they can by doing
the experiment many times and keeping careful notes
about observations. Also, other scientists repeat the same
experiment to see if they get the same results.
Reading Essentials
Visualizing with Models

Sometimes, scientists cannot see everything they are testing.
They might be studying something too large or too small to
see. It might even take too much time to see completely. In
these cases, scientists use models. A model represents an idea,
event, or object to help people better understand it. A model
may be a physical object such as a scaled-down version of the
space shuttle. A model can also be represented by a drawing
on paper or by a computer program.
7.
Explain What are
What are high-tech models?
models?
Scientific models dont have to be something you can touch.

Many scientists use computers to build models. Computer
models are used to solve difficult mathematical equations.
NASA uses computers in experiments with space flights to
solve equations that are too hard or would take too long to
solve by hand.
Another type of model is a simulator. A simulator can
create the conditions found in real life. For example, a flight
simulator is a model of an airplane. It can help a pilot pretend
to be flying a plane. The pilot can test different ways to solve
problems. The simulator reacts the same way a real plane does
when it flies, but there is no danger to either the pilot
or a plane. In the figure below, you can see an example of a
flight simulator.
Picture This
8.
Identify and list three
CORBIS
differences between a
flight simulator and a real
airplane.
Models in History Models have been used throughout

history. Lord Kelvin, a scientist who lived in England in the
1800s, was famous for making models. To model his idea of
how light moves through space, he put balls in a bowl of
jelly. He asked people to move the balls with their hands.
Kelvins work explaining heat and temperature is still used
today.
Scientific Theories and Laws

A scientific theory is a way of explaining things or events
based on what has been learned from many observations and
investigations. When these observations and investigations
have been repeated many times and support the hypothesis,
then the hypothesis becomes a theory. New information in
the future may change the theory.
A scientific law is a statement about what happens in
nature and seems to be true all the time. A law explains what
will happen under certain conditions, but it does not explain
why or how it happens. Theories are used to explain how and
why laws work. Gravity is an example of a scientific law. The
law of gravity says that any one mass will attract another
mass. To date, no experiments have been done that prove this
law is not true.
9.
The Limitations of Science
Restate What is a
scientific law?
Science is used to explain many things about the world.

However, science cannot explain everything. Questions about
emotions or values are not questions science can answer. A
survey of peoples opinions would not prove that these
opinions are true for everyone. Scientists make predictions
when they perform experiments. Then these predictions are
tested and verified by using a scientific method.
Using ScienceTechnology
The words science and technology often are used in place of
each other. However, the two words mean different things.
Technology is the application of science to help people. For
example, science is used when a chemist develops a new
material. When this new material is used on the space shuttle,
technology is applied.
Sometimes technology comes before science. For example,
when the steam engine was invented, no one knew exactly
how it worked. Scientists studied it and learned about the
steam engine. This led them to discover new ideas about the
nature of heat.
Not all technology produces something good. Some people
question the benefits of some technology, such as nuclear
technology. Learning more about science can help society
make decisions about these issues.
10.
Think Critically Give

an example of when
technology is an
application of science.
Reading Essentials
After You Read

Mini Glossary
bias: what is expected changes how the results are viewed
constant: a condition in an experiment that does not change
control: a standard in an experiment against which the results
are compared
dependent variable: the condition in an experiment

that results from the changes made to the independent
variable
experiment: an investigation that tests a hypothesis by
collecting information under controlled conditions
hypothesis: an explanation for a question or a problem that
can be tested
independent variable: in an experiment, the condition
that is tested
model: anything that represents an idea, event, or object to

improve understanding
scientific law: a statement about what happens in nature
that seems true all the time
scientific method: the steps a scientist follows when
performing an investigation
technology: the application of science to help people
theory: an explanation that is supported by a large body of
scientific evidence obtained from many different
investigations and observations
variable: a quantity that can have more than a single value
2. Complete the chart below to organize the information you have learned in this section.
Put the following steps for scientific methods in order.
Analyze the data, Test the hypothesis, State the problem, Draw conclusions, Gather information,
Form a hypothesis
End of
Section
Visit gpescience.com to access your textbook, interactive games,

and projects to help you learn more about the methods of science.
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence explaining
how bias can influence an experiment.
chapter
2
section
Standards of Measurement
Before You Read

If someone asked you how wide your desk is, how would you
measure it? Would you measure using inches, centimeters, feet,
yards, or meters? Write why you selected this unit of measure.
Read to Learn
Units and Standards

A standard is an exact quantity that people agree to use to
compare measurements. A standard is always exactly the same
quantity when it is used anywhere in the world. Without
standards, it is difficult to compare things that can be
measured. Suppose you and a friend want to measure your
desk but do not have a ruler. Instead, you use your hands as a
tool to measure the desk. If you each measure the desk using
your own hands, will you both get the same measure? You
cant be sure, because you dont know if your hands are the
same size.
Precision and Accuracy

Imagine you are watching two people shoot arrows at a
target. The first person shoots five bulls-eyes in a row. The
second person never hits the bulls eye, but all the arrows are
close to one spot. What can you say about these two archers?
The first persons aim was both precise and accurate. The
second persons aim was only precise. Precision describes how
closely measurements are to one another and how carefully
measurements were made. Accuracy compares a measurement
to a real or accepted standard. When you take measurements,
the goal is to be both accurate and precise.
What Youll Learn
the SI units and symbols

for length, volume,
mass, density, time,
and temperature
how to convert related
SI units
Study Coach
Make an Outline Make an

outline of the information in
this section. Use each of the
headings as part of the outline.
C Organize Information
As you read this section, make

the following Foldable to
organize information about
different types of measurements
and units.
Distance
Volume
Matter
Time &
Temperature
Reading Essentials
International System of Units

In 1960, an improvement was made to the metric system.
This improvement is known as the International System of
Units. This system is often abbreviated SI from the French
Le Systeme Internationale dUnites. The SI standards are
accepted and used by scientists all over the world. Each type
of SI measurement has a base unit. The base unit for length is
the meter. The names and symbols for the seven base units
are in the table below. All other SI units come from these
seven base units.
Picture This
Recognize Circle the
1.
base units that you have

seen before.
Quantity Measured
Unit
Symbol
Length
meter
Mass
kilogram
kg
Time
second
Electric current
ampere
Temperature
kelvin
Amount of substance
mole
mol
Intensity of light
candela
cd
What are SI prefixes?

The SI system is easy to use because it is based on multiples
of ten. A prefix is added to the name of the base unit to indicate
how many multiples of ten it should include. For example, the
prefix kilo- means 1,000. That means that one kilometer is
equal to 1,000 meters. This also means that one kilogram equals
1,000 grams. The most commonly used prefixes are shown in
the table below.
Common SI Prefixes
Picture This
Identify Which of the
2.
following is the smallest?

(Circle your choice.)
a.
b.
c.
d.
10
decigram
nanogram
milligram
kilogram
Prefix
Symbol
Multiplying Factor
kilo-
1,000
deci-
0.1
centi-
0.01
milli-
0.001
micro-
0.000 001
nano-
0.000 000 001
SI Base Units
How do you convert between SI units?

Sometimes quantities are measured using different units.
Suppose a teacher has 1.3 L of water for a class experiment.
She needs 125 mL to conduct the experiment. To determine if
she has enough water, she must first find out how many mL
of water she has.
Conversion Factors A conversion factor is used to change
measurements from one unit to another. A conversion factor is

a ratio that equals one. For a ratio to equal one, the numerator
and denominator must have the same value. The numerator of
a conversion factor should be the new unit. The denominator
should be the old unit. For example, if you are converting
liters to milliliters, use the following conversion factor.
Applying Math
3.
new unit
1000 mL

old unit
1L
Convert Units A length

of rope measures
3,000 millimeters.
How long is it in meters?
1m

3,000 mm
1,000
mm
To find out how much water she has in mL, the teacher
multiplies the amount of water she has by the conversion
factor.
1m
3,000

1,0
00
1
3,000 m

1,000
1000 mL

1.3 L
1L
1000 mL

1.3 L
1L
1.3 1000 mL 1,300 mL

The teacher has 1,300 mL of water. That is enough for her
experiment!
Measuring Distance
In science, the word length is used to describe the distance
between two points. The SI base unit of length is the meter,
m. A baseball bat is about 1 m long. Metric rulers and
metersticks are commonly used to measure length. A meter
is slightly longer than 1 yard, as shown by the meter-stick and
the yardstick in the figure below.
Picture This
Yard
4.
Meter
Circle Circle the length by

which the meterstick is
longer than the yardstick.
Reading Essentials
11
How do you choose a unit of length?

When measuring distance, it is important to choose the
proper unit. The unit you choose will depend on the object
being measured. For example, you would measure the length
of a pencil in centimeters (cm). The length of your classroom
would be measured in meters. The distance from school to
your house would be measured in kilometers (km). By
choosing the best unit, you can avoid very large or very
small numbers. It is easier to say something is 21 km rather
than saying it is 21,000 m.
5.
Define In the
calculations for finding the
volume of the van,
( m m m) is rewritten
as m3. The 3 in m3 is called
an exponent. What does an
exponent represent?
Measuring Volume
Volume is the amount of space an object fills. The volume of
a rectangular solid, such as a brick, is found by multiplying its
length, width, and height (V l w h). If the sides of the
brick were measured in centimeters, cm, the volume would be
expressed in cubic centimeters, cm3. When you multiply all
three measurements, you multiply cm three times, once with
each measurement. The result is cm3. If you were trying to find
out how much space there is in a moving van, you would
measure the van using meters. Its volume would be expressed in
cubic meters, m3. Lets find the volume of this van.
2m
4m
3m
Applying Math
6.
Calculate What is the

volume of a brick that has
a length of 20 cm, a width of
6 cm, and a height of 5 cm?
Show your work.
First find the length, width, and height of the van.

Length 4 m
Width 2 m
Height 3 m
Substitute these values into the formula for finding volume.
Vl wh
4m2m3m
(4 2 3)(m m m)
24 m3
The volume of the moving van is 24 m3.
12
Applying Math
How do you measure the volume of a liquid?

Measuring the volume of a liquid in a container is different
than measuring a solid object because the liquid does not have
sides. To find the volume of a liquid, you first must know how
much liquid the container can hold. This is called the capacity
of the container. The most common units for expressing the
volume of liquids are liters (L) and milliliters (mL). A milliliter
is equal in volume to 1 cm3. So, the volume of 1 L equals
1,000 cm3. Look at food cans and bottles to see how these
measurements are used.
7.
Measure What are the

most common units for
expressing the volume of
liquids?
Measuring Matter
Mass is the measure of how much matter is in an object.
A golf ball and a table tennis ball are about the same size.
If you pick up both, you notice a difference. The golf ball
has more matter, or mass, than the table tennis ball.
What is density?
Another property of matter is density. The density of an
object is the amount of mass in one cubic unit of volume of a
material. You can find density by dividing an objects mass by
its volume. Suppose an object weighs 10 g and has a volume
of 2 cm3. The density of the object is 5 g/cm3.
If two objects are the same size and one object has a greater
mass, it also has a greater density. This is because the more
dense object has more mass in one cubic unit of volume than
the other object has in one cubic unit of volume. The golf ball
and the table tennis ball have about the same volume. However,
the golf ball has a greater mass. This means that the golf ball
also has a greater density.
Applying Math
8.
Calculate Suppose an
object weighs 15 g and has
a volume of 5 cm3. What is
the density of the object?
What are derived units?

The measurement for density, g/cm3, is a combination of SI
units. A unit made by combining different SI units is called a
derived unit. An SI unit multiplied by itself is also called a
derived unit. For example, the liter, which is based on the
cubic decimeter, and a meter cubed, m3, are derived.
Measuring Time and Temperature

Sometimes scientists need to keep track of how long it takes
something to happen or whether something heats up or cools
down. These are measurements of time and temperature.
Time is the interval between two events. The unit of time
in the SI system is the second (s). Seconds are usually
measured with a clock or stopwatch.
Reading Essentials
13
Whats hot and whats not?

Sometimes scientists need to measure how much
something heats up or cools down. Temperature is a measure
of how hot or cold something is. Later, you will learn the
scientific meaning of temperature.
What is Celsius?
Scientists use the Celsius (C) scale to measure temperature.
On this scale, water freezes at 0C and boils at 100C. The
scale is divided into 100 equal divisions, or degrees, between
the freezing point and the boiling point of water.
What is Fahrenheit?
The temperature measurement you are probably most
familiar with is the Fahrenheit (F) scale. The Fahrenheit scale
is based on the temperature of the human body, 98.6F. On
this scale, water freezes at 32F and boils at 212F.
9.
Restate At what
temperature does water
freeze and at what
temperature does water
boil on the Celsius scale?
Picture This
10.
Label each thermometer

in the diagram with the
name of its temperature
scale.
14
The SI unit of temperature is kelvin (K). On the Kelvin

scale, 0 K is called absolute zero. This is the coldest possible
temperature. Absolute zero is equal to 273C, which is 273
below the freezing point of water. The divisions on the Kelvin
and Celsius scales are the same size. This makes it easy to
convert between the two scales. Water freezes at 0C. To
convert to Kelvin, you add 273 to the Celsius temperature. So,
on the Kelvin scale, water freezes at 273 K. Water boils at
100C. So, on the Kelvin scale, water boils at 373 K.
What is Kelvin?
After You Read

Mini Glossary
density: the mass per unit volume of a material
mass: the measurement of the quantity of matter in an object
precision: how closely measurements are to another and how
accuracy: comparison between measurements and a real

standard
volume: the amount of space occupied by an object
carefully measurements are made
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. In your own words, write a
sentence that explains how mass affects an objects density.
2. Complete the chart below to organize the information from this section. For each unit
include the units name, what it measures, and its symbol.
SI Base Units
3. Think about what you have learned. Write a way to help you remember the meaning
of volume.

and projects to help you learn more about standards of measurement.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
15
chapter
3
section
Communicating with Graphs
What Youll Learn
identify three types of

graphs and tell how
they are used
how to distinguish
between dependent
and independent
variables
Before You Read

Think about graphs that you have seen. Why do you think
graphs are a useful way to display information?
Read to Learn
Identify the Main Point
A Visual Display
A graph is a visual display of information or data. Often
graphs are used to show results of experiments. Patterns in
data show better in a graph than when data are in a table.
The most common types of graphs are line graphs, bar
graphs, and circle graphs. Each type of graph is used to show
different types of data. Graphs make data easy to compare.
Line Graphs
D Compare and
Contrast Fold one piece of

notebook paper into four equal
sections. Use each section to
draw an example of one type of
graph.
Line Graphs
Bar Graphs
Circle Graphs
Variables
16
Line graphs show how a relationship between variables

changes over time. A line graph can show more than one
event on the same graph. For example, a builder had a choice
of three brands of thermostats to install in school classrooms.
He tested each brand to find the most efficient one. The
builder set each thermostat at 20C. He checked the classroom
temperature every five minutes for 25 minutes and recorded
the data.
The graph on the next page shows the results of the test.
The break in the vertical axis between 0 and 15 means that
the numbers 1 to 14 have been left out. This is done so there
is more room to spread the scale and the graph is easier to
read. The horizontal line represents the 20C setting and is
the control in this experiment. The three lines (A, B, and C)
show how quickly each thermostat reached the setting of 20C.
As you read through this

section, highlight two main
points about a line graph, a
bar graph, and a circle graph.
Picture This
Temperature (C)
Classroom Temperature
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
0
1.
Interpret Which
thermostat reached its
temperature setting the
quickest?
2.
Describe What kind of

data are bar graphs useful
for?
10
15
20
25
Time (min)
How do you construct line graphs?

There are several steps that you must follow to make a
line graph. Always use the horizontal axis, or x-axis, for the
independent variable. The vertical axis, or y-axis, is always
used for the dependent variable. You should select a scale that
makes your graph sensible and readable. For example, the
scale on the x-axis would not make sense or be very readable
if the units were by hours instead of minutes. All of lines A, B,
and C that you see on this graph would be in the first tenth of
the section ending with 5.
The data on a line graph are related. To draw the lines, you
first plot points that show the relationship of the variables. For
example, in line B, after five minutes the temperature was
17C. You plot a point that aligns with 5 on the x-axis and 17
on the y-axis. Then plot the points representing the other data.
Then you draw a line to connect the points.
You must also make sure that all the data use the same
units. If some measurements were made in the Celsius scale
and others were made in the Fahrenheit scale, the units must
be converted to the same unit of measurement.
Bar Graphs
Bar graphs are useful for comparing data collected by
counting. Each bar shows a number counted at a particular
time. As on a line graph, the independent variable is plotted
on the x-axis, and the dependent variable is plotted on the
y-axis. The data are not related so the bars do not touch.
Reading Essentials
17
Example The bar graph below shows classroom size on one

day (January 20, 2004). The height of each bar shows the
number of classrooms having a particular number of students.
For example, three classrooms had 21 students. The number
of students in one classroom is not related to the number of
students in other classrooms. This is why the bars do not
touch.
Classroom Size (January 20, 2004)
6
3.
Interpret Data How

many classrooms had 26
students?
Number of classrooms
Applying Math
4
3
2
1
0
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
Number of students
A circle graph, or pie graph, is used to show how a certain

quantity is divided into parts. The circle represents the whole
and the segments, or slices, are the parts of the whole. The
segments are usually given as percentages of the whole.
This circle graph below shows how much of each different
kind of heating fuel is used in different buildings. According to
the circle graph, gas is the heating fuel used the most.
When you use a graph, make sure that the conclusions are
based on accurate information. Also select scales that help make
the graph easy to read. In a circle graph, label the sections. In
bar and line graphs, always label both the x-axis and the y-axis.
Applying Math
4.
Heating Fuel Usage
Use Models What do

the percentages in a circle
graph add up to? Why is
this important?
Steam
25%
Gas
50%
Other
5%
Coal
10%
Electric
10%
18
Circle Graphs
After You Read

Mini Glossary
graph: a visual display of information or data
1. Review the term graph and its definition in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence that tells
how a graph helps you understand data.
2. Complete the outline below. Tell what type of data each type of graph displays and then
draw a small sample of each type of graph.
Three Types of Graphs
I. Line Graph
A. data type:
B. example:
II. Bar Graph

A. data type:
B. example:
III. Circle Graph

A. data type:
B. example:
3. Think about what you have learned. Give an example of each type of data best suited for
each type of graph.
Line Graph:
Bar Graph:
Circle Graph:
Visit gpescience.com to access your textbook, interactive games, and

projects to help you learn more about communicating with graphs.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
19
Science,
Technology,
and
Society
2
chapter
Science and Technology
What Youll Learn
how science leads to a

better understanding of
the world
different types of
technology
why the value of
technology changes
Locate Information As
you read the section, highlight
the main point under each
heading. Then explain the main
point in your own words.
Before You Read

Machines are a form of science and technology. Name and
describe a machine you use.
Read to Learn
Scientific Discovery
The study of science usually leads to a better understanding
of the natural world. Scientific discoveries have helped the
people of today avoid many of the problems that faced earlier
people. For example, scientists have discovered the causes of
many diseases and illnesses.
How have scientific discoveries helped prevent

diseases?
A Organize Information
Make a two-tab Foldable to help

you organize notes about
science and technology.
Science
Technology
20
Today, we know that microorganisms cause illnesses and

diseases and can be spread from person to person. Before the
mid-1800s, people did not know this. In the Middle Ages,
people believed the plague, a deadly illness, was spread by
bad air. Doctors wore protective clothes and tried to rid
homes of bad air to prevent the spreading of disease.
In the mid-1800s, scientific discoveries changed peoples
understanding of disease and illness. Louis Pasteur, a French
scientist, discovered that microorganisms cause and spread
many infections and diseases.
Alexander Yersin, a bacteriologist, used Pasteurs discovery.
Yersin went to Hong Kong to study a plague epidemic. He
wanted to find the microbe that caused the plague. In 1894,
he isolated the microbe. Once he found the microbe, it took
four years for scientists to discover that fleas spread the
microbe to humans.
CHAPTER 2 Science, Technology, and Society
1
section
Scientific Insight
Plague epidemics have taken place throughout history. One
epidemic in the 14th century killed one-fourth of the
population of Europe. Once scientists understood why the
disease was spreading, it became easier to stop the disease.
How are diseases prevented today?

Today, people know that microbes spread illnesses. Young
children are taught to wash their hands before eating.
Restaurants have water, soap, and towels to help people stay
clean and wash off dangerous microbes. Stores everywhere sell
sterile bandages, cleansers, and medicines that keep cuts clean.
Clean cuts are less likely to become infected. Doctors and
hospitals use sterile tools that help fight infection. These
things are done because we know how contagious diseases
spread and what causes infections.
How has science improved weather forecasting?

Scientific insight has improved weather forecasting. In the
1800s, people couldnt tell what the weather would be like the
next day. Today, meteorologists use instruments to predict the
weather. Weather instruments, like the ones shown in the figure
below, detect changing weather conditions so meteorologists
can predict the weather that is coming to their area.
Science has changed the way people respond to natural
events such as storms and disease. Once there is a clear
understanding why these events occur, people learn to
respond to the natural events and try to control the result.
1.
Explain Where do you

get information about the
weather?
Picture This
2.
What is technology?
The terms science and technology mean very different
things. Science is a process of exploration. Scientific processes
are used to gain knowledge of and predict events in the
natural world. Scientists often search for answers to human
needs and problems. Scientists also search for scientific
knowledge for the sake of learning new information.
Infer If meteorologists
did not have instruments
to help them, what could
they use to predict the
weather?
Reading Essentials
21
Technology When scientific knowledge is used to solve a

human need or problem, the result is called technology.
Technology is the use of scientific knowledge of materials and
processes to benefit people. An aspirin pill, a car, and a
national highway system may not seem to have much in
common. These things are all very different, but they are all
examples of technology. Technology can be:
any human-made object (such as a radio, computer or
hammer),
methods or techniques for making any object or tool (such
as the method for making glass),
skills needed to operate a human-made object (such as the
skills needed to drive a car), or
a system of people and objects used to do a task (such as the
Internet, which is a system to share information)
Define What is
technology?
What are technological objects?

Technology changes often. Long ago, special feathers, called
quills, were used to write with ink. In the mid-19th century, a
new technology for writing was developedmetallic tipped
pens. In the 1940s, the ball-point pen replaced the metallic
tipped-pen. Today the ball-point pen is not technology. The
value of a technological object changes through time. What
is considered technology today may be a historic artifact
tomorrow.
What are technological methods or

techniques?
Just as writing instruments have changed over time, so have
methods or techniques for doing many tasks. The methods
for printing books have changed over time. Long ago people
had to copy each page of a book by hand. This took many
hours. Books were expensive, and only the very rich could pay
for them. Now, books are created in many ways. Modern
printing presses create most of the books today. Printing
press technology printed your textbook. Books can be written
on computers and are sometimes printed on computer
printers. The printing press and computer technology save
countless hours in producing books.
4.
Identify two things that

have become more
accessible because of
technology.
22
What are technological knowledge and skills?

Technology is not just new machines and new techniques.
It is also the knowledge and the skills needed to do a task. For
example, you need knowledge and special skills to use most
computers. Any skill used to operate a complex machine is a
technological skill.
3.
What are technological systems?

A network of people and objects working together to do a
job also is technology. The network is technology, the objects
are technology, and the skills of the people are technology.
The Internet is a good example of this kind of technology.
The Internet is a collection of computers and software that
people with skills use to send and receive information. The
airline industry is another example of a technological system.
This industry is a collection of objects, methods, systems,
and rules. An airports planes, pilots, and computers create
a technology system that moves people and goods.
5.
Infer What is a
technological system
that you use each day?
Global Technological Needs

You just read how technology has changed over time.
Today, not all parts of the world value the same technologies.
The technology valued in the United States may not be valued
in other parts of the world. Industrialized nations have
different technology needs than developing nations.
Picture This
6.
Apply Name two

technologies that people in
developing nations could
benefit from.
What are the needs of developing countries?

In some parts of the world, people work hard for basic
needs such as food, shelter, clean water, and basic health care.
Consider a family living in rural Kenya. Most rural Kenyan
families live without electricity or running water in their
homes. Droughts or small amounts of rain can cause food
shortages and famine. Rural Kenyans also have limited health
care. Because of limited health care infections and diseases,
such as HIV/AIDS, are severe problems in many developing
nations. The life expectancy of rural Kenyans is mid-forties.
The most important technologies in developing countries
help take care of basic needs. Technologies that provide
enough clean water and food are very important. Basic health
care technology such as clean bandages, the right medicine,
and skilled doctors are also valued. Generally, rural people
value different technologies than urban people because cities
are more industrialized.
Reading Essentials
23
What technology is used in industrialized

countries?
7.
Explain What are two

technologies that are
valued in industrialized
nations?
The United States is an industrialized country. Because of

technology, industrialized countries have access to safe, clean
water and food supplies. Most homes have running water and
electricity. Good health care is available to treat people. The
life expectancy of Americans is the late-seventies.
People in industrialized nations often value technology that
helps provide a higher quality of life. Most homes in the
United States have computers, telephones, and televisions.
The people of industrialized nations value technologies like
faster computers, compact discs, and safer cars.
Advances in medicine improve peoples lives by curing
illnesses and diseases. Some people spend money on medical
procedures to improve their quality of life. Plastic surgery can
remove wrinkles from a persons face. Eye surgery can improve
a persons vision so he or she may not have to wear glasses.
How do developing nations contrast?

Both developing and industrialized nations value
technology that helps supply basic human needs: clean water,
enough food, and basic health care. However, the technology
for basic needs may be very different in developing nations.
For example, people in rural areas in some countries could
get clean water if hand-pumps were installed in villages.
Can technology stop world hunger? Not everyone in the
world has enough food. Hunger is a worldwide problem, but
technology can help. Technology can affect the food supply.
Agricultural biotechnology is a group of scientific techniques
that are used to create or improve plants or animals. For
example, changing the DNA of a plant, such as corn, can
change its nutritional value or produce a larger crop.
8.
24
Identify What is
agricultural
bioengineering?
Controversy Bioengineering has potential benefits and

potential dangers. Some people argue that humans shouldnt
change a species genes or that changed species may harm
the natural world. New kinds of crops may create new kinds
of poisons and allergies.
Some people think that more food is not needed to feed the
world population. They argue that enough food is now being
produced, but the food is not distributed equally in the world.
Using technology to solve human problems is not always easy.
There are many obstacles and issues involved.
Can bioengineering increase the food supply?
After You Read

Mini Glossary
agricultural bioengineering: a group of scientific
techniques that are used to create or improve plants or
animals
1. Review the term and definition in the Mini Glossary. Explain one reason for using and
one reason for not using agricultural bioengineering.
2. Complete the outline to help you organize what you learned about science and technology.
I.
Scientific Discovery
A. Scientific discoveries help prevent
II. Scientific Insight

A. Preventing diseases today
B. Improved
III. Technology
A.
objects
B. Technological
C. Technological knowledge or
D.
systems
IV. Global Technological Needs
A. Needs of developing
B. Industrialized countries
C. Differences in
D. Bioengineering and
forecasting
or techniques
nations
supply
3. You highlighted the main points to help you understand science and technology. How did
you decide what the main point was?
Visit gpescience.com to access your textbook, interactive

games, and projects to help you learn more about science and
technology.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
25
Science, Technology, and Society
2
section
Forces that Shape Technology
What Youll Learn
who pays for science

research
how consumers affect
technological
development
about responsible
technology
Check for Understanding

As you read this section,
highlight any sentences that
you read more than once. After
you finish the section, go back
and read the highlighted
sentences again.
Before You Read

How do your values affect your interests in getting new
electronic games and gadgets?
Read to Learn
Social Forces that Shape Technology
Science and society are closely connected. Society is a
group of people that shares similar values and beliefs.
Discoveries in science and technology change society, and
likewise society affects how new technologies develop. The
politics, values, and economics of a society affect what new
technologies develop.
How did attitudes toward cars change?
B Classify Make a three
tab Foldable like the one below.

Take notes on how different
forces shape technology.
Science
26
Technology
Society
An example of the connection between a societys values

and its technology is the development of the car in the United
States. Over the last 100 years, the people of the United States
have changed their attitudes toward cars.
When they were first invented, cars were expensive. Then
technology was developed to mass-produce affordable cars.
Many people were able to own cars because of the changes in
technology and manufacturing. This increased the demand
for fossil fuels like gasoline. Technology developed that made
gas and oil more accessible and affordable. As more cars were
sold, the demand for gas and oil increased.
Now gas prices are high and oil is becoming scarce, so
people are beginning to buy more fuel-efficient cars. The
automobile industry is responding with new technology,
such as hybrid cars that use both electricity and gasoline.
chapter
Do consumers affect technology?

If people do not want a technology, they will not buy it.
Companies are not likely to spend additional money to
develop technology that consumers will not buy. On the other
hand, if consumers buy a technology, companies will spend
additional money to improve the technology. For example, if
consumers continue to buy fuel-efficient cars, more money
will be spent on improving that technology.
1.
Explain How does

buying a certain brand of
CD player affect the
development of CD players
in general?
2.
Identify three things the
Do personal values affect technology?

People support new technologies that agree with their
personal needs and values, directly and indirectly. For
example, people support the development of technology
indirectly when they choose to vote for a political candidate.
Support for a candidate translates into support for the
projects, technological and otherwise, that that candidate
favors. People support the development of technology directly
when they give money to organizations committed to a
specific project, such as cancer research.
Economic Forces that Shape Technology
Many factors influence whether money is spent on a

technology, and many questions must be answered before
the money is spent. The questions include who will buy the
product, what the benefits of the technology are, and how
much it will cost to make.
What is the influence of the federal government?

One way technology research and development is funded is
through the federal government. Every year, Congress and the
president place large amounts of money in the federal budget
for scientific research and development. For example,
Congress and the president decide how much money will be
spent on new technologies in agriculture, defense, energy, and
transportation. The money is given to companies and
institutions in the forms of contracts and grants.
What is the influence of private foundations?

Some scientific and technological research is supported
with money from private foundations. Foundations raise
money for many types of research, such as cancer and
muscular dystrophy. Foundations raise money in many ways,
including charity races, telethons, and benefit concerts. Many
private foundations focus on research for specific scientific
issues, such as treatment for Alzheimers disease.
federal government pays to

develop.
Reading Essentials
27
What is the influence of private industries?

Private industries also fund research and development of
new technology. Like the federal government, private industries
use a portion of their budget on research and development.
Investing in new technology can make money for the company.
Selling the new products or technologies they develop to
consumers is one way companies make profits.
Responsible Technology
3.
Conclude Why is it
important for humans to
think about the positive
and negative effects when
they create technology?
Humans can invent technology that may have an impact on

other living things. Humans are part of many ecosystems on
Earth, and it is important that new technology does not
destroy the environment. Humans must think of both the
positive and negative effects of their inventions.
How can technology affect the environment?
Picture This
4.
Infer What do you think

would be a good long-term
solution to the problem of
old cars filling up junkyards?
28
Sometimes the benefits of technology are known but

the negative effects are not. For example, at one time, the
pesticide DDT was widely used. DDT killed insects that
damaged crops. After years of using DDT, scientists found
that DDT also killed large birds, such as bald eagles. As a
result, DDT was banned. People stopped using DDT and
other pesticides were developed. Consumers and voters have
a responsibility to decide what technologies to use. They have
to look carefully at the benefits and the negative effects of
new technologies.
When the effects of technology are known, the benefits of

the technology often are more important than the negative
effects. For example, gasoline-powered cars give people
safe, reliable transportation. The negative effects are the
environmental problems created by the use of cars. Drilling
for oil, air pollution, and the dumping of used automobile
parts are environmental problems related to the use of
automobiles.
What was the Chernobyl accident?

Over time, there have been several serious technological
accidents. Possibly the worst accident occurred on April 26,
1986 at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in the Ukraine.
Huge areas of land were contaminated with radioactive
materials. Many people died and over 400,000 people had
to leave the area. Layers of soil on important farmland were
destroyed. The water in the area was poisoned. Walls and
dams had to be built to prevent the poisoned water from
entering clean rivers and the watershed.
Picture This
5.
Describe the location

of Chernobyl, Ukraine, in
relation to the countries
of Eastern Europe.
Why are moral and ethical issues important?
Moral and ethical questions are raised when people need to

decide what is right, what is fair, and what is best for the
living creatures of Earth. Ethical issues in science help raise
questions and establish rules about how society should use
scientific knowledge.
Research Standards Scientists use ethics to create standards,
and they follow these standards when they are testing,
researching, and reporting data. For example, scientists are
expected to conduct their investigations openly and honestly.
Honesty is important because scientists should share their
results with other scientists. Sharing information speeds
learning. If a scientist is dishonest, other scientific research
may suffer. Imagine if Louis Pasteur had not shared his
information with the world.
Ethical Issues Other ethical questions concern the use
animals and people in scientific research and experiments.
For example, people have been forced to participate in tests,
or have participated in tests without being told that there
were risks involved. Some of these people were hurt by these
tests. Ethical questions about this type of testing have helped
create laws. These laws prevent unethical treatment of both
animals and humans in scientific research.
6.
Explain What do laws

about the ethics of testing
animals and humans
prevent?
Reading Essentials
29
After You Read

Mini Glossary
society: a group of people that share similar values and beliefs
1. Write a sentence describing one value or belief of your society.
2. Complete the table below to help you organize the information you learned about forces
that shape technology.
Force
How It Shapes Technology
Government
Private Foundations
Private Companies
Citizens
3. As you read this section, you highlighted the sentences that you read more than once.
How could you use this strategy if you were studying with a friend?

games, and projects to help you learn more about forces that
shape technology.
30
End of
Section
Consumers
chapter
Science, Technology, and Society
3
section
Developing Technology
Before You Read

Technology is all around you and always changing. Write
about one technological change you have noticed.
Read to Learn
Scientists and Engineers
Scientists and engineers have different professions, even
though they both help develop technology. It is important
to learn what each does and how they differ.
What is a scientist?
A scientist is someone who studies science, such as biology,
physics, and chemistry. Scientists do research in laboratories
or in the field. They may not know how or if their work will
be used.
Not all scientists work on the same subject. But all
scientists know scientific principles. Most scientists pick one
area of science to study. For example, a scientist may
specialize in Earth science. This scientist will study the
chemical and physical changes that happen on Earth. An
Earth scientist may study one topic, such as glaciers,
earthquakes, or volcanoes.
What is an engineer?
An engineer is a researcher who is responsible for bringing
technology to the consumer. An engineer uses scientific
information or ideas to solve a problem or produce a
product. For example, high prices for gasoline created a
demand for cars that get better gas mileage. Engineers are
working to improve a hybrid engine that uses less gasoline.
What Youll Learn
how scientists and

engineers are different
how technology is
developed and tested
Underline As you read,

underline any words or
sentences you think might be
important to remember. When
you finish reading, look back at
what you underlined to make
sure you understand it.
C Compare and
Contrast Make a two tab

Foldable to help you understand
the differences between
scientist and engineers.
Scientist
Engineer
Reading Essentials
31
Other Engineers Engineers work in many other areas besides

cars. There are aeronautical (planes), aerospace (space travel),
biomedical, chemical, computer, electrical, mechanical, and
many other types of engineers. Engineers help create and
improve products you use every day.
Finding Solutions
Scientists and engineers work together to find technological
solutions. They use a system much like the scientific method.
This section outlines this general process. However, there are
many variations to this process, just as there are many types
of technical problems.
1.
Apply Can you think of

a time you did not ask a
question clearly? What
was the result?
The first step to solving any problem is to clearly identify

the problem. This is also true with technological problems. If
the problem is not clear, the solution will be impossible. The
focus must be narrow enough so that a solution is possible.
For example, it is not useful to define the problem as
Create and build a new vehicle. There are still too many
questions. For example, what type of vehicle? Should it be a
big vehicle or a small vehicle? What type of fuel will the new
vehicle use? Is there a market for the vehicle? These questions
need to be answered in the statement of the problem.
A better definition of the problem may be, Build a new
mid-sized passenger vehicle that gets improved gas mileage
and is competitively priced. The clearer the problem is
defined, the easier it will be to find the answer.
How are solutions proposed?

Once the problem is clearly defined the search for the
solution can begin. This is not always an easy process. There
are many factors to consider when searching for the best
solution to a problem, and there are always limitations.
What are constraints?
2.
32
Define What are

constraints?
Design restrictions for products from outside factors are

known as constraints. Examples of constraints are cost,
environmental impact, and available materials. Constraints
also include the time limits for completing a task, limited
funding, and design changes that are required by the laws.
Another constraint can be working with too little information
or technical data. Some designs may be perfect solutions, but
they cannot be built. Some materials may not be available
or do not exist. The solution to the problem may be a
compromise because of many design constraints.
How is a problem identified?
What is performance testing?

When design ideas are accepted, drawings or models are
usually constructed. These are carefully reviewed to find
possible design flaws. It is important to find design flaws as
early as possible in the process to keep costs down.
Next, the design must be tested to make sure it operates as
planned. There are many ways to performance test a design.
For example, a chemical process may be tested by a computer
simulation. A computer simulation uses a computer to
imitate the process, to collect data, or to test a process or
procedure. Computer software mimics the processes in
the design.
How do laws and regulations affect designs?

Local communities, states, and the federal government have
laws and rules that affect designs. The laws cover production
processes, products, and buildings. They also cover areas
such as worker safety, protecting the environment, and
transporting products. Even the appearance of production
plants may be regulated. Products also must meet ethical or
moral standards in their production, testing, and use. All of
these factors have to be considered when designing technology.
What is a prototype?
Creating prototypes or pilot plants are two methods of
performance testing. A prototype is a full-scale model that is
used to test a new design. The figure below shows a prototype
of a new car. The prototype of the new car, or any other
prototype, is tested to discover its flaws. When these flaws
are corrected, the prototype is ready for production.
Picture This
3.
Descibe how a prototype

car looks different from the
cars you have seen on the
roads.
What is a pilot plant?

A pilot plant is a smaller version of the real production
equipment that closely models actual manufacturing
conditions. A pilot plant is a production model. Pilot plants
are used to test manufacturing processes, such as a new
production line to produce new medicine.
Reading Essentials
33
How can system failure be limited?

Performance testing is one way to limit system failures. A
system is a group of devices that work together to perform
a specific function. Another way to limit system failures is
redundant systems. A redundant system forces the entire
system to stop working if one part fails. The redundant
system acts as a backup. For example, if an important
program stopped working on your computer, the entire
computer would shut down.
What is a control system?
4.
Identify a control system

you use.
Control systems are also put into designs to keep a system

from failing. A control system is a device or collection of
devices that monitors a system. The control system notices
problems and corrects them. It makes sure the system
operates as it was designed.
An example of a control system is a thermostat on a
heater. You set the thermostat in your home to a specific
temperature. When the thermostat senses that a room is
hotter than the set temperature, the thermostat turns the
heater off. When the temperature drops below the set
temperature, the heater is turned on. Other control systems
are more complex. The purpose of all control systems is to
keep the system operating properly.
5.
34
Identify What are three

types of intellectual
property?
Intellectual property is any type of creative work that has a

financial value and is protected by law. Companies spend a lot
of time and money researching and developing new products.
Some products take many years and millions of dollars to
produce. When companies sell their products on the market,
laws prevent others from taking those products and making
money from them.
A patent is a legal document given to an inventor by the
government. The patent provides the inventor with exclusive
rights to make, use, and sell what he or she invented. In the
United States, a patent lasts for 20 years. Patent laws protect
technological inventions.
Copyright laws protect literary and artistic works such as
music, plays, poetry, and books. The music on a CD that you
buy in a store is copyrighted. Trademark laws protect words
or symbols that identify brands, good, or services in the
marketplace.
What is intellectual property?
After You Read

Mini Glossary
constraints: design restrictions for products from outside
factors
computer simulation: uses a computer program to imitate

the process, and then collect data on the process or
procedure
control system: a device or collection of devices that
monitors a system
engineer: a researcher who is responsible for bringing

technology to the consumer
prototype: a full-scale model of a design
pilot plan: a small version of the real production equipment
that closely models actual manufacturing conditions
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Choose two related terms and
use them together in a sentence.
2. Why is it important to protect intellectual property?
3. As you read this chapter, you used different methods to help identify key information in
each section. Which method helped you the most? Would you recommend it to another
student? Explain why or why not.

games, and projects to help you learn more about developing
technology.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
35
Motion,
Acceleration,
and
Forces
3
chapter
1
section
Describing Motion
What Youll Learn
the difference between

displacement and
distance
speed and velocity
how to graph motion
Before You Read

Have you ever been on a roller coaster? You can feel the steep
drops and quick turns in your body. Write how it feels to travel
up a steep hill slowly and then to go down the other side quickly.
Read to Learn
Motion
Every day you see things around you in motion. Cars and
trucks move along streets. People walk and run and move in
different places. They move in different directions and at
different speeds. How can you describe the motion of people
and objects? You could say they are fast or slow. In addition
to speed, you can talk about the direction something is
moving. You also can describe the way the speed or direction
is changing.
How are motion and position related?
A Find Main Ideas As

you read this section, make the
following Foldable to help you
identify the main ideas about
motion.
Motion and
Position
Distance
36
Relative
Motion
Displacement
You dont need to see something move to know that it has

moved. Suppose you see a mail truck stopped at a mailbox. A
little while later, you see the same mail truck farther down the
street, next to a tree. You know the truck moved because its
position relative to the mailbox has changed. Motion occurs
when an object changes position.
What is a reference frame?

To measure the position of an object, you must pick a
reference frame. A reference frame is a group of objects that do
not move relative to each other. For example, on a street,
buildings, mailboxes, and trees make up a reference frame. One
point in the frame is chosen as the reference point. The position
is the distance and direction of the mail truck from the point of
reference.
CHAPTER 3 Motion, Acceleration, and Forces
Highlight the main point in

each paragraph in this section.
Then highlight a detail or
example that helps explain the
point.
What is relative motion?

Imagine you are sitting in a moving car. Are you moving? It
depends on the reference frame. If the car is your reference
frame, then you are not moving. But you definitely are moving
relative to the ground. Earth is moving around the Sun at a
speed of 30 km/s. So are you moving when you are in the car?
It depends on whether your reference point is the car, the road,
or the Sun. There is no reference frame that is at rest compared
to all other reference frames. An objects motion is relative to a
chosen reference frame.
Applying Math
1.
Calculate A train
traveling at a constant speed
covers a distance of 960
meters in 30 s. What is the
trains speed? Show your
work.
How do distance and displacement differ?

Distance is how far something has moved. In the figure
below, the runner jogged 50 m to the north, turned around,
and jogged 30 m to the south. The total distance is 80 m. She
is now 20 m from the starting point. Displacement is the
distance and direction of an objects final position relative to
its starting point. The runners displacement is 20 m north.
Displacement includes a size and a direction. This is known
as a vector. A vector is a quantity specified by size and
direction.
50 m
40 m
30 m
30 m
50 m
20 m
Distance from starting
line is 20 m.
10 m
Picture This
2.
Describe another way

a runner could have a
displacement of 20 m
north.
Displacement = 20 m north of starting line

Distance traveled = 50 m + 30 m = 80 m
Speed
Speed is the distance an object travels per unit of time. To
describe how fast something is moving, you need to know how
far it travels in a certain amount of time. In SI units, the unit of
speed is meters per second (m/s).
Usually an objects speed changes as it moves. But you can
find the speed at a single instant. Instantaneous speed is the
speed of an object at a single instant of time. A cars
speedometer measures the instantaneous speed of the car.
Reading Essentials
37
How do you calculate average speed?

You can find an objects average speed to tell how quickly
an object traveled over an entire distance. The average speed
of any object is the total distance traveled divided by the total
travel time. You can find average speed by using this equation:
distance (in meters)
average speed (in meters/seconds) = total
total time (in seconds)
v = d
t
The units for average speed are a distance unit divided by a
time unit. In addition to m/s, other units, such as kilometers
per hour (km/h), can be used.
Explain What term
describes the total distance
an object has traveled
divided by its total travel
time?
Velocity
Suppose you hear that a storm is approaching. The storm is
traveling at a speed of 20 km/h and is 100 km east of your
location. Do you have enough information to know whether
the storm will reach you?
Knowing only the speed and location of the storm is not
enough information to decide if the storm will reach you. The
speed tells you how fast the storm is moving. To find the
answer, you also need to know the direction the storm is
moving. In other words, you need to know the velocity of the
storm. Velocity is the speed of an object and the direction it is
moving. Like displacement, velocity is a vector that has a size
and a direction. The size of an objects velocity is the objects
speed.
How do speed and direction affect velocity?
4.
Explain why the velocity

of a race car going at a
constant speed around an
oval track is changing.
38
To help you understand velocity, think about two escalators.

One escalator is moving upward at the same speed that the
other escalator is moving downward. The two escalators are
going the same speed, but they are going in different directions.
They each have a different velocity. If the second escalator
were moving upward, both elevators would have the same
velocity.
Velocity depends on both speed and direction. Because of
this, an object moving at a constant speed will have a changing
velocity if it changes direction. As a race car goes around an
oval track, the direction in which the car is moving changes.
This means that the velocity of the car is changing. An object
has constant velocity if neither its speed nor its direction
changes. The light from a laser beam travels at a constant
velocity.
3.
Graphing Motion
A distance-time graph shows the motion of an object over
time. The graph below shows the motion of three swimmers
during a 30-min workout. The line for Mary is straight. This
means that she swam at a constant speed. Her speed was
80 m/min for the whole 30 min.
The line for Kathy is also straight. Kathy also swam at a
constant speed. Her speed was 60 m/min for the whole 30 min.
Notice that Julies line is not straight. Julie did not swim at a
constant speed. During part of the practice, Julie rested and
her line is horizontal. It has zero slope. During the last part of
the practice, Julie swam as fast as Mary. That part of Julies
line has the same slope as Marys line.
The steepness of the line is called the slope. The slope of a
line on the graph is the speed. A steeper slope means a greater
speed. Mary was swimming faster than Kathy, so the slope of
Marys line is steeper than the slope of Kathys line.
Applying Math
5.
Explain why the slopes

are different for each
swimmer.
Graphing Motion
2,400
2,200
Mary swam at a constant speed of 80

m/min. Her speed was the fastest,
so this line has the steepest slope.
2,000
1,800
At rst Julie
swam with
a speed of
40 m/min.
The slope of
this line is
less than
Kathys line.
Distance (m)
1,600
1,400
1,200
1,000
Kathy swam with a

constant speed of
60 m/min. The slope
of this line is less than
the slope of Marys line.
Here Julies speed was
80 m/min. The slope of
this line is the same as
Marys line.
800
600
400
Here Julies speed was 0 m/min.

The slope of this line is 0 m/min.
200
0
10
20
Picture This
6.
Identify Highlight the

parts of the two lines that
have the same slope. Why
are the slopes the same?
30
Time (min)
Plotting Graphs A distance-time graph plots data for

distance and time. The distance traveled is plotted on the
vertical axis. Time is plotted on the horizontal axis. Each
axis has a scale, or a series of numbers, for the data range.
Mary swam the farthest during the practice, 2,400 m. So,
the vertical scale must go to 2,400. The practice was 30 min
long, so the horizontal axis must go to 30. Each axis is divided
into equal parts. When each axis is finished, the data points
are plotted on the graph. Then the data points for each
swimmer are connected with a line.
Reading Essentials
39
After You Read

Mini Glossary
average speed: the total distance traveled in a unit of time
displacement: the distance and direction that something
moved from a starting point
instantaneous speed: the speed of an object at one point
in time
speed: the distance an object travels in an amount of time

vector: a quantity that is specified by size and direction
velocity: a measure of the speed of an object and the direction
it is traveling
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. What is the difference
between average speed and instantaneous speed?
2. Choose one of the question headings from the Read to Learn section. Write the question
in the box below. Then write your answer to that question on the lines below.
Question:
Answer:
End of
Section
40

games, and projects to help you learn more about motion.
Motion,
Acceleration,
and
Forces
3
chapter
2
section
Acceleration
Before You Read
What Youll Learn
Describe what happens to the speed of a bicycle as it goes

uphill and downhill.
Read to Learn
Study Coach
Outline As you read the
Acceleration, Speed, and Velocity
how acceleration, time,

and velocity are related
how positive and
negative acceleration
affect motion
how to calculate
acceleration
A car sitting at a stoplight starts moving when the light

turns green. When the car started moving, its velocity
increased and it was accelerating. Acceleration is the change
in velocity divided by the time for the change to occur.
Remember that velocity is a vector that includes both speed
and direction. Because of this, a change in velocity can be either
a change in how fast something is moving or a change in the
direction it is moving. Acceleration means that an object
changes it speed, its direction, or both.
section, make an outline of

the important information in
each paragraph.
What do direction changes affect?

Acceleration has direction, just like velocity. In the figure
belows, both cars are accelerating because their speeds are
changing.
Car B
Car A
Acceleration
Acceleration
Velocity
Velocity
B Construct a Venn
Diagram Make the following

trifold Foldable to compare and
contrast the characteristics of
acceleration, speed, and velocity.
Acceleration
Speed
Velocity
Reading Essentials
41
1.
Apply Give an example

of positive acceleration and
negative acceleration that
do not involve any
machines.
Direction Changes When a cars acceleration and velocity

are in the same direction, the speed increases and the
acceleration is positive. A car that is going faster has positive
acceleration. When a car is slowing, the acceleration and
velocity are in opposite directions. The acceleration is
negative.
A change in velocity is either a change in an objects speed
or its direction. When a moving object changes direction, its
velocity changes and it is accelerating. The speed of a horse
moving around on a carousel remains constant, but it is
constantly changing direction. So, the horse is accelerating.
Another example is the motion of Earth around the Sun in
a nearly circular path. As a result of its motion, the direction
of Earths velocity is changing constantly. This means that
Earth is accelerating as it orbits the Sun.
average acceleration (in m/s2) =
(final velocity(in m/s2) initial velocity (in m/s2))
(final time (s) initial time (s))
a = (vf vi)
(tf ti)
Applying Math
2.
42
Calculate Suppose a
bird takes off from a tree
and flies in a straight line.
It reaches a speed of 10 m/s.
Calculate the change in the
birds velocity.
When an object is moving, it may speed up, slow down, or

change direction. Each change in velocity means the object is
accelerating. Even if the acceleration is changing, you can
calculate the average acceleration over a period of time. If the
objects direction does not change, you can use this equation
to calculate average acceleration:
In this equation, vi is the starting velocity, and vf is the
velocity at the end. If the object is moving in one direction,
then vi is the starting speed, and vf is the final speed. In SI
units acceleration is measured by change in the speed (m/s) in
a certain amount of time (s). So acceleration is measured in
m/s2, or meters per second squared. Suppose an object has an
acceleration of 1 m/s2. This means its velocity increases by
1 m/s each second.
What can a speed-time graph tell you about

acceleration?
A speed-time graph is used to show the acceleration of an
object moving in one direction. On this type of graph, the
vertical axis measures the speed of the object. The horizontal
axis measures the time. The slope of the plotted line shows
the acceleration of the object.
Calculating Acceleration
Speed-Time Graph
Speed
Positive
acceleration
Time
3.
How is positive acceleration calculated?

How is the acceleration of an object that is speeding up
different from that of an object that is slowing down? The
acceleration of an object that is speeding up is always positive.
The acceleration of an object that is slowing down is always
negative.
Suppose an airplane is sitting at the end of a runway. The
plane takes off and moves down the runway. It takes 20 s for
the plane to travel from one end of the runway to the other.
When the airplane reaches the end of the runway, it is
traveling 80 m/s. The airplane is traveling in a straight line.
The initial velocity of the plane is 0 m/s and the final velocity
of the plane is 80 m/s. The time is 20 seconds. The
acceleration for the plane can be calculated as ahown below.
The airplane is speeding up as it goes down the runway.
The final speed is greater than the initial speed. The
acceleration is a positive number.
Acceleration at Takeoff
Picture This
4.
start
time = ti 0 s
speed = vi 0 m/s
Explain Why is the

acceleration of an object
moving at a constant
velocity always zero?
Relabel the figure using

words instead of the four
symbols that appear on the
figure.
takeoff
time = tf 20 s
speed = vf 80 m/s
Reading Essentials
43
How is negative acceleration calculated?

Now imagine a skateboarder moving in a straight line. The
skateboarder is moving at a speed of 3 m/s. It takes the person
2 s to come to a stop. The initial velocity is 3 m/s and the final
velocity is 0 m/s. The total time is 2 seconds. The calculation
for the skateboarders acceleration is as follows:
(vf vi )
Identify Circle the letter

of the units that represent
negative acceleration.
a.
b.
c.
d.
The skateboarder is slowing down. The final speed is less

than the initial speed. The acceleration is a negative number.
2 m/s
30 m/s2
7 m/s
14 m/s2
Speed
5.
(0 m/s 3 m/s)
1.5 m/s2
a
(tf - ti)
2s
Negative
acceleration
Time
Picture This
6.
Label the place on this
Roller coasters are exciting rides. Engineers who design

roller coasters use the laws of physics. The steep drops and
loops of steel roller coasters give the rider large accelerations.
When riders move down a steep hill, gravity causes them to
accelerate toward the ground. When riders go around a sharp
turn, they are also accelerated. When they accelerate during
a turn, it feels like a force is pushing them toward the side
of the car.
Look at the roller coaster in the figure below. The car of the
roller coaster slows down, or has a negative acceleration, as it
creeps up to the top of the hill. Then it speeds up, or has a
positive acceleration, as it moves down the hill. Its positive
acceleration is due to gravity.
roller coaster where the car

would have greatest
acceleration, least
acceleration, and velocity=0.
44
Amusement Park Acceleration
After You Read

Mini Glossary
acceleration: the change in velocity divided by the time for
the change to occur
1. Review the term and its definition in the Mini Glossary. Explain why a change in velocity
affects acceleration.
2. Complete the chart to organize information about how average acceleration is calculated.
The formula for

acceleration:
Which is greater in
positive acceleration,
initial or final velocity?
Which is greater in
negative acceleration,
initial or final velocity?
3. As you read the section, you made an outline describing the points covered in each
paragraph. How did you decide what to write as the major points in your outline?

games, and projects to help you learn more about acceleration.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
45
Motion, Acceleration, and Forces
3
section
Motion and Forces
What Youll Learn
how force and motion

are related
static friction and sliding
friction
how air resistance
affects falling objects
Study Coach
Create a Quiz As you are

reading this section, write five
questions that could be used
on a quiz. Be sure to include the
answers.
Before You Read

When you throw a football, you apply a force that moves an
object. Think of three more examples from sports in which
force is used to move something. Write them below.
Read to Learn
What is force?
When you shoot a basketball or kick a soccer ball, you are
exerting a force on an object. A force is a push or pull that
one object exerts on another. Force is a vector, like velocity
and acceleration. It has a size and a direction. The size of a
force is its strength. The direction is the direction it is pushed
or pulled. The SI unit for force is newtons (N). Lifting a full
can of soft drink takes about 3 N of force.
How does force change motion?
C Find Main Ideas As you
read, use quarter- or half- sheets

of paper to help you identify the
main ideas about motion and
forces.
Motion
Forces
46
Think about a tennis player hitting a ball. What happens to

the motion of the ball when the racket hits it? The force of
the racket hitting the ball makes the ball stop. Then the force
makes the ball move in a different direction.
Balanced Forces Not all forces change velocity. In the

figure on the next page, two students are pushing on opposite
sides of a box, if both students push with an equal force, the
box does not move. When two or more forces act on an
object at the same time, the forces combine. Net force is the
combination of two or more forces acting on an object at the
same time. When two students push with the same force in
opposite directions, the two forces cancel out. The net force is
zero. Balanced forces are forces on an object that are equal in
size and opposite in direction.
chapter
Picture This
1.
Describe Why are the

forces in the figure said
to be balanced?
0
Net force 0
What is the result of unbalanced forces?
Not all forces in opposite directions cancel each other. Think

about two students pushing on the opposite sides of a box.
What happens if one student pushes harder than the other as in
the first figure below? The box will move in the direction of the
larger force. The student who is pushing harder will move the
box in the direction of the force. The net force that moves the
box is the difference between the two forces. They are
unbalanced forces.
Suppose both students push on the same side of the box as
in the second figure below. Both students are exerting force in
the same direction. The forces are combined, or added
together, because they are exerted on the box in the same
direction. The net force is equal to both forces added together.
The forces combine to produce a net force that is not zero.
Unbalanced forces exist when the forces acting on an object
produce a net force that is not zero.

Net force
Picture This
2.
Draw in the space below

an example showing the
result of unbalanced forces
on opposite sides of an
object.

Net force
How do unbalanced forces change velocity?

Suppose you and another person are pushing on a front
door from opposite sides with the same force. The forces on
the door are balanced, so the door does not move. The net
force is zero. But what happens if you push a little harder?
The forces are not balanced any more. The door moves in the
direction you are pushing it. So the door has velocity only
when the forces are unbalanced. An objects velocity changes
only when the forces on it are unbalanced.
Reading Essentials
47
Friction
3.
Explain how friction

makes a skateboard slow
down.
Suppose you give a skateboard a push with your hand. The

skateboard speeds up as you push it and keeps moving. What
happens to the skateboards speed as it moves on a flat, level
surface? The skateboard slows and then stops. It will not keep
moving forever.
The skateboards speed changed because of unbalanced
forces. The unbalanced force making it stop is called friction.
Friction is the force that opposes the sliding motion of two
surfaces that are in contact.
What causes friction?

Friction is a force that one object exerts on another. The
size of frictional force depends on what the surfaces of those
objects are like. It depends on the materials the surfaces are
made from and the roughness of the surfaces. Even surfaces
that seem completely smooth, like polished metal, have some
bumps. Surfaces stick to each other where these bumps touch
each other. Microwelds form between the surfaces. As the first
figure below shows, microwelds make the surface stick
together and cause friction.
Force
Force
More
force
4.
Surfaces
Surfaces
Label the microwelds in

the diagram on the left.
Microwelds form where

Microwelds
forminto
where
bumps come
contact.
bumps come into contact.
Same two
surfaces
More force presses the
bumps closer together.
What happens to the force between two surfaces when the

surfaces are pushing together increases? As the second figure
above shows, the frictional force increases. This is because more
of the bumps on the surface of the materials come into contact
with each other. The strength of the microwelds increases,
causing more friction.
48
Picture This
What is static friction?

Imagine you are trying to push a box along the floor. You
have to break the microwelds that have formed between the
surface of the floor and the surface of the box. Even if you
apply a strong force, the box may not move. This means that
there is an additional force acting against your push. This
force is a frictional force called static force that occurs because
of the microwelds. Static friction is the frictional force that
prevents two surfaces in contact from sliding past each other.
5.
Apply In your
experience, what could
reduce the static friction
that makes it difficult to
move a box across the
floor?
What is sliding friction?
Now suppose you and another person are pushing a box,

and it is moving, as in the figure below. The force you are
applying to the box is larger than the force from static
friction, so the box is moving. But if you stop pushing the
box, the box will slow down and stop. This is because there is
another type of friction opposing the motion of the box.
Sliding friction is the force that acts in the opposite direction
to the motion of a surface sliding on another surface. Sliding
friction causes the box to slow down and stop when you stop
pushing it. The force of sliding friction is less than the force of
static friction.
Picture This
6.
Label the arrows in

the figure with the terms
applied force and sliding
friction.
What is rolling friction?

An object can also be slowed down when it is rolling across
a surface. Rolling friction is the frictional force that slows a
rolling object. Rolling friction has much less of an effect than
sliding friction or static friction. When a skateboard that you
push across the sidewalk eventually comes to a stop, it is
because of rolling friction.
Reading Essentials
49
Air Resistance
7.
Define What is the

frictional force that
opposes the movement of
objects that fall through
the air?
If you drop an apple and a feather, they both fall toward

Earth because of gravity. Gravity pulls all objects downward
with the same force. But as they fall through the air, the apple
will move faster. Why dont an apple and a feather fall at the
same speed? It is because another force opposes their fall. Air
resistance is a frictional force that opposes the movement of
objects that fall through the air. Without air resistance, all
objects would fall at the same speed. Air resistance causes
objects to accelerate differently.
Imagine that you drop two identical plastic bags at the
same time. One is open, and the other one is crushed into a
ball. When you drop them, the downward force of gravity on
the bags is the same. But the upward force of air resistance on
the bags is different. The crumpled bag has less air resistance
on it. Therefore, the crumpled bag will fall faster. The air
resistance on an object depends on the speed, size, and shape
of the object.
A parachute uses air resistance to slow a persons fall. As a
person falls through the air, gravity pulls her toward Earth.
But with an open parachute, the air resistance of the
parachute is greater. This slows the persons fall.
8.
Re-Phrase How can you

explain terminal velocity
to someone in everyday
language?
50
As an object falls, its velocity increases. If a skydiver fell

without a parachute for 2,000 m and there were no air
resistance, the velocity would be almost 200 m/s, or more
than 700 km/h.
As the speed of a falling object increases, the upward force
of air resistance also increases. As a skydiver falls and starts
moving faster, air resistance pushing up also increases. The
net force on the skydiver decreases during the fall. Eventually,
the air resistance equals the downward force of gravity. At this
point, the net force is zero. So the velocity does not change.
The object continues falling at the same speed. This speed is
called the terminal velocity. Terminal velocity is the highest
speed an object can reach as it is falling.
Like air resistance, the terminal velocity depends on the size,
shape, and material of the falling object. The air resistance on an
open parachute is larger than the air resistance on a closed
parachute. So the terminal velocity a skydiver reaches when
falling with an open parachute is slow enough for a safe landing.
What is terminal velocity?
After You Read

Mini Glossary
air resistance: a frictional force that opposes the movement
of objects that fall through the air
balanced forces: equal but opposite forces acting on
an object
force: a push or pull on an object
friction: the force that opposes the sliding motion of two
surfaces that are in contact
net force: the combination of forces acting on an object

static friction: the frictional force that prevents two surfaces
in contact from sliding past each other
sliding friction: the force that acts in the opposite direction
to the motion of a surface sliding on another surface
unbalanced forces: when the forces acting on an object
produce a net force that is not zero
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary above. Choose two terms that
are related, and write a sentence using both terms.
2. In the diagram below show one characteristic each of rolling friction, static friction, and
sliding friction. In the middle, write two things they have in common.
Rolling:
Sliding:
All Three:
Static:

games, and projects to help you learn more about acceleration.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
51
The Laws of Motion
1
section
The First Two Laws of Motion
What Youll Learn
about Newtons first and

second laws of motion
how inertia and mass are
related
how to use Newtons
second law of motion
Study Coach

reading this section, write five
questions that could be used
on a quiz. Be sure to include the
answers.
Before You Read

When you hit a baseball with a bat, you apply a force that
moves an object. Write about another example in which force
is used to move something.
Read to Learn
Newtons Laws of Motion
A force is a push or a pull. When you lift a backpack, you
exert a force that causes it to move. Before you lifted it, the
backpack was at rest. When you pulled it up, you changed its
velocity. But if you push down on a table, the table doesnt
move or change velocity. The force you applied to the table
did not cause motion. If you compare the backpack and the
table, you may wonder how forces and motion are related.
Isaac Newton was a British scientist who lived from 1642 to
1727. In 1687, he stated three rules that describe the effects of
forces on the motion of objects. The three rules are called
Newtons laws of motion. The rules apply to all objects in
motion, from baseballs in the air to the motion of planets,
stars, and galaxies.
The First Law of Motion

A Find Main Ideas
As
you read, use a two-tab Foldable
to help you identify the main
ideas about inertia and the first
law of motion.
Inertia
52
First Law
of Motion
CHAPTER 4 The Laws of Motion
Newtons first law of motion describes how an object

moves when the net force acting on it is zero. When two or
more forces act on an object at the same time, the forces
combine. This is called a net force. The first law of motion
states that if the net force acting on an object is zero, the
object remains at rest or if the object is moving, it continues
moving in a straight line without changing its speed. The first
law of motion is sometimes called the law of inertia.
chapter
How do unbalanced forces change velocity?

The first law of motion states that an object at rest stays at
rest unless a force acts on it. Imagine that a skateboard is at
rest. The skateboard does not move until you push it. Then
the velocity of the skateboard increases while you are pushing
it. While you are pushing on the skateboard, the forces acting
on it are unbalanced. The velocity of the skateboard changes
as its speed increases.
If you stop pushing the skateboard, it will slow down and
then stop. The force of friction acts on the skateboard to
make it stop. Friction occurs between the wheels of the
skateboard and the surface it is moving over. The unbalanced
frictional force causes the velocity of the skateboard to change
as its speed decreases. An objects velocity changes only when
there are unbalanced forces acting on it.
1.
Explain What is the

reason that an objects
velocity changes?
Inertia and Mass

All objects have a property called inertia. Inertia is the
tendency of an object to resist change in its motion. If an
object is moving, it will keep moving in a straight line at a
constant speed until a force changes its direction or speed.
Inertia causes an object to resist changes in direction and
speed. A car, like the one shown in the figure below, will move
in a straight line with a constant speed unless a force acts on
it. A force can turn the wheel and change the direction.
Another force, friction, can slow the speed of the car. An
object that is not moving also has inertia. It will remain
motionless until a force causes it to move.
The greater the mass of an object, the greater its inertia.
A bowling ball has more mass than a volleyball. You would
have to exert more force on the bowling ball to stop it.
Force causes
forward motion.
Force causes
turning motion.
Picture This
2.
Observe Draw an arrow

that shows the direction
the car would go in if the
driver does not turn the
steering wheel.
Reading Essentials
53
How is inertia related to the first law of

motion?
The first law of motion says that the movement of an object
does not change unless something happens to the object. This
is similar to the definition of inertiaan object resists a change
in its motion. You can see that the first law of motion is related
to inertia. In fact, the first law of motion is sometimes called
the law of inertia.
3.
Define What is another

name for the first law of
motion?
What happens in a crash?

The first law of motion can explain what happens in a car
crash. Imagine that a car traveling at 50 km/h crashes head-on
into a big, solid object. The car crumples and comes to a stop
within about 0.1 s. Passengers who are not wearing safety
belts continue to move forward at the same speed the car was
traveling. Within about 0.02 s after the car stops, the unbelted
passengers slam into the dashboard, steering wheel, windshield,
or backs of the front seats. They are still moving at the
original speed of 50 km/h. This is about the same speed
they would reach falling from a three-story building.
A person wearing a safety belt is attached to the car, as
shown below. The person will slow down as the car slows
down. Safety belts also prevent people from being thrown out
of cars. About half of the people who die in car crashes would
survive if they wore safety belts.
Picture This
4.
Explain Write additional
No seat belt
Seat belt
labels on the illustration to

explain what is happening.
54
How do safety belts help?
The Second Law of Motion

According to Newtons first law of motion, unbalanced
forces cause the velocity of an object to change. Newtons
second law of motion describes how the net force on an
object, its mass, and its acceleration are related.
How are force and acceleration related?

Whats different about throwing a ball as hard as you can
and tossing it gently? When you throw hard, the net force on
the ball is greater than when you toss it. Also, the ball has a
greater velocity when it leaves your hand. As a result, the
hard-thrown ball has a greater change in velocity and this
change occurs over a short period of time. Acceleration is the
change in velocity divided by the time needed for the change
to occur. So a hard-thrown ball has a greater acceleration than
a gently thrown ball.
How are mass and acceleration related?
5.
Define What is
acceleration?
If you throw a baseball and a softball with the same amount

of force, why does the baseball move faster? A softball has
more mass than a baseball. Even though the net force exerted
on both balls is the same, the softball has less velocity when it
leaves your hand than the baseball does.
If it takes the same amount of time to throw both balls, the
acceleration of the softball is less than that of the baseball. So,
the acceleration of an object depends on its mass, as well as
the net force exerted on it. Net force, mass and acceleration
are related.
Picture This
6.
baseball
force applied
velocity
Redraw the illustration

to compare the distance
traveled in the same
amount of time by a baseball and softball that are
thrown with the same
force.
softball
Reading Essentials
55
Applying the Second Law of Motion
Applying Math
7.

acceleration of a car tire if it
is pushed with a net force of
20 N and its mass is 100 kg?
The second law of motion states that the acceleration of an

object is in the same direction as the net force on the object.
The acceleration can be calculated by using the following
equation:
net force (in newtons)
acceleration (in meters/second2) =
mass (in kilograms)
F

a = net
m
How is net force calculated?

Newtons second law also can be used to calculate the net
force if mass and acceleration are known. To do this, the
equation for Newtons second law must be solved for the net
force, F. To solve for the net force, multiply both sides of the
above equation by the mass:
Fnet
m

= ma

m
The mass, m, on the left side cancels, giving the equation:
For example, when a tennis player hits a ball, the ball is

in contact with the racket for only a few thousandths of a
second. Because the balls velocity changes over such a short
period of time, the balls acceleration could be as high as
5,000 m/s2. The balls mass is 0.06 kg, so the net force exerted
on the ball would be:
Fnet = ma = (0.06 kg) (5,000 m/s2) = 300 kg m/s2 = 300 N
56
Fnet = ma
After You Read

Mini Glossary
first law of motion: if the net force acting on an object is
zero, the object remains at rest, or if the object is moving,
it continues in a straight line with constant speed
inertia: the tendency of an object to resist a change in

its motion
second law of motion: the accelertation of an object is in

the same direction as the net force of the object
1. Review the definitions of the vocabulary words in the Mini Glossary. Choose two terms that
are related and write a sentence using both terms.
2. Complete the chart below with information from this section.

Effects of a car crash
Wearing safety belts:
1.
2.
3.
Not wearing safety belts:
1.
2.
3.
3. You wrote five quiz questions as you read this section. How did writing these questions
help you learn the content of this section?

and projects to help you learn more about the first two laws of motion.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
57
chapter
The Laws of Motion
2
section
Gravity
What Youll Learn
how gravity and weight

are related
mass and weight
Before You Read

Think about gravity. Write a statement about what you know
about gravity on the lines below.
Read to Learn
What is gravity?
You have learned that objects falling toward Earth are being
pulled downward by the force of gravity. There is also a
gravitational attraction between you and your desk, you and
your science book, and even between you and the planet
Jupiter. Everything that has mass is attracted by the force of
gravity. Gravity is an attractive force between any two objects.
Look at the figure below. Gravity increases as the mass of
either object increases, or as the objects move closer.
You cant feel any gravitational attraction between you and
your desk because the force is weak. Only Earth is both close
enough and has a large enough mass that you can feel its
gravitational attraction. The Sun has much more mass than
Earth. But it is too far away to exert a gravitational force that
you could notice. Your desk is close, but it doesnt have
enough mass to exert an attraction you can feel.
Picture This
1.
Interpret Illustrations
What two things can cause
the gravitational force
between objects to
increase?
If the mass of either of the objects
increases, the gravitational force
between them increases.
58
If the objects are closer together,

the gravitational force between
them increases.
Highlight the main point in each

paragraph. Use a different color
to highlight details or examples
that help explain the main point.
What are the basic forces?

Gravity is one of the four basic forces. The other basic
forces are the electromagnetic force, the strong nuclear force,
and the weak nuclear force. The two nuclear forces only act
on particles in the nuclei of atoms. Electricity and magnetism
are caused by the electromagnetic force. Chemical
interactions are due to the electromagnetic force.
B Organize Information
Make the following six-tab

Foldable to help you organize
information about gravity.
Law of Universal
Gravitation
Gravitational
Acceleration
The Law of Universal Gravitation
Weight
For thousands of years, people have observed the stars and

the planets. Gradually, data were collected on the motions of the
planets by a number of observers. Isaac Newton used the data to
formulate the law of universal gravitation. The law of universal
gravitation is used to find the force of gravity between any two
objects if their masses and the distance between them are
known. An equation for the law is:
Weightlessness/
Free Fall
Projectile
Motion
Centripedal
Force
(mass 1) (mass 2)
gravitational force (constant)
(distance)2
m1m2
F G d
2
In this equation, G is the constant called the universal

gravitational constant. A constant is an amount that never
changes. The variable d is the distance between the two masses,
m1 and m2.
Is gravity a long-range force?

The law of universal gravitation states that the gravitational
force between two masses decreases rapidly as the distance
between the masses increases. Suppose the distance between
two objects increases from 1 m to 2 m. The gravitational force
between them becomes one fourth as large. If the distance
increases from 1 m to 10 m, the gravitational force between the
objects is one hundredth as large. However no matter how far
apart two objects are, the gravitational force between them
never reaches zero. Gravity never completely disappears.
2.
Determine What do
the 1 and 2 in m1m2 in the
universal gravitation
equation mean?
How was gravity used to find other planets?

The motion of every planet in our solar system is affected by
the gravitational forces of the other planets. In the 1840s, the
most distant known planet was Uranus. Its motion could not
completely be explained by the gravitational attraction of the
other known planets. Was another planet affecting its motion?
Using the law of universal gravitation and Newtons laws of
motion, astronomers discovered another planet, Neptune.
Reading Essentials
59
Earths Gravitational Acceleration

If you dropped a marble and a bowling ball at the same
time, which would hit the ground first? Suppose air resistance
is ignored. If only gravity moves an object, it is in free fall.
With no air resistance, all objects would fall with the same
acceleration. A marble and a bowling ball would hit the
ground at the same time.
Acceleration of Gravity The acceleration of an object in free
fall is about 9.8 m/s2. This acceleration is sometimes called the
acceleration of gravity. It is given the symbol g. The force of
Earths gravity on a falling object is the objects mass times
the acceleration of gravity. This can be calculated from the
following equation.
Applying Math
3.
Calculate Find the

weight of a 50-kg person
on Earth. Remember,
g 9.8m/s2. Show your
work.
gravitational force (N) mass (kg) acceleration of gravity (m/s2)

F mg
You can use this equation to find the gravitational force on
a sky diver with a mass of 60 kg.
F mg (60 kg)(9.8 m/s2) 588 N
The gravitational force on the sky diver is 588 N.
Earth always exerts a gravitational force on objects. The
gravitational force exerted on an object is its weight. Weight is
found using the following equation. The letter g represents
the acceleration of gravity.
weight (N) mass (kg) acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
W mg
Is there a difference between weight and mass?
4.
Explain Why do
astronauts in the space
shuttle weigh less than
they do on Earth?
Weight and mass are not the same. Weight is a force. Mass is a
measure of the amount of matter in an object. But weight and
mass are related. The force of gravity between an object and
Earth increases as the mass of the object increases. Weight
increases as mass increases. An object has the same mass on
Earth as on the moon. Yet, because Earths force of gravity is
greater, an object weighs more on Earth than on the moon.
Weightlessness and Free Fall

You may have seen pictures of astronauts floating inside a
space shuttle. They are experiencing weightlessness. Though
the astronauts are not really weightless, they do weigh less
because they are farther from Earths gravitational pull.
60
How is weight calculated?
What causes floating in space?

Suppose you are standing on a scale in an elevator that is
not moving, as in the figure below. The scale would record
your normal weight. But, what would happen if you were
standing on the scale and the elevator were falling rapidly? If
you and the scale were in free fall, then you would no longer
push down on the scale. On the dial you have zero weight,
although the gravitational force on you has not changed.
Picture This
5.
Interpret What keeps

the boy and the scale from
moving around inside the
elevator?
Free Fall An orbiting space shuttle is in free fall. It is falling
around Earth, not straight downward. Everything in the space

shuttle is falling at the same rate, much like the way the boy in
the figure and the scale are falling in the elevator. Objects in
the shuttle seem to be floating because they are all falling with
the same acceleration.
Projectile Motion
You probably have noticed that thrown objects do not
always move in a straight line. Their paths curve downward.
Anything that is thrown or shot through the air is called a
projectile. Earths gravity causes projectiles to follow a
curved path.
Can an object have horizontal and vertical

motion?
When you throw a ball, the force exerted on the ball by
your hand pushes the ball forward. This force gives the ball
horizontal motion. When you let go of the ball, gravity
accelerates it downward, giving it vertical motion. The ball
has constant horizontal velocity but increasing vertical
velocity. Gravity exerts an unbalanced force on the ball. It
changes the direction of the balls path from only forward,
to forward and downward. The result of these two motions
is that the ball appears to move in a curve.
6.
Describe What does

gravity do to the path of
an object that is thrown
horizontally?
Reading Essentials
61
How do horizontal and vertical distances of

thrown and dropped objects compare?
Picture This
7.
Interpret a Figure
Which ball has fallen the
greater vertical distance in
one second, the ball that
was dropped or the ball
that was thrown?
Suppose an automatic ball machine launches a ball in a

horizontal direction from 1 m above the ground. Would it
take longer to reach the ground than if you dropped a ball
from the same height? Surprisingly, it would not. Look at the
figure below. A dropped ball and one thrown horizontally
from the same height will hit the ground at the same time.
Both balls travel the same vertical distance in the same
amount of time. However, the ball thrown horizontally travels
a greater total distance than the ball that is dropped.
Direction
dropped
Direction
thrown
Look at the path of the ball as it travels through the curved

tube in the figure below. The ball may accelerate in the
straight sections of the pipe maze if it speeds up or slows
down. However, when the ball enters a curve, even if its speed
does not change, it is accelerating because its direction is
changing. When the ball goes around a curve, the change in
the direction of the velocity is toward the center of the curve.
Centripetal acceleration is acceleration toward the center of
a curved or circular path.
Ball
curved tube
Picture This
8.
62
Trace the path of the ball,

trying to move your pencil
at a constant speed.
Centripetal Force
What causes centripetal force?

According to the second law of motion, when the ball has
centripetal acceleration, the direction of the net force on the
ball also must be toward the center of the curved path.
Centripetal force is the net force exerted toward the center
of the curved path. For the ball moving through the tube, the
centripetal force is the force exerted by the walls of the tube
on the ball.
How is centripetal force related to traction?
9.
When a car rounds a curve on a highway, a centripetal force

must be acting on the car to keep it moving in a curved path.
This centripetal force is the frictional force, or the traction,
between the tires and the road surface. If the road is slippery
and the frictional force is small, the centripetal force might
not be large enough to keep the car moving around the curve.
Then the car will slide in a straight line. Anything that moves
in a circle, such as an amusement park ride, is doing so
because a centripetal force is accelerating it toward the center.
Define What is
centripetal force?
How can gravity exert a centripetal force?
Imagine whirling an object tied to a string above your

head. The string exerts a centripetal force on the object that
keeps it moving in a circular path. Look at the figure below.
The moon would move in a straight line if the Earths gravity
didnt pull it. Earths gravity exerts a centripetal force on the
Moon that keeps it moving in a nearly circular orbit.
Picture This
10.
Predict On the figure,

draw a path for the Moon if
Earths gravity suddenly
stopped affecting it.
Reading Essentials
63
After You Read

Mini Glossary
centripetal acceleration: acceleration toward the center of
a curved path
gravity: a force that pulls two objects together

weight: the gravitational force placed on an object
centripetal force: a force that moves an object in the

direction of the center of a curved path
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Explain the difference
between the mass of an object and its weight.
2. Choose one of the question headings in the Read to Learn section. Write the question in
the space below. Then write your answer to the question.
Answer:
3. Think about what you have learned in this section. How did identifying the main point
and supporting details of each paragraph help you learn the new material?

games, and projects to help you learn more about gravity.
64
End of
Section
Question:
chapter
The Laws of Motion
3
section
The Third Law of Motion
Before You Read

Think about a time you reacted to someone elses action. You
may have smiled because someone complimented you. Write
about an action/reaction situation you have seen.
Read to Learn
Newtons Third Law

If you push against a wall while wearing in-line skates, you
will roll backwards. The action of pushing against the wall
produced a reactionmoving backward. This is an example
of Newtons third law of motion.
Newtons third law of motion describes action and reaction.
The third law of motion states that when one object applies a
force on a second object, the second object applies a force on
the first object that is equal in strength and opposite in
direction. In other words, to every action force there is an
equal and opposite reaction force.
What Youll Learn
Newtons third law of

motion
how to find momentum
when momentum is
conserved
Study Coach

reading this section, write
answers to the questions that
are used as headlines.
How do action and reaction happen?

When a force is applied in nature, a reaction force occurs at
the same time. When you jump on a trampoline, you exert a
downward force on the trampoline. At the same time, the
trampoline exerts an equal upward force on you.
Potential Energy to Kinetic Energy The action and
reaction forces are equal. So how do you move by walking if
each time you push on the ground, Earth pushes back with
an equal force? The forces are acting on objects with different
masses. Earth has more mass than you do. So although the
forces are equal, a net force, or unbalanced force, acts on you
to make you move.
C Finding Main Ideas
While reading this section, make

a Foldable to help you identify
the main ideas in Newtons
third law of motion.
The Third
Law of Motion
Reading Essentials
65
What is rocket propulsion?

Suppose you are standing on skates holding a softball. You
exert a force on the softball when you throw it. Newtons third
law says the softball exerts a reaction force on you. This force
pushes you in the direction opposite the softballs motion.
Rockets use this same principle to move. In a rocket engine,
burning fuel produces hot gases. The rocket engine applies a
force on the gases and causes them to escape out of the back
of the rocket. By Newtons third law, the gases apply a reaction
force on the rocket and push it in the opposite direction.
Momentum
1.
Define What is
momentum?
A moving object has a property called momentum.

Momentum is related to how much force is needed to
change an objects motion. The momentum of an object is
the product of its mass and its velocity. Momentum can be
found using the following equation. The symbol p represents
momentum. The unit for momentum is kgm/s.
Two cars can have the same velocity. But the bigger car has
more momentum, because it has more mass. An archers
arrow can have a large momentum because of its high
velocity, even though its mass is small.
Suppose a sprinter with a mass of 80 kg has a speed of
10 m/s. What is the sprinters momentum? Substitute the
known values into the momentum equation.
Applying Math
2.
Apply What is the

momentum of a bicycle
with a mass of 18 kg
traveling at 20 m/s?
66
p mv
(80 kg)(10 m/s)
800 kgm/s
The sprinters momentum is 800 kgm/s.
What is the law of conservation of momentum?

Momentum can be passed from one object to another.
When a cue ball hits a group of balls that are motionless, the
cue ball slows down and the other balls move. The momentum
that the group of balls gained equals the momentum that the
cue ball lost. But the total momentum of all the balls before
and after the collision is the same. Total momentum has not
been lost, nor has new momentum been created. This is an
example of the law of conservation of momentum. If a group
of objects applies forces only on each other, their total
momentum does not change.
momentum (kgm/s) mass (kg) velocity (m/s)

p mv
After You Read

Mini Glossary
law of the conservation of momentum: if a group of
objects applies forces only on each other, their total
mommentum does not change
momentum: the product of a moving objects mass and
velocity
third law of motion: to every action force there is an equal

and opposite reaction force
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Describe a real-world
example of Newtons third law of motion.
2. Match the terms with the correct statements. Put the letter of the statement in Column 2
on the line in front of the term it matches in Column 1.
Column 1
Column 2
1. rocket propulsion
a. To every action force there is an

equal and opposite reaction.
2. momentum
3. conservation of momentum
4. Newtons third law of motion
b. Momentum cannot be created

or destroyed.
c. the product of a moving objects
mass and velocity
d. An engine applies a force on hot
gases and the gases apply a force in
the opposite direction.
3. You created quiz questions to help you learn the material in this section. How can you use
these questions to help you prepare for a test?

projects to help you learn more about the third law of motion.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
67
Energy
1
section
The Nature of Energy
What Youll Learn
the different forms

of energy
how energy can
be stored
Study Coach
State the Main Ideas As

you read this section, stop after
each paragraph and write the
main idea of what you read in
your own words.
Before You Read

Energy comes in many forms. List as many types of energy as
you can think of on the lines below.
Read to Learn
What is energy?
Changes are taking place all around you all the time. For
example, lightbulbs are heating the air around them, and the
wind may be blowing leaves in the trees. Even you are
changing as you breathe, blink, or move around at your desk.
All changes involve energy. Imagine a baseball flying through
the air. It hits a window and breaks the glass into small pieces.
The moving baseball causes the solid pane of glass to change
into the small pieces. The moving baseball has energy.
How are energy and work related?

Energy is the ability to do work. Work is done when a force
causes something to move. A moving baseball does work on a
window. The ball exerts a force on the glass and causes it to
break. Energy is also the ability to cause change. When work is
done, energy moves from one place to another or changes from
one form to another.
1.
Define What is energy?
What are some different forms of energy?

Turn on an electric light, and a dark room becomes
brighter. Turn on your CD player, and sound comes through
the headphones. In both of these cases, energy moves from
one place to another. These changes are different from each
other. They are also different from the change caused by the
baseball hitting the window. Energy has many different forms.
Some forms are electrical, chemical, radiant, and thermal.
68
CHAPTER 5 Energy
chapter
Electric
energy
Chemical
energy
Radiant
energy
Picture This
2.
Illustrate In the space

below, draw another
representation of one
of the types of energy
shown in the figure.
The figure shows some forms of energy and some objects

associated with these forms of energy. The lightbulb uses
electric energy to light a room. Chemical energy is stored in
the food you eat and in the fuel in a car. Radiant energy from
the Sun travels to Earth and warms the planet. Energy plays a
role in every activity.
How is energy like money?

Suppose you have $100. You could have one hundred-dollar
bill, two fifty-dollar bills, 100 one-dollar bills, or 10,000 pennies.
You could start with the $100 in one form and change it into
another form. But, no matter what form it is in, it is still $100.
This is also true of energy. It is the same no matter what form
it is in. Energy from the Sun that warms you and energy
from the food you eat are just different forms of the same
thingenergy.
Kinetic Energy
When you think of energy, you might think of moving
objects. An object in motion, like the baseball, does have
energy. Kinetic energy is the energy a moving object has
because of its motion. The kinetic energy of a moving object
depends on the objects mass and speed. You can find the
kinetic energy of an object using the following equation.
1
kinetic energy (joules) 2 mass (kg) [speed (m/s)]2

1
KE 2 mv 2
Energy is measured using the SI unit called the joule. The
letter J stands for joule. If you drop a baseball from about
0.5 m, it will have a kinetic energy of about one joule, or 1 J.
A Find Main Ideas Fold a
piece of paper into 12 sections

and label. Fill in the main
ideas about kinetic and
potential energy.
The Nature
of Energy
Define
Examples
of. . .
Calculate
Kinetic
Energy
Potential
Energy
Reading Essentials
69
Applying Math
3.
Explain Look at the

problem about the jogger.
Why does (3 m/s)2
become (9 m2/s2)?
Using the Equation A jogger whose mass is 60 kg is moving

at a speed of 3 m/s. Use the equation to find the joggers
kinetic energy.
1
KE 2mv 2
1
2(60 kg)(3 m/s)2

1
2(60 kg)(9 m2/s2)

1
2(540 kg m2/s2)
270 kg m2/s2
The kinetic energy of the jogger is 270 J.
Potential Energy
What is elastic potential energy?

B Compare and
Contrast Make the following

Foldable to compare and contrast the properties of different
types of potential energy.
Elastic
Potential
Energy
Chemical
Potential
Energy
Gravitational
Potential
Energy
70
CHAPTER 5 Energy
Energy can be stored in other ways, too. Suppose you

stretch a rubber band. If you let the rubber band go, it will fly
through the air. Where did this kinetic energy come from?
The stretched rubber band had something called elastic
potential energy. Elastic potential energy is energy stored by
an object that can stretch or shrink, like a rubber band or a
spring. When you let the rubber band fly through the air, its
elastic potential energy becomes kinetic energy.
What is chemical potential energy?

Where does your body get the energy to make it move?
The food that you eat each day has stored energy. To be more
exact, foods energy is stored in chemical bonds between
atoms. Natural gas stores energy in the same way. Energy
stored in chemical bonds is called chemical potential energy.
In natural gas, energy is stored in the bonds that hold the
carbon and hydrogen atoms together. This energy is released
when the gas is burned.
An object with energy does not have to be moving. Objects

that are at rest have stored energy. For example, an apple that
is hanging from a tree has stored energy. If the apple stays in
the tree, it will keep its stored energy because of its position
above the ground. If the apple falls to the ground, a change
happens. Because the apple can cause change, it has energy.
Stored energy due to position is called potential energy. The
stored energy of position, potential energy, will change to
energy of motion, kinetic energy, when the apple falls.
What is gravitational potential energy?

Anything that can fall has stored energy called gravitational
potential energy. Gravitational potential energy (GPE) is
energy that is stored by objects that are above Earths surface.
The apple in the tree has GPE. The GPE of an object depends
on two thingsthe objects mass and its height above the
ground. Gravitational potential energy can be found using the
following equation.
gravitational potential energy (J)
mass (kg) acceleration due to gravity (m/s2) height (m)
4.
List two things that

determine an objects GPE.
GPE mgh
On Earth, the acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 m/s2 and has
the symbol g. Like all forms of energy, gravitational potential
energy is measured in joules.
Suppose a ceiling fan has a mass of 7 kg and is 4 m above
the floor. What is the gravitational potential energy of the
ceiling fan?
GPE mgh
(7 kg)(9.8 m/s2)(4 m)
274 kg m2/s2
The ceiling fan has a GPE of 274 kg m2/s2, or 274 J.
How is potential energy stored?

So far, you have studied three types of potential energy.
The table below lists how each is stored.
Potential Energy
Way It Is Stored
Elastic
Chemical
Gravitational
stored by an object that can stretch or shrink

stored in chemical bonds
stored by objects that are above Earths surface
How does GPE change?

By looking at the equation for gravitational potential
energy, you can see that two things can change an objects
gravitational potential energy. The acceleration of gravity, g,
is always 9.8 m/s2. It is the constant. So, the two factors in
the equation that can change are mass, m, and height, h.
They are the variables.
So if you change the mass or height of an object, its
gravitational potential energy will also change.
Applying Math
5.
Interpret In the formula

GPE mgh, which symbols
represent the constants
and which symbols
represent the variables?
Reading Essentials
71
Changing GPE Look at the vase near the bottom of the
bookcase. If you fill the vase with water, you increase its
GPE by increasing its mass. If you move the vase to a higher
shelf, you also increase its GPE by increasing its height. The
gravitational potential energy of an object can increase if you
change its mass or move the object higher above the ground.
If two objects are at the same height, then the object with
the greater mass will have more GPE. If two objects have the
same mass, the one that is higher above the ground will have
the greater GPE.
Picture This
What does GPE change into?

Determine As an object
7.
falls, what does its

gravitational potential
energy change to?
(Circle your choice.)
a.
b.
c.
d.
72
chemical energy
kinetic energy
thermal energy
radiant energy
CHAPTER 5 Energy
What would happen if the vase on the top shelf fell? As the
vase falls, it starts moving. It now has both GPE and kinetic
energy. As the vase gets closer to the ground, its GPE decreases.
At the same time, its kinetic energy increases. The GPE changes
into kinetic energy.
Look at the two vases in the figure. If the vase on the top
shelf falls, it will start with more GPE and end with more
kinetic energy when it hits the ground. This is why a vase that
falls from a high shelf is more likely to break than a vase that
falls from a lower shelf.
Reasoning Which
would have a greater GPE,
a feather on a high shelf or
a large book on the next
shelf down? Explain your
reasoning.
6.
After You Read

Mini Glossary
chemical potential energy: energy stored in chemical
bonds
elastic potential energy: energy stored by things that

stretch or shrink
energy: the ability to do work
gravitational potential energy: energy stored by things

that are above Earth
joule: the standard unit for measuring energy
kinetic energy: energy in the form of motion
potential energy: energy stored in a motionless object
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Explain the difference
between kinetic energy and potential energy on the lines below.
2. Complete the chart below. Fill in the first column with the three kinds of potential energy.
Fill in the second column with an example of something that stores each type of
potential energy.
Kinds of Potential Energy
Examples
3. Think about what you have learned. How did you decide what was the main idea of
each paragraph?

and projects to help you learn more about the nature of energy.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
73
chapter
Energy
2
section
Conservation of Energy
What Youll Learn
how energy can be

changed from one
form to another
how energy is
conserved
Before You Read

The motion of objects appears to change all the time. Imagine
a person swinging on a swing. Explain the persons motion
while swinging.
Read to Learn
Highlight the main point in each
paragraph. Highlight in a different color a detail or example that
helps explain the main point.
Changing Forms of Energy

When a vase on a shelf falls to the ground, its potential
energy changes into kinetic energy. Many situations involve
changing energy from one form to another. Some examples
of energy changing form are race cars using fuel for energy,
your body digesting food for energy, and the Sun warming
your skin.
How can electric energy change?

Every day, you use many items that change energy from
one form to another. You are probably reading this page in a
room that is lit by lightbulbs. The lightbulbs transform the
electric energy that they receive into light energy.
Light
energy out
Picture This
1.
Relate Name other items

that change electric energy
into heat.
Thermal
energy out
Electric energy in
74
CHAPTER 5 Energy
The heat you can feel around the bulb lets you know that
some of the electric energy also is changed to thermal energy,
as shown in the figure on the previous page.
How can chemical energy change?

Chemical energy can be changed into kinetic energy. A fuel,
such as gasoline, stores energy in the form of chemical
potential energy. Cars and buses usually run on gasoline. As
shown in the figure, an electric spark causes a small amount
of fuel in the engine to burn. This transforms the chemical
potential energy stored in the gasoline molecules into thermal
energy. The thermal energy heats up gases and they expand.
The expanding gases cause parts of the car to move. The
moving parts have kinetic energy. Chemical energy has been
changed into thermal energy and then into kinetic energy.
Picture This
2.
Spark plug fires
Identify Circle the

moving parts in the figure.
What type of energy is this?
Gases expand
Do all energy changes result in motion?

Not all changes in energy result in motion that can be seen.
Nor do they result in sound, heat, or light. For example, every
green plant changes light energy from the Sun into chemical
energy that is stored in the plant. When you eat an ear of
corn, the chemical potential energy in the corn is transformed
to other forms of energy by your body.
Conversions Between Kinetic and

Potential Energy
Recall that a rubber band has elastic potential energy. When a
stretched rubber band is let go, the potential energy is changed
into kinetic energy. Mechanical energy is the total amount of
potential and kinetic energy in a system. The mechanical energy
of the rubber band is the total of its potential energy and its
kinetic energy at any one time. Mechanical energy is the result
of the position of an object and its motion.
C Collect Information
Make note cards from two halfsheets of paper as shown. Write

on each note card what you learn
about mechanical energy and the
law of conservation of energy.
Mechanical
Energy
Law of
Conservation
of Energy
Reading Essentials
75
Does mechanical energy of an object change?

Explain Does the
mechanical energy of an
object falling from a shelf
change? Explain.
GPE
Kinetic
Mechanical

energy
energy
Look at the apple in the second figure. As it falls, the apple

loses height, so its gravitational potential energy becomes
less. As the velocity of the apple increases, its kinetic energy
increases. The potential energy of the apple is being changed
to kinetic energy. However, the mechanical energy will not
change. The potential energy that the apple loses is being
gained back as kinetic energy. The form of the energy changes,
but the total amount of the energy remains the same.
Picture This
4.
Interpret What do the

arrows in the figures mean?
GPE
Kinetic
Mechanical

energy
energy
This can be explained using the mechanical energy

equation. As one value of the mechanical energy equation
decreases, the other value increases by the same amount.
The sum of the two stays the same. Therefore, the mechanical
energy of an object stays the same.
76
CHAPTER 5 Energy
3.
What happens to the mechanical energy of an object as its

potential energy is transformed into kinetic energy? Look at the
apple in the tree below. It has gravitational potential energy
because Earth is pulling down on it. The apple does not have
kinetic energy while it hangs in the tree. The apples
gravitational potential energy and its mechanical energy
are the same.
How does energy change in projectile motion?

Energy transformations also occur during projectile
motion. During projectile motion, an object moves through
the air in a curved path. Look at the figure below. As the ball
leaves the bat, it has mostly kinetic energy. As the ball rises, its
gravitational potential energy becomes greater, but its kinetic
energy becomes less due to decreasing velocity. As the ball
falls, its gravitational potential energy becomes less, but its
kinetic energy becomes greater due to increasing velocity.
However, the total mechanical energy of the ball does not
change as the ball moves through the air.
Low KE
High GPE
Picture This
High KE
Low GPE
5.
Observe What does the

symbol KE represent in
the figure?
6.
Analyze Why is kinetic
High KE
Low GPE
What happens to energy while swinging?

When you ride on a swing, part of the fun is the way you
feel just as you drop from the highest part of the swings path.
Energy is constantly changing during your ride on a swing.
The push that gets you moving is kinetic energy. As the swing
rises, you lose speed. This means the kinetic energy is changing
into gravitational potential energy. At the top of the path, the
GPE is at its greatest and the kinetic energy is at its lowest. As
the swing starts its downward path and its speed increases, the
GPE changes into kinetic energy. At the bottom of the swings
path, the kinetic energy is at its greatest and the GPE is at its
lowest. As you swing back and forth, kinetic and potential
energy are constantly changing.
energy at its lowest at the

top of the swings path?
The Law of Conservation of Energy

As a batted ball speeds up or slows down, its kinetic and
potential energy are always changing. But the amount of
mechanical energy always stays the same. The kinetic and
potential energy continually change form back and forth, and
no energy is destroyed.
Reading Essentials
77
7.
Explain What does the

law of conservation of
energy state?
All Forms Change Energy can change from one form to

another, but the total amount of energy never changes.
Another way to say this is that energy is conserved. The law of
conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created
or destroyed. This means that the total amount of energy in
the universe is always the same. It just changes from one form
to another.
You might have heard the phrase energy conservation before.
Conserving energy means reducing the need for energy so we
use fewer energy resources such as coal and oil. This is not the
same as the law of conservation of energy. The law of
conservation of energy describes what happens to energy as it
is changed, or transferred, from one object to another.
Is energy always conserved?

There are times when it seems that energy is not conserved.
For example, when you are coasting along a flat road on a
bicycle, you eventually stop if you dont pedal. If energy is
conserved, why wouldnt your kinetic energy stay the same so
you could keep coasting forever? It might appear that energy is
destroyed when you slow down and come to a stop. Sometimes
is it hard to see the law of conservation of energy at work.
8.
Describe how energy is

conserved when a bicycle
coasts to a stop.
Suppose you are swinging on a swing. If you stop pumping

and no one is pushing you, you will soon stop swinging.
It would seem that the mechanical (kinetic and potential)
energy of the swing is lost. Wouldnt this go against the law
of conservation of energy?
If the energy of the swing decreases, then the energy of
some other object must increase by the same amount. What
object has an energy increase? With every motion, the swings
ropes or chains rub on their hooks, and air pushes on the
rider. Friction and air resistance cause the temperature of the
hooks and air to increase a little. The mechanical energy is
not destroyed. It is changed into thermal energy. So, the total
amount of energy stays the sameit just changes form.
Where does the Sun get its energy?

Have you ever wondered how the Sun gives off enough
energy to light and warm Earth? The Sun and other stars have
a special way of changing their energy. It is called nuclear
fusion. Nuclear fusion is the reaction that takes place when
nuclei join together. Nuclear fusion uses the law of
conservation of energy when it changes the potential energy of
a small amount of mass into a huge amount of energy.
78
CHAPTER 5 Energy
How does friction affect energy?
What is nuclear fission?
Another way to change a small amount of mass into a huge

amount of energy is through nuclear fission. Both nuclear
fusion and nuclear fission involve the nuclei of matter. In
nuclear fusion, the nuclei are fused, or joined. The nuclei are
not fused in nuclear fission. They are broken apart. In either
process, fusion or fission, mass is changed into energy. In
both processes, the total amount of energy is conserved if the
energy content of the masses used are included. Nuclear fission
is how nuclear power plants produce energy. The figure below
shows nuclear fission. In both nuclear fusion and nuclear
fission, mass is changed into energy. In nuclear fission, the
mass of the large nucleus on the left is greater than the
combined mass of the other two nuclei and the neutrons. But
once again, the total amount of mass and energy does not
change during these reactions.
9.
Compare and
contrast nuclear fusion
and nuclear fission.
Radiant
energy
The Human BodyBalancing the

Energy Equation
With your right hand, reach up and feel your left shoulder.
With that simple move, stored potential energy in your body
is changed to kinetic energy when you move your arm. Does
your shoulder feel warm? Some of the stored chemical potential
energy also is being used to keep your body at about the same
temperature. Do you feel warmer if someone wraps their
arms around you? Some of the bodys potential energy is
changed into heat that the body gives off to its surroundings.
Picture This
10.
Determine How can

you determine that this
figure models fission, not
fusion?
How does your body store and use energy?

The law of conservation of energy applies to the chemical
and physical changes that are going on in your body. Your
body stores potential energy in the form of fat and other
chemical compounds. This chemical potential energy is the
fuel for processes such as the beating of your heart, digesting
of food, and moving muscles.
Reading Essentials
79
What are food Calories?

The potential energy stored in your body comes from the
food you eat. Your body breaks down the food you eat into
molecules that can be used as fuel. The chemical potential
energy in these molecules supplies the cells of your body with
the energy they need to function. Your body also can use the
chemical potential energy stored in fat for its energy needs.
The food Calorie (C) is a unit nutritionists use to measure
how much energy you get from different foods. One Calorie
is equal to about 4,184 J. These Calories produce the energy
needed by your body. Look at the labels on food packages.
They provide information about the Calories contained in a
serving, as well as the amount of protein, fat, and carbohydrates.
To maintain a healthy weight, you must have a proper balance
between the food you eat and the energy your body uses.
The table below shows the amount of energy used in doing
various activities.
Applying Math
Calories Used in One Hour
Displaying Data On
the graph below, make a
bar graph comparing the
number of calories used by
a medium-framed person
for the following activities:
standing, walking, playing
tennis, and bicycling.
Calories Used in One Hour
700
Type of Activity
Body Frames
Small
Medium
Large
Sleeping
48
56
64
Sitting
72
84
96
Eating
84
98
112
Standing
96
112
123
Walking
180
210
240
Playing tennis
380
420
460
Bicycling (fast)
500
600
700
Running
700
850
1,000
Calories
600
500
400
300
200
100
Standing Walking Playing Bicycling
tennis (fast)
Activity
80
CHAPTER 5 Energy
11.
After You Read

Mini Glossary
law of conservation of energy: energy may change from
one form to another, but the total amount of energy never
changes
mechanical energy: the total amount of potential and

kinetic energy in a system
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Describe a real-world
example in which the amount of potential and kinetic energy change, but the total
amount of mechanical energy stays the same.
2. In this section, you learned that chemical potential energy can be changed in the human
body. Complete the chart below by naming three processes in the body that are fueled by
chemical potential energy.
The Human Body
3. Think about what you have learned. How did highlighting the main points and details or
examples help you learn the new material?

projects to help you learn more about the conservation of energy.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
81
Work
and
Machines
6
chapter
1
section
Work
What Youll Learn
about work
how work and energy
are related
how to calculate work
and power
Before You Read

Name two things in your life that require work. Name two
things in your life that require power.
Read to Learn
Selective Underlining As
you read this section, underline
the key idea in each paragraph.
What is work?
When people talk about work, they might mean doing a
job, earning money, or using a computer. But scientists have a
different definition of work. Work is the energy transferred
when a force makes an object move.
Press your hand into the surface of your desk as hard
as you can. Are you doing work? No, because you are not
making the desk move. For work to be done, a force has to
cause something to move. If you push against the desk and
nothing moves, then you havent done any work.
What does motion have to do with work?
1.
82
Identify What two

things have to happen for
work to be done?
CHAPTER 6 Work and Machines
In order for work to be done on an object, two things have

to happen. One is that the applied force must make the object
move. The second is that the object must move in the
direction of the applied force.
When you pick up a stack of books, you are doing work.
Your arms apply a force upward, and the books move upward
in the direction of the force. But if you hold the books in
your arms without moving them, your arms are not doing
work. You are still applying an upward force to keep the
books from falling, but since the books are not moving, no
work is being done.
How do you know if you are doing work?
How is direction related to work?

If you hold a stack of books in your arms and begin to walk
forward, are your arms doing work? Your arms may get tired,
but they are not doing work. The upward force exerted by
your arms is not causing the book to move forward. The force
exerted by your arms is upward, but the books are moving
horizontally.
A Organize Make the
following Foldable to define,

explain, and calculate ideas
about work and power.
Work
Work and Energy
When work is done, a transfer of energy always occurs.

Remember that when an objects height above Earths surface
increases, its potential energy increases. So when you carry an
object up a flight of stairs, you are transferring chemical energy
from your muscles to the object. You also are increasing the
objects gravitational potential energy by increasing its height.
Recall that energy is the ability to cause change. Energy also is
the ability to do work. One object can transfer energy to a
second object. When work is done, energy is transferred from
one object to another. If you carry boxes up some stairs, as
shown in the figure below, you do work on the boxes. You
increase their potential energy. Energy is always transferred from
the object that is doing the work to the object on which the
work is done.
Power
Picture This
2.
Energy is transferred
to the boxes.
Energy increases with

the boxes' height above
Earth's surface.
Draw and Label Fill in

the blanks in the figure with
the types of energy changes
occuring as the person
carries the box up the stairs.
How is work calculated?

The amount of work done depends on the amount of force
exerted and the distance over which force is applied. The
amount of work done can be calculated as follows:
work (in joules) applied force (in newtons) distance (in meters)
W Fd
Work, like energy, is measured in joules (J).
Reading Essentials
83
When is work done?

Suppose you push a book along a table. You push the book
for only a few centimeters, but the book keeps moving for a
distance of 1 m abefore coming to a stop. How do you
calculate the work done? The distance you use to calculate the
work you did is how far the book moved while you were
applying force to it. In this case, the distance was a few
centimeters. The distance in the work equation is only the
distance an object moves while force is being applied to the
object.
Power
Suppose you and a friend want to see who can push a box
of books up a ramp more quickly. Each box of books weighs
the same. Both of you push your box the same distance, but
your friend pushes her box faster than you do. You both do
the same amount of work on the boxes because the force and
the distance are the same. The only difference is how long it
takes to do the work. Your friend has more power than you
because she can do the work faster than you can. Power is the
amount of work done in one second. It is the rate at which
work is done.
How is power calculated?

3.
Calculate Suppose you

push a box of books up a
10-meter ramp. You apply a
force of 10 newtons, and it
takes you 20 seconds to
push the box.
a) Use the work equation
to calculate how much
work is done pushing
the box.
To calculate power, divide the amount of work done by the

time it takes to do the work. Below is the power equation:
work (in joules)

power (in watts)
time (in seconds)
W
P t
The SI unit for power is the watt (W). One watt equals
one joule of work done in one second. Because the watt is a
very small unit, power usually is given in kilowatts. One
kilowatt (KW) equals 1,000 W.
To find the power of a machine that can do 5,000 joules of
work in 20 seconds, use the power equation.
W
b) Use the power

equation to calculate
how much power you
used.
P t
5000 joules

P
20 seconds
P 250 watts
The power of the machine is 250 W.
84
Applying Math
How is power related to energy?

Doing work is a way of transferring energy from one object
to another. Power is the rate at which work is done. Power
also is the rate at which energy is transferred. You can find the
power involved in an energy transfer by dividing the energy
transferred by the time needed for the energy transfer to
occur.
Applying Math
4.
energy transferred (in joules)
power (in watts)

time (in seconds)
E
P t
Calculate Suppose a
lightbulb changes electrical
energy into light and heat
at a rate of 100 J in 2 s. How
many watts of power does
the lightbulb have? Show
your work below.
When the lightbulb in the figure below is connected to an

electric circuit, energy is transferred from the circuit to the
lightbulb filament. The filament turns the electrical energy
into heat and light. The power used by the lightbulb is the
amount of electrical energy transferred to the lightbulb each
second.
This lightbulb changes electrical energy into light at a rate
of 100 J/s. You can calculate the power of this lightbulb using
the power equation.
E
P t
100 joules

P
1 second
P 100 watts
Picture This
5.
The power of this lightbulb is 100 W.
Identify Use a
highlighter to trace the
transfer of energy from the
plug to the lightbulb. Circle
the place where electrical
energy is being converted
into heat and light energy.
Reading Essentials
85
After You Read

Mini Glossary
power: the amount of work done in one second
work: the energy transferred when a force makes an object

move
1. Review the terms in the Mini Glossary above. Use the terms to explain a real-world
situation involving work and power.
2. Complete the chart below to organize the equations you learned in this section.
How to Calculate
Power
3. As you read, you underlined the key idea in each paragraph. How did underlining the text
help you understand or remember what you learned?
End of
Section
86

and projects to help you learn more about work.
Work
Work
and
Machines
6
chapter
2
section
Using Machines
Before You Read

Name one machine that you used in the past week. How did
this machine make doing work easier for you?
Read to Learn
What Youll Learn
how machines make

work easier
how to calculate the
mechanical advantage
and efficiency of a
machine
Study Coach
Main IdeaDetail Notes
What is a machine?
A machine is a device that makes doing work easier. When

you think of a machine, you may think of an engine with
many moving parts. But machines can be simple. Some
simple machines that make work easier are knives, scissors,
and doorknobs.
Take notes as you read. Make

a page with two columns for
taking notes. In the left column,
list main ideas about machines.
List details or examples that
support the main ideas in the
right column.
Making Work Easier

Machines make work easier in several ways. Machines can
increase the force on an object. For example, a screwdriver
increases the force you apply to turn a screw. Machines also
can increase the distance over which a force is applied, as in a
leaf rake. Other machines make work easier by changing the
direction of an applied force. A pulley changes a downward
force to an upward force.
How do machines increase force?

A car jack is a machine that increases an applied force.
When you use a car jack, you apply a downward force to the
handle. The upward force exerted by the jack is greater than
the downward force you exert on the handle. However, the
distance that you push the handle downward is greater than
the distance the car is pushed upward. Look at the figure at
the top of the next page.
Reading Essentials
87
Picture This
1.
Infer Look at the picture.

Color the arrow for the
distance the jack is pushed.
Use blue to color the arrow
for the distance the car
moves. Why is one arrow
longer than the other?
Your
force
Force
exerted
by jack
Distance
jack
moves
Distance
you push
PhotoEdit
The work done by the jack above is not greater than the
work you do on the jack. The jack increases the applied force,
but it doesnt increase the work done.
How does distance affect force?
How do machines change the direction of force?

2.
Describe an example of
work that is made easier by
increasing distance.
Some machines change the direction of the force you apply.

The force exerted by the jack on the car is upward. The direction
of the downward force on the jack handle is changed to upward.
An ax has a wedge-shaped blade that changes the direction of
the force in another way. When you use an ax to split wood, you
exert a downward force. The blade changes the downward force
into a horizontal force that splits the wood apart.
The Work Done by Machines

When you use a machine, you are moving an object that
resists being moved. For example, you can use a crowbar to
pry the lid off a wooden crate. You slip the end of the crowbar
under the edge of the crate lid and push down on the handle.
When you move the handle downward, you do work on the
crowbar. As the crowbar moves, it does work on the lid, lifting
it up. The crowbar increases the amount of force being
applied and changes the direction of the force.
88
Pushing heavy furniture up a ramp is easier than lifting it

directly into a truck. Using a ramp is easier because less force is
needed to move the furniture. The work done in lifting an
object depends on the change in height of the object. The
ramp increases the distance the object is moved on its way to
the truck. If the amount of work stays the same and the
distance is increased, less force is needed to do the work.
Friction and Gravity When you use a crowbar, you are

working against the friction between the nails in the lid and
the crate. If you used a crowbar to move a large rock, you
would be working against gravitythe weight of the rock.
What are input forces and output forces?

Even though machines make work easier, they do not
decrease the amount of work to be done. Instead, a machine
changes the way in which you do the work. Two forces are
involved when a machine is used to do work. A force is
exerted on the machine, and the machine exerts a force on
the object.
Think of the work involved in prying open the wooden
crate. You exert a force on the crowbar. Input force is the
force that is applied to the machine. Fin stands for the input
force.
Then the crowbar did work on the lid. Output force is the
force applied by the machine. Fout stands for the output force.
In the figure below, a claw hammer is used to pry a nail
out of wood. An input force is applied to the hammer. The
hammer applies an output force to pull the nail out.
Picture This
3.
Draw and Label Mark
the input force with Fin and

the output force with Fout .
What are input work and output work?

There are two types of work involved when you use a
machine. One type of work is done by you on the machine.
The other type of work is done by the machine. You do work
when you apply force to the crowbar. This is called the input
work. Win stands for the input work. The work done by the
machine is called output work. Wout stands for the
output work.
4.
Compare What is the

difference between input
work and output work?
Reading Essentials
89
How do machines transfer energy?
5.
Explain With a real

machine, why is Wout
always smaller than Win?
You learned that energy is always conserved. It cannot be

created or destroyed. It always stays the same. When you do
work on a machine, you transfer your energy to the machine.
When the machine does work on an object, its energy is
transferred to the object. The amount of energy the machine
transfers cannot be greater than the amount of energy you
transfer to it. So, Wout is never greater than Win.
However, a machine does not transfer all of its energy to
the object. Some of the energy changes to thermal energy
because of friction. The thermal energy cannot be used to do
work. So, Wout is always smaller than Win.
What is an ideal machine?

Remember that work is calculated by multiplying force by
distance. The input work is the product of the input force and
the distance over which it is applied. The output work is the
product of the output force and the distance it is applied.
Suppose you could build a perfect machineone with no
friction. None of the input work or output work would be
converted to thermal energy. In this ideal machine, the input
work would equal the output work. So, for an ideal machine:
B Organize Equations
Make the following note cards

from quarter-sheets of notebook
paper. Take notes on how to
perform the calculations in this
section.
Calculate
Mechanical
Advantage
Calculate
Efficiency
What happens when you use a machine that increases the

force applied to itlike using a hammer to pull out a nail? If
you apply more force, the output force (Fout) would be greater
than the input force (Fin ). If Fout is greater than Fin, then Win
and Wout can be equal only if the input force is applied over a
greater distance.
Mechanical Advantage
Machines such as the car jack, the ramp, the crowbar,
and the claw hammer make work easier by making the
output force greater than the input force. The ratio of the
output force to the input force is called the mechanical
advantage of the machine. The mechanical advantage (MA)
of a machine can be calculated with the following equation.
output force (in newtons)
mechanical advantage

input force (in newtons)
Fout
MA F
in
90
Win = Wout
Ideal Mechanical Advantage The mechanical advantage of

a machine without friction is called the ideal mechanical
advantage, or IMA. The IMA can be calculated by dividing
the input distance by the output distance.
Applying Math
6.
Determine What is the

MA of a machine that has an
Fout equal to its Fin? Explain.
Efficiency
Some of the energy put into a real machine is changed into
thermal energy by friction. For this reason, the output work of
a machine is always less than the work put into it. Efficiency is
a measure of how much of the work put into a machine is
changed into useful output work by the machine. A high-efficiency machine produces less thermal energy from friction, so
more of the input work is changed to useful output work.
How is efficiency calculated?

To calculate the efficiency of a machine, divide the output
work by the input work. Efficiency is written as a percentage.
output work (in joules)
input work (in joules)
efficiency (%) = 100%

Wout
100%
efficiency
W
in
You can calculate the efficiency of a machine with Win of 50

joules and Wout of 40 joules.
40 J
efficiency (%) = 5

100%
0J
40 J
0.8 100% 80%
50 J
The efficiency of the machine is 80 percent.

An ideal machine does not produce friction, the output work
equals the input work. The efficiency of an ideal machine is 100
percent. Since a real machine does produce friction, the output
work is less than the input work. Therefore, the efficiency of a
real machine is always less than 100 percent.
How can machines be made more efficient?

Machines can be made more efficient by reducing friction.
Adding oil or grease to the surfaces that rub together fills the
gaps between the surfaces. This allows the surfaces to slide
across each other more easily.
7.
Analyze Explain to a
classmate how oil makes a
machine more efficient.
Reading Essentials
91
After You Read

Mini Glossary
efficiency: measure of how much work put into a machine is
changed into useful output by the machine
input force: the force that is applied to a machine
machine: a device that makes doing work easier
mechanical advantage: the ratio of the output force to the

input force
output force: the force applied by a machine
1. Review the terms in the Mini Glossary. Write one sentence using the terms input force and
output force.
2. Complete the chart below to organize information about the three ways machines make
work easier.
3. How did writing notes about the main ideas and details in two columns help you learn?
End of
Section
92

and projects to help you learn more about using machines.
How Machines Make Work Easier
Work
and
Machines
6
chapter
3
section
Simple Machines
Before You Read

Imagine you have to lift a heavy piano up to a third-story
window. Describe two things you could do that would make it
easier to lift the piano.
Read to Learn
Types of Simple Machines

You use a simple machine when you cut your food with a
knife. A screwdriver is also a simple machine. A simple machine
is a machine that does work with only one movement of the
machine. There are six types of simple machines: lever, pulley,
wheel and axle, inclined plane, screw, and wedge. The pulley
and the wheel and axle are levers that have been changed. The
screw and wedge are both forms of an inclined plane.
What Youll Learn
about six types of

simple machines
how simple machines
make work easier
ideal mechanical
advantage of simple
machines
Study Coach
KWL Chart Make three

columns on your paper. Label
the columns: Know, Want to
Know, and Learned. List what you
already know about simple
machines in the first
column. List what you want to
know in the second column. As
you read this section, list the new
things you learn.
Levers
A wheelbarrow, lawn rake, and baseball bat are all examples
of levers. A lever is a bar that is free to pivot, or turn around, a
fixed point. The fixed point is called the fulcrum.
A lever has an input and an output arm. The input arm is the
distance from the fulcrum to the point where the input force is
applied. The output arm is the distance from the fulcrum to the
point where the lever exerts the output force. The output force
can be larger or smaller than the input force depending on how
the distance from one end of the bar to the fulcrum changes.
C Vocabulary Make the
following vocabulary Foldable

to define the six types of simple
machines.
r
Leve
Pulle
What are the three classes of levers?

The class of a lever is based on the location of the fulcrum,
the input force, and the output force. All lever fall in one of
three classes.
Axle
el and
Whe
d Plan
Incline
Screw
Wedge
Reading Essentials
93
Picture This
1.
Draw and Label A pair

of scissors is a first-class
lever. Draw a pair of scissors
in the space below and
label the input force,
output force, and fulcrum.
First-Class Lever The figure below shows a first-class lever.

The fulcrum is located between the input and output forces.
In a first-class lever, the output force is always in the
opposite direction to the input force. If there is a downward
input force, then the output force moves upward. A crowbar,
a pair of scissors, and a seesaw are all first-class levers.
Input
force
Output
force
Fulcrum
Second-Class Lever For a second-class lever, shown in the

figure below, the output force is between the input force and
the fulcrum. Both the input force and the output force move
in the same direction. A wheelbarrow is an example of a second-class lever. When you pick up the handles, you apply an
input force. The wheel is the fulcrum.
Output
force
Third-Class Lever In a third-class lever, shown in the

figure below, the output force is farther away from the fulcrum than the input force. The output force is always less
than the input force in a third-class lever. A baseball bat is a
third-class lever. A right-handed batter applies the input force
with the right hand. The left hand is the fulcrum. The output
force is exerted by the bat above the right hand. A third-class
lever increases the distance over which the output force is
applied.
Output
force
2.
Determine A hockey
stick is a third-class lever
similar to a baseball bat.
You hold a hockey stick
near the top of the stick.
Where is the output force
exerted?
Fulcrum
Input
force
How is the IMA of a lever calculated?

To calculate the ideal mechanical advantage (IMA) of any
machine, divide the input distance by the output distance. For
a lever, the input distance is the length of the input arm. The
output distance is the length of the output arm.
length of the input arm (m)
ideal mechanical advantage length of the output arm (m)

L in

IMA
L
out
94
Input
force
Fulcrum
Pulleys
To raise a sail, a sailor pulls down on a rope. The rope uses
a simple machine to change the direction of the input force.
The machine is called a pulley. A pulley is a grooved wheel
with a rope, chain, or cable running along the groove. There
are two types of pulleys: fixed and movable. Both are shown
in the figure below. There are also systems of fixed and
movable pulleys.
What is a fixed pulley?

A fixed pulley is a modified first-class lever that does not
move and changes only the direction of force, as shown below.
Fixed pulleys, such on a sailboat or a flagpole, are attached to
an unmovable structure above the input force. When the cord
is pulled down, an object goes up.
An elevator uses a fixed pulley. The cable goes over the fixed
pulley at the top of the elevator shaft. When the cable is pulled
downward, it lifts the elevator upward. A fixed pulley does not
change the amount of force exerted or the distance over which
the force is exerted. It changes only the direction of the input
force. The input and output forces remain the same. Remember,
since these forces are equal, the IMA of a fixed pulley is 1.
3.
What is a movable pulley?

In a movable pulley, one end of the rope is fixed and the
wheel is free to move, as shown below. The movable pulley
doesnt change the direction of a force. It does, however,
decrease the amount of input force needed to lift the object.
Suppose a 4-N weight is hung from a movable pulley. The
rope is attached to the ceiling. The ceiling acts like someone
helping you lift the object. The part of the rope attached to
the ceiling will support half of the weight. You only need to
exert enough force to lift the other half of the weight. Both
you and the ceiling exert 2 N of force. Since you exert 2 N, but
the total output force lifting the weight is 4 N, the mechanical
advantage of a movable pulley is 2.
Explain How does a

fixed pulley affect the input
force?
Picture This
4.
Observe In the diagrams

of a fixed pulley and a
moveable pulley, what do
the arrows represent?
Fixed pulley
Movable pulley
Reading Essentials
95
What is a block and tackle?

A block and tackle is a system of fixed and movable pulleys
used together. The figure below shows one fixed and one
movable pulley. This system changes the direction of the force
and decreases the input force needed to lift the object. The more
sections of the rope a system uses to pull up an object, the
greater the output force. If you have three sections of rope
pulling on the object, as in the figure below, the output is three
times the input force. The IMA of a pulley system is equal to the
number of sections of rope pulling up on the object.
Picture This
5.
Draw and Label On

the diagram of a pulley
system, label the fixed
pulley and the movable
pulley.
Pulley system
Could you turn a doorknob if it were the shape of a pencil? A

doorknob makes it easier to open a door because of a machine
called a wheel and axle. A wheel and axle is a simple machine
consisting of a shaft, or axle, attached to the center of a larger
wheel so that wheel and axle rotate together. The wheel and axle
are both circular objects of different sizes. The larger object is
the wheel and the smaller object is the axle. In some devices,
such as a doorknob, the input force is used to turn the wheel.
The axle exerts the output force.
What is the IMA of a wheel and axle?

6.
Identify a wheel and axle

other than a doorknob that
you used today.
A wheel and axle is another modified lever. In a wheel and

axle, such as a doorknob, the center of the axle is the fulcrum.
The input force is applied to the rim of the wheel. The length
of the input arm is the radius of the wheel. The output force is
exerted at the rim of the axle. The length of the output arm is
the radius of the axle. To calculate the IMA of a wheel and
axle, use this equation.
radius of the wheel (m)
ideal mechanical advantage

radius of axle (m)
rw
IMA r
a
The ideal mechanical advantage of a wheel and axle can be

increased by increasing the radius of the wheel.
96
Wheel and Axle
How do gears work?

A gear is a wheel and axle with the wheel having teeth
around its rim. When the teeth of two gears come together,
one gear makes the other gear turn. The figure below shows
that when two gears of different sizes come together, they
turn at different speeds. Each time the larger gear turns once,
it causes the smaller gear to turn more than one time.
Picture This
7.
Predict What direction

would the smaller gear turn
if you turned the larger
gear clockwise?
If the input force is applied to the larger gear, the output

force of the smaller gear is less than the input force. Gears
also may change the direction of the force. When the larger
gear in the figure turns counterclockwise, the smaller gear
turns clockwise.
Inclined Planes
An inclined plane is a sloping surface, such as a ramp, that
reduces the amount of force required to do work. On a
mountain, the road acting as an inclined plane and zigzags to
the top, making the work of getting up the mountain easier.
How does an inclined plane make work easier?

You do the same work by lifting a box straight up or by
pushing it up an inclined plane. When you push a box up an
inclined plane, the input force is applied over a longer
distance. It takes less input force to push the box up the ramp
than it takes to lift the box straight up. To calculate the
mechanical advantage of an inclined plane, use this equation.
length of slope (m)
ideal mechanical advantage

height of slope (m)
Applying Math
8.
Draw and Label The

ramp used to load bags
onto an airplane is 15 m
long, and the height of its
slope is 3 m. In the box
below, draw and label the
inclined plane described.
IMA h
To increase the IMA of an inclined plane of a given height, the
plane is made longer. The screw and the wedge are forms of
the inclined plane. In both the inclined plane moves and the
object stays still.
Reading Essentials
97
The Screw
9.
Describe What holds a

screw in place?
A screw is an inclined plane wrapped in a spiral around a

cylindrical post. The inclined plane forms the threads on the
screw. The threads change the input force to an output force
that pulls the screw into the material. Friction between the
threads and the material holds the screw tightly in place. Some
examples of screws are jar lids, corkscrews, drill bits, and
lightbulbs.
The ideal mechanical advantage of a screw depends on the
length of the plane. The longer the plane, the closer the
spacing of the threads. Therefore, the IMA is greater if the
threads are close together. You have to turn the screw more
times to drive it into the object, but you use less force.
The Wedge
A wedge is an inclined plane with one or two sloping sides.
It changes the direction of the input force. A wedge is a screw
because the inclined plane moves through the object. A knife
is a wedge. The sharp edge slopes outward at both sides to
form an inclined plane. When you cut an apple, the downward input force of the knife is changed to a horizontal
output force pushing the apple apart.
Some machines that you use are made up of several simple

machines. A compound machine is two or more simple
machines that operate together. The can opener shown below is
an example of a compound machine. To open a can, you first
squeeze the opener handles together. The handles act as levers.
They increase the force applied on a wedge. The wedge pierces
the can. Then you turn the wheel and axle to open the can.
Picture This
10.
Wheel and axle
List What three types of

machines make up a
can opener?
Wedge
98
Lever
Compound Machines
After You Read

Mini Glossary
compound machine: two or more simple machines that
operate together
inclined plane: a sloping surface that reduces the amount of
force required to do work
lever: a bar that is free to pivot or turn around a fixed point
pulley: a grooved wheel with a rope, chain, or cable running
along the groove
screw: an inclined plane wrapped in a spiral around a

cylindrical post
simple machine: a machine that does work with only one

movement of the machine
wedge: an inclined plane with one or two sloping sides
wheel and axle: a simple machine consisting of a shaft, or
axle, attached to the center of a larger wheel so that the
wheel and axle rotate together.
1. Review the items in the Mini Glossary above. Two of the terms are modified inclined
planes. Describe how one of them might be used in a real-life situation.
2. Use the chart to fill in the six types of simple machines you learned about in this section.
Types of Simple
Machines
3. Look back at the Know, Want to Know, and Learned chart you made at the beginning of
this section. How did making this chart help you learn about simple machines?

and projects to help you learn more about simple machines.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
99
The
Earth-Moon-Sun
System
7
chapter
Earth in Space
Before You Read
What Youll Learn
about Earths
characteristics
about Earths magnetic
field
how Earth moves
through space
Have you seen pictures of Earth taken from space? Describe

how Earth looks from space.
Read to Learn
Study Coach
Outline Make an outline, with

a main idea and details, as you
read the parts of this section.
Earths Size and Shape

Ancient astronomers thought that Earth was a sphere. A
sphere is a round, three-dimensional object with a surface
that is the same distance from the center in all directions.
Aristotle was an early astronomer who made three important
observations about Earths shape. He saw that objects fall
straight down and that Earths shadow on the Moon is
curved. Finally, he learned that in different parts of the world
the same stars appear at different heights above the horizon.
These three things could happen only if Earth is a sphere.
What is everyday evidence of Earths shape?
A Gather Information

help you organize what you
learn about Earths properties of
size, shape, magnetic field and
life on the planet.
100
size
shape
magnetic
field
life
Pictures taken from space show that Earth is a sphere. You

have probably noticed other evidence that confirms Earths
shape. For example, if you drive toward a city, first you see
the tops of tall buildings. As you drive closer, the buildings
gradually appear to you from the top down because Earth is
curved.
Gravity helped to shape Earth. Gravity is the attractive force
between two objects that depends on the masses of the objects
and the distance between them. Astronomers think Earth
formed by the collection of falling objects toward a central
mass. In the shape of a sphere, the pull of gravity toward the
center of a planet is the same in all directions.
CHAPTER 7 The Earth-Moon-Sun System
1
section
Earths Magnetic Field

Earth has a magnetic field that protects us from harmful
radiation from the Sun. Scientists think that the motion of
Earths rotation on its axis creates a strong magnetic field
around the planet, as shown in the figure below. Earths
magnetic field is like the magnetic field around a bar magnet.
The planets magnetic field is concentrated at two ends of an
imaginary magnetic axis. This axis runs from Earths north
magnetic pole to its south magnetic pole. Earths magnetic
axis is tilted about 11.5 from the planets geographic axis of
rotation.
N
Van Allen belts
Picture This
1.
Identify Mark the two

points where Earths
magnetic field is most
concentrated.
2.
Describe What causes

atoms in the outer
atmosphere to give off light?
Magnetic axis
What are wandering poles?

The location of the planets magnetic poles changes slowly
over time. The magnetic poles move around the rotational
poles in an irregular way. These large-scale movements of the
poles are called polar wandering. Scientists think the poles
wander because of movements in Earths crust and mantle.
What causes the aurora?

Within Earths magnetic field is an area called the
magnetosphere. It deflects harmful radiation, called solar
wind, coming from the Sun. Some of the particles that are
deflected produce other charged particles in Earths outer
atmosphere. These charged particles flow along Earths
magnetic field toward Earths magnetic poles. At the poles, the
charged particles collide with atoms in the atmosphere,
causing the atoms to give off light. The lights are called the
aurora borealis (northern lights) in the northern hemisphere
and the aurora australis (southern lights) in the southern
hemisphere.
Reading Essentials
101
Earth Orbits the Sun

Earth orbits the Sun at an average distance of 149,600,000 km.
Its orbit, like those of all the planets, moons, asteroids, and
many comets, is shaped like an ellipse. An ellipse is an
elongated, closed curve with two foci. The Sun is not located
at the center of the ellipse, but at one of its two foci. For this
reason, the distance from Earth to the Sun varies during the
year. Earth is closest to the Sunabout 147 million km
awayaround January 3. It is farthest from the Sunabout
152 million km awayaround July 4 of each year.
Explain Why does the
distance between Earth
and the Sun differ during
the year?
How is Earth different from other planets?

Earth is a planet, just like Venus, Mars, and Jupiter. Yet
Earth has characteristics that make it possible for life as we
know it to exist.
Earth and Venus Earth looks more like Venus than any
other planet. Earth and Venus are about the same size. Both
planets have carbon dioxide in their atmosphere, although
Venus has far more of this gas than does Earth. Earths oceans
absorbed much of the carbon dioxide in its early atmosphere.
Venuss atmosphere is very dense. On Venus, the pressure at
the surface is the same as it is at the depth of 900 m in Earths
oceans.
Venus and Earth have different surface temperatures. On
Earth, you can walk outside and feel how cold or hot it is. On
Venus, the temperature is over 450C. Such high temperatures
result from the large amount of carbon dioxide in Venuss
atmosphere. Carbon dioxide traps heat in the atmosphere of a
planet and keeps it from escaping.
4.
Predict What might

happen to conditions
on Earth if more carbon
dioxide accumulates in
Earths atmosphere?
Earth and Mars The planet Mars is almost half the size of
Earth. However, its surface gravitational pull is less than
two-fifths that of Earths. Even so, conditions on Mars are more
like those on Earth than any other planet in the solar system.
There may even be frozen water near the surface of Mars.
Earth and Mercury The planet Mercury is very different
from Earth. It has no atmosphere and is covered by craters,
like our Moon.
102
3.
After You Read

Mini Glossary
ellipse: an elongated, closed curve with two foci
gravity: the attractive force between two objects that
sphere: a round, three-dimensional object whose surface is the

same distance from the center in all directions
depends on the masses of the objects and the distance

between them
1. Explain how a sphere is different from an ellipse.
2. Use the Venn diagram to show how Earth is the same as and different from Venus.
Earth
Both
Venus
3. How did using an outline help you organize and understand the material in this section?

and projects to help you learn more about Earth and the planets.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
103
The
Earth-Moon-Sun
System
7
chapter
Time and Seasons

Before You Read
What Youll Learn
how to calculate time

and date in different
time zones
how to distinguish
rotation and revolution
what causes seasons
Have you ever had or heard of jet lag? People get tired when
they travel long distances to different time zones. Why do you
think people get jet lag?
Read to Learn
Study Coach
Summarize As you read

each part of this section, write a
short summary of its main
points.
Measuring Time on Earth

The position of the Sun in the sky can help you determine
the approximate time of day. When the Sun reaches its
highest point in the sky overhead, it is around noon. People
have long used the movements of the Earth, the Moon, and
the Sun to measure time.
Around 3,000 B.C., the Babylonians developed a time-keeping
method. They saw that the Sun seemed to take a circular path
around Earth. So, based on their number system of 60, they
divided this circle into 360 parts. The parts are called degrees
( is the degree symbol).
How does Earths turning affect time

measurement?
B Ask Questions Make
the following Foldable to help

you organize the information
about how Earths movements
affect time and the seasons.
Time
104
Seasons
Earth makes one complete turn on its axis in about 24

hours. This movement is used to keep track of time. The
turning Earth makes the Sun appear to move from east to
west across the sky. The time from noon one day until noon
the next day is 24 hours.
Because Earth spins 360 in 24 hours, it spins 15 every hour.
This led people to set up time zones. A time zone is a 15-wide
area of Earth where the time is the same. Ideally, time zones
should all be equal in size. However, in places around cities or
country borders, the time zone line is adjusted for convenience.
2
section
What is the date line?

There is one problem with dropping back one hour for
each time zone. Eventually, you would come around to your
starting point and it would be 24 hours earlier. It cannot be
two different days at the same spot. To solve this problem, a
day is added to the time at a place called the International
Date Line. If it is Monday to the east of the line, then it is
Tuesday to the west. For convenience, the International Date
Line is drawn through a largely empty region of the Pacific
Ocean, but directly opposite the Prime Meridian.
The Prime Meridian is the imaginary line that passes
through Greenwich, England. Time based on these lines is
called Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). In some areas, time
is modified in summer to have more hours of evening sunlight.
This modification of time is called Daylight Savings Time.
1.
Infer If it is Saturday west

of the date line, what day is
it east of the date line?
How is Earths rotation used to measure days?

Earth turning on its axis allows people to measure the hours
of the day. Rotation is the spinning of Earth on its axis, which
is an imaginary line drawn through Earth from its rotational
north pole to its rotational south pole, as shown in the figure
below. As Earth rotates, the Sun appears to rise in the east and
set in the west.
Axis
Picture This
Rot
2.
atio
Draw and Label Draw

a vertical axis through
Earth. Label the angular
difference between Earths
current axis and vertical.
The rotation of Earth causes this apparent movement of

the Sun. The period from noon one day until noon the next
day is called a solar day. A solar day is a bit longer than the
time it takes Earth to rotate on its axis. This difference is due
to Earths changing orbit around the Sun, which makes the
Sun appear to move slightly east each day.
If, instead of using the Sun, you measured a day by the time
a certain star rises above the horizon until it rises again, the day
would be a bit shorter. This is called a sidereal day. It is a more
accurate measure of the time it takes Earth to rotate on its axis.
Reading Essentials
105
How does Earths revolution measure years?
3.
Identify By what motion

of Earth do people measure
years?
The motion of Earth around the Sun allows people to

measure years. Revolution is the motion of Earth in its
orbit around the Sun. As Earth revolves around the Sun, the
Sun appears to move through the sky compared with the
seemingly fixed position of the stars.
The time it takes the Sun to make one complete trip
through the sky in relation to the stars is the same amount of
time it takes Earth to complete one trip around the Sun, or
one sidereal year. The apparent path of the Sun during this
year is called the ecliptic. Actually, the ecliptic is the plane
of Earths orbit around the Sun. The 12 constellations (star
patterns) through which we see the Sun moving through
this year is called the zodiac.
4.
Predict How might

Earths seasons be different
if Earths axis were not
tilted 23.5 from vertical?
106
Recall that Earths orbit around the Sun is an ellipse.

Because of this, Earth is closer to the Sun at one time than it
is at other times. However, the seasons on Earth are not
caused just by the shape of Earths path around the Sun.
Seasonal changes are caused by three factors. These factors
are the Earths rotation, its revolution, and the tilt of its axis.
Seasons change because the number of daylight hours
varies and because sunlight strikes Earths surface at different
angles at different times of the year. Earths axis is tilted 23.5
from a line drawn perpendicular to the plane of its orbit, or
ecliptic. Because of this tilt, Earths north geographic pole
points toward Polaris (the North Star) throughout the year.
This tilt helps cause Earths seasons.
How does the angle of sunlight change?

In the summer, the Sun is high in the sky and sunlight hits
Earths surface at a high angle. As the year progresses, the Sun
sits lower in the sky and the angle of sunlight is also lower.
Sunlight striking Earth at a high angle, close to 90, is intense.
Sunlight striking at this higher angle heats the surface more
than sunlight striking at a lower angle.
Since Earth remains tilted in the same direction as it
revolves, different hemispheres are tilted toward the Sun at
different times of the year. The figure at the top of the next
page shows the angles of light that hit different parts of Earth.
Why do seasons change?
Picture This
Arc
tic
Circ N
le
Can
cer
Tro
pic
of
Tro
pic
of
Equ
ato
r
More intense
covers less area
5.
High angle
Cap
rico
rn
Ant
arc
tic
Circ
le
S
Analyze Which part of

Earth consistently gets
relatively intense and
direct sunlight?
Less intense
covers more area
Low angle
Why are summer days longer?

During the summer, the Sun is above the horizon for more
hours each day than at other times of year. As the year
progresses, the Sun is above the horizon for fewer hours.
Around December 21 in the northern hemisphere, the Sun
is above the horizon for the fewest hours. In the northern
hemisphere, the Sun is above the horizon for the most hours
around June 21. Summers, then, are warmer than winters
because in summer the sunlight is more intense and the days
are longer.
What are equinoxes and solstices?

Because Earths axis is tilted, the Suns position relative to
the equator constantly changes. For most of the year, the
Sun is north or south of the equator. But twice a year the Sun
is directly over the equator. This is called an equinox. An
equinox occurs when the Sun is directly over the equator
and the number of daylight hours equals the number of
nighttime hours.
During the equinox, neither the northern nor southern
hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun. In the northern
hemisphere, the spring equinox is on March 20 or 21, and the
fall equinox is on September 22 or 23. The opposite is true for
the southern hemisphere.
The solstice is the point at which the Sun reaches its
greatest distance north or south of the equator. In the
northern hemisphere, the summer solstice occurs on June 21
or 22 and the winter solstice is on December 21 or 22. In the
southern hemisphere, the solstices are reversed. At summer
solstice, there are more hours of daylight than during any
other day of the year. During the winter solstice, there are
more nighttime hours than during any other day of the year.
6.
Identify What is an
equinox?
Reading Essentials
107
After You Read

Mini Glossary
ecliptic: the yearly path of Earth around the Sun
equinox: occurs when the Sun is directly over the equator
and the number of daylight hours equals the number of
nighttime hours
revolution: the motion of Earth in its orbit around the Sun
rotation: the spinning of Earth on its axis, which is an imaginary
line drawn through Earth from its rotational north pole to
its rotational south pole
solstice: the point at which the Sun reaches its greatest

distance north or south of the equator
time zone: a 15-wide area of Earth where the time is the
same
1. Explain how the tilt of Earths axis affects the equinox and the solstice.
2. Fill in the blanks.
Earths
tilted axis
One revolution
equals _______
Unequal heating of
surface by Sun
causes ________
Day and night are

equal during the
__________
More intense
heating during
the _________
3. You summarized the parts of this section. How did summarizing help you understand the
information in this section?

and projects to help you learn more about Earth and the Sun.
108
End of
Section
One rotation
equals _______
The
Earth-Moon-Sun
System
7
chapter
3
section
Earths Moon
Before You Read

The appearance of the Moon in the sky changes during
the month. Describe changes in the Moons shape that you
have seen.
Read to Learn
Movement of the Moon
You have seen the Moon move across the sky at night from
east to west. This apparent movement, just like the Suns, is
caused by Earths rotation. If you look at the Moon for several
nights at the same time, you will also see that it appears
further east each night.
What Youll Learn
how the Moon causes

Earths tides
what causes the phases
of the Moon
about solar and lunar
eclipses
Study Coach
Two-Column Notes
Create two columns in which to
organize notes from this section.
In one column write the main
idea. Write details about the
main idea in the other column.
How is the Moons rotation remarkable?

The apparent eastward movement of the Moon is real and
is caused by the Moons revolution in its orbit. It takes the
Moon 27.3 days to revolve once around Earth. This period of
time is called a sidereal month. Since Earth also revolves
around the Sun, it takes more than two more days for the
Moon to line up with Earth and the Sun again. This means
that one complete lunar cycle takes 29.5 days. This period of
time is known as a synodic month.
The Moon always keeps the same side facing Earth, but the
Moon does rotate. It takes the Moon 27.3 days to rotate on its
axis. This is the same amount of time it takes the Moon to
revolve once around Earth. If the Moon did not rotate at all,
over the course of a month we would be able to see all its
sides. Because the Moons rotation equals its revolution, we
see only one face of the Moon.
C Gather Information

help you arrange what you learn
about the moon and how it
affects Earth.
Earth's
Moon
Cause
Effect
Tides
Phases
Eclipse
Craters
Reading Essentials
109
How does the Moon affect Earth?

The Moon affects Earth in some obvious and some not-soobvious ways. You may have noticed that the level of the
ocean water reaches different heights at different times at a
particular beach. You have likely noticed that the Moon looks
different in the sky during different parts of a month.
1.
Explain What causes

tides?
Picture This
2.
A tide on Earth is the rise and fall of the level of the sea.
Earths tides are caused by a huge wave produced by the
gravitational pull of the Moon and the Sun. The giant wave has
a height of only 1 to 2 meters but a wavelength of thousands of
kilometers. As the crest of the wave nears shore, the level of the
water in the ocean rises. This sea-level rise is called high tide.
About six hours later, as the waves trough approaches and the
water recedes from the shore, there is low tide.
Both Earth and the Moon revolve around a center of mass
that is about 1,700 km below Earths surface. Because Earth is
far more massive, the Moon seems to be revolving around
Earth. This center of mass inside Earth, in turn, revolves
around the Sun. That is why Earth, the Moon and the Sun are
considered as a three-body system.
As Earth rotates and the Moon revolves, different areas of
Earth pass through high and low tides. Because the Moon is
so close to Earth, it has a greater effect on tides than the Sun.
The more massive Sun affects tides too, but to a smaller
degree because it is farther away than the Moon. However, the
Sun does strengthen or weaken the tides. When the Moon and
the Sun are lined up and pull together, high tides are much
higher and low tides are much lower than normal. These
periods are known as spring tides. When the Sun and Moon
are at right angles to Earth, the high tide is relatively low and
low tide is relatively high. This condition is called neap tide.
These conditions are shown in the figure below.
B
Identify Mark the

diagram showing spring tide
with an X. Mark the
diagram showing neap tide
with an O.
Moon
Earth
Sun
Earth
Tidal
bulge large
110
Moon
Sun
Tidal
bulge large
What are tides?
Moonlight
Moonlight is the most obvious way the Moon affects Earth.
The Moon shines because it reflects sunlight from its surface.
As the Moon revolves around Earth, different parts of the side
facing Earth are lighted, causing the Moons appearance to
change. Moon phase is the changing appearance of the Moon
as seen from Earth, as shown in the figure below. The phase of
the Moon you see depends on the relative positions of the
Moon, the Sun, Earth, and you.
Picture This
1st qtr.
Waxing gibbous
Waxing crescent
3.
Explain What is the

position of the Moon in
relation to the Sun and
Earth during a full moon?
4.
List List the phases of the
Sunlight
Earth
Full
New
Waning gibbous
Waning crescent
3rd qtr.
What are the phases of the Moon?
A new moon occurs when the Moon is between Earth and

the Sun. During a new moon, the side of the Moon facing
Earth is in shadow, and the Moon cannot be seen from Earth.
Waxing Phases Shortly after the new moon, more of the
side of the Moon facing Earth is lighted by the Sun. As the
Moon becomes visible and its lighted side becomes larger
each night, the Moon is said to be waxing. The Moon is first
seen as a waxing crescent. About a week later, one-half of the
side of the Moon facing Earth is lighted by the Sun, and we
see one-quarter of the Moon. This is the first quarter phase of
the Moon.
Moon phases continue to grow, or wax. When more than
one-quarter of the Moon facing Earth is lighted, it is called a
waxing gibbous moon. A full moon occurs when the entire
side of the Moon facing Earth is lighted. At this time, the
Moon is on the opposite side of Earth from the Sun.
Moon in the order in which

they occur.
Waning Phases After the full moon, the lighted part of the
Moon we see begins to get smaller, or to wane. The waning
phases after the full moon are the waning gibbous moon, the
third quarter moon, and finally the waning crescent moon.
Then a new moon follows. The complete cycle of the Moons
phases takes about 29.5 days.
Reading Essentials
111
Eclipses
Eclipses occur when Earth temporarily blocks sunlight
from reaching the Moon or when the Moon temporarily
blocks sunlight from reaching Earth. The Sun, the Moon, and
Earth must be lined up perfectly for an eclipse to occur.
What is a solar eclipse?
5.
Explain What are the

umbra and penumbra?
A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon moves directly

between the Sun and Earth and casts a shadow on part of
Earth. The darkest part of the Moons shadow is called the
umbra. As shown in the figure below, the part of Earth that
is in the Moons umbra undergoes a total solar eclipse. The
lighter penumbra shadow surrounds the darker umbra. The
part of Earth that is in the penumbra undergoes a partial
solar eclipse. The only part of the Sun visible during a total
eclipse is part of its atmosphere, which appears as a pearly
white glow around the edge of the eclipsing Moon.
Area of total eclipse

Umbra
Penumbra
Picture This
6.
Compare and
Contrast Where will a
partial and a total solar
eclipse occur?
What is a lunar eclipse?

A lunar eclipse occurs when Earths shadow falls on the
Moon. A lunar eclipse begins when the Moon moves into
Earths penumbra, as shown in the figure on the next page.
Earths penumbra is the area where Earths shadow is lighter.
As the Moon continues to move, it enters Earths umbra and a
curved shadow forms on the Moon.
When the Moon moves completely into Earths umbra, a
total lunar eclipse occurs. The Moon sometimes becomes red
during an eclipse because light from the Sun is bent by Earths
atmosphere. Red lights longer wavelength more easily passes
through Earths atmosphere and falls on the Moon. A partial
lunar eclipse occurs when a part of the Moon is in Earths
penumbra or is in direct sunlight.
112
Area of partial eclipse
Seeing an Eclipse It is more likely that you will have a

chance to see a lunar eclipse than a solar eclipse. Lunar
eclipses are easier to view because they occur more often
and anyone on the night side of Earth can see them.
7.
Infer During what phase

of the moon are you most
likely to see the Moons
features in the greatest
detail?
The Moons Surface
Many of the Moon surfaces larger features are visible from

Earth. Craters and other surface features of the Moon are
visible through a small telescope or pair of binoculars.
What are craters, maria, and mountains?

The craters, or deep depressions, on the Moon resulted
from the impacts of asteroids, meteorites, and comets that
struck the surface. Craters formed early in the Moons history.
Ray-like patterns of light-colored material surround many
craters. This material was blasted from just under the Moons
surface during impact and settled on the dark material
surrounding the craters. Some craters may have been so large
and deep they cracked the Moons surface. The cracks allowed
lava to flow from the Moons interior to the surface and fill
huge basins, forming large flat regions, or maria.
Maria are the dark-colored, relatively flat regions on the
Moons surface. The maria contain igneous rocks, 3 to 4
billion years old, that are the youngest rocks found on the
Moon. This shows that the Moons craters formed after the
Moons surface cooled. However, the maria formed early in
the Moons history when the Moon still had molten material
inside. The largest mountain ranges on the Moon surround
huge areas of flat, dark maria.
8.
Describe What are the

maria on the Moons
surface?
Reading Essentials
113
What is regolith?
When NASA first sent spacecraft to study the Moons surface,
scientists were concerned about the depth of the debris from
meteorites. Regolith is the layers of debris from meteorites on
the Moons surface. On some parts of the Moon, the regolith
is almost 40 m thick, while in other regions it is only a few
centimeters thick. So far, all astronauts to visit the Moon have
landed safely on firm ground. Astronauts who walked on the
Moon even kicked up moon dust, which formed from the
countless meteors that hit the Moon.
Picture This
9.
Outline Circle the craters

shown in the figure, and
draw an outline around
the regolith regions.
10.
Explain What evidence

do scientists have that the
Moon once had a molten
interior?
114
The presence of maria on the Moons surface tells us

something about the Moons interior. Suppose cracks did
form when the large depressions were produced by comet
impacts, and lava did flow onto the lunar surface. If these
things occurred, then the interior of the Moon just below the
surface must have been molten at the time of the impacts.
Scientists think this was the case. They think that before the
Moon cooled to its present state, its interior was molten and
consisted of layers.
Other information about the Moons interior comes from
seismographs left on the Moon by Apollo astronauts. Just as
the study of earthquakes on Earth allows scientists to map our
planets interior, the study of moonquakes helps scientists
study the Moons interior. These studies have led scientists to
develop a model of the Moons interior. This model shows
that the Moons crust is about 60 km thick on the side facing
Earth and about 150 km thick on the side facing away from
Earth. Below the crust, a solid mantle may extend to a depth
of 1,000 km. A partly molten zone of mantle extends farther
down. Below this layer scientists believe there lies an ironrich, solid core. The interior layers of the Moon are shown in
the figure on the next page.
The Moons Interior
Picture This
Upper mantle
Crust
Lower mantle
11.
Highlight Use a
highlighter to indicate the
layer of the Moons surface
that differs the most in its
thickness.
12.
Predict If scientists find
Core
Exploring the Moon
More than 20 years after the Apollo program ended, the

Clementine spacecraft was sent into lunar orbit. Clementine
made a detailed map of the Moons surface. The map
included the South Pole-Aitken Basin.
This basin is the oldest identifiable impact feature on the
Moons surface. It is also the largest and deepest impact basin
or depression found anywhere in the solar system. It measures
12 km in depth and 2,500 km in diameter. Much of this
depression stays in shadow throughout the Moons rotation.
The basin forms a cold area when ice deposits from impacting
comets may have collected.
water on the Moon, what

might they look for next?
Clementine Data from the spacecraft Clementine confirmed

that the crust on the side of the Moon facing Earth is much
thinner than the far side. Instruments on the spacecraft
showed that the crust is thinner under impact basins. The
instruments also found areas of greater mass under the
impact basins. These areas of greater mass are called mascons.
Clementine also provided information on the mineral
content of moon rocks. In fact, this part of its mission
explains the name of the spacecraft. Clementine was the
daughter of a miner in the ballad, My Darlin Clementine.
Lunar Prospector In 1998, the Lunar Prospector spacecraft
orbited the Moon and took photographs of the lunar
surface. The maps that were made from these photographs
agreed with the data from Clementine. Also, the data from
Lunar Prospector confirmed that the Moon has a small, ironrich core about 600 km in diameter. Lunar Prospector also
did a detailed study of the Moons surface. It was searching
for clues about the origin and structure of the Moon.
Reading Essentials
115
Origin of the Moon

Before the studies made by spacecraft, there were three
theories about the Moons origin. The capture theory stated
that the Moon had formed elsewhere, wandered near Earth,
and was then caught by Earths gravity. A second theory stated
that the Moon condensed from the same loose material that
formed Earth during the early formation of the solar system.
The third theory was that the Moon formed from a glob of
molten material thrown off by a young, molten Earth. One
goal of the space missions to the Moon was to resolve which
of these theories was correct.
13.
Identify What does the

giant impact theory state
that the Moon formed from?
The data collected by spacecraft sent to the Moon have led

many scientists to form a new giant impact theory of the
Moons origin. This theory states that the Moon formed about
4.6 billion years ago when a Mars-sized object collided with
Earth. After the collision, the cores of the two bodies
combined and settled toward the center of the larger object,
Earth. The collision also caused a huge amount of gas and
other debris to be thrown into orbit. Some of this material fell
back to Earth, but the rest condensed into a large mass that
formed the Moon. This sequence of events is shown in the
figure below.
The giant impact theory helps explain why the Moon and
Earth are similar, yet not similar enough to have been formed
from the same condensing mass. The giant impact theory
explains why the Moons composition is more like Earths
mantle. It also explains why the Moon has a much smaller
central core than expected.
Mars-size body
Primitive Earth
Picture This
14.
Highlight the debris

material orbiting Earth that
condensed to become
the Moon.
116
What is the current theory of the Moons origin?
After You Read

Mini Glossary
lunar eclipse: what occurs when Earths shadow falls on the
Moon
maria: the dark-colored, relatively flat regions on the Moons
surface
moon phase: the changing appearance of the Moon as seen
from Earth
regolith: the layers of debris from meteorites on the Moons

surface
solar eclipse: what occurs when the Moon moves directly

between the Sun and Earth and casts a shadow on part of
Earth
tide: the rise and fall of the level of the sea
1. Explain how moon phases affect tides on Earth.
2. Each diagram below shows the Moon, Earth, and the Sun. Label each diagram and
identify what is happening in each.

projects to help you learn more about the Moon, the tides, and eclipses.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
117
The
Solar
System
8
chapter
Planet Motion
What Youll Learn
how models describe

the motion of planets
how each planet orbits
the Sun
the location and
characteristics of the
planets
Study Coach
Note-Taking Strategies
As you read, underline or
highlight key words or ideas
that identify the important
information.
Before You Read

Have you ever looked at the night sky and seen stars
overhead? Why do you think that some of these stars may
really be some of the planets in our solar system?
Read to Learn
Models of the Solar System
It would be difficult to make a model of the solar system if
you did not know that Earth rotates. All you can see from
Earth is the movement of planets across the sky, and they all
seem to move in a path around Earth. Its easy to understand
why many ancient scientists thought Earth was the center
around which everything they saw in the sky revolved.
What is the geocentric model?
A Compare Scientific
Models Make a three-tab

Foldable like the one shown
below. As you read this section,
record information about each
model on the inside of each tab.
geocentric
118
Both
heliocentric
CHAPTER 8 The Solar System
Before scientists understood that Earth rotates on its axis,

their models of the solar system placed Earth at the center. In
those models, the Sun and all other planets orbit around
Earth. The geocentric model of the solar system has Earth at
its center and everything else revolving around it.
Many early Greek scientists thought that the Sun, the
planets, and the Moon were each a part of a separate sphere
that rotated around Earth. They thought the stars were fixed
in another sphere that rotated around Earth, too. The sphere
with the stars moved in a regular, predictable way. The
spheres with the planets seemed to move in irregular patterns.
The planets seemed to wander across the sky. In fact, the
word planet comes from the Greek word that means
wanderer. In time, these ideas led to the model of the solar
system that was developed by Ptolemy.
1
section
Geocentric Modifications The Ptolomaic model of the solar

system was accepted for centuries. However, there were
many problems with it. For one thing, the planets seem to
move backwards from time to time against the background
of the stars. Many changes were made in the Ptolomaic
model to explain these problems. In time, the model became
very complex.
What is the heliocentric model?

The Polish astronomer Copernicus published a different
model of the solar system in 1545. His model put the Sun at
the center, as shown below. The heliocentric model shows
that the planets orbit the Sun. Copernicus stated that the
Moon revolved around Earth, which was a planet. Earth and
other planets revolved around the Sun. He also said that the
apparent motion of the planets, stars, and the Sun around
Earth was due to Earths rotation.
Mars
Venus
Picture This
Mercury
1.
Earth
Jupiter
Uranus
Explain The heliocentric

model of the solar system.
Saturn
Neptune
Pluto
What did Galileo observe?

The Italian astronomer Galileo used a telescope to look at
the planets. Galileo saw that the ideas of Copernicus could
explain why Venus went through phases like the Moon. The
phases could be explained if Venus orbited the Sun and
passed between the Sun and Earth on each orbit. Galileo
also saw moons in orbit around Jupiter. Galileos findings
convinced him that Venus and Earth revolve around the Sun
and that the Sun is the center of the solar system.
Understanding the Solar System

Copernicus model was better than earlier models.
However, it showed the orbits of the planets as perfect circles.
In the 1600s, German mathematician Johannes Kepler found
that the planets do not orbit the Sun in circular paths. They
move in ellipses.
2.
Analyze Information
What two planets did
Galileo study that
convinced him Earth moves
around the Sun?
Reading Essentials
119
Different Speeds Kepler found that the planets in our solar

system travel at different speeds. The closer a planet is to the
Sun, the faster it travels. Mercury, the planet closest to the
Sun, takes just 88 days to travel once around the Sun. Pluto,
the farthest planet, orbits the Sun once in 248 years.
Measuring Distances Distances in the solar system are
huge. Because they must work with these huge distances,
astronomers have created some special units. The
astronomical unit (AU) equals the average distance from
Earth to the Sun, about 150 million km. Scientists use the AU
to measure distances in the solar system.
Define What is the
astronomical unit? What is
this distance in kilometers?
How are planets classified?

There are nine planets in our solar system. These planets
have been classified in several ways. One system classifies
planets according to size and other characteristics. The planets
similar to Earth are called terrestrial planets. The giant
planets, composed mainly of gas, are called jovian planets.
Two other classifying systems are based on a planets
location in the solar system. One system is used more often
and uses the categories of inner and outer planets. This most
used system classifies inner planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth,
and Mars) as ones that orbit between the Sun and the asteroid
belt. Outer planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and
Pluto) orbit beyond the asteroid belt.
The other system bases the categories on the planets
locations compared to Earth and the Sun. It classifies planets
whose orbits are between Earth and the Sun (Mercury, Venus)
as inferior planets, and those that orbit the Sun beyond Earth
as superior planets.
What was the origin of the solar system?

4.
Identify Is Mars an
inferior or a superior
planet? Why?
120
It is not likely that the Sun formed as a single star. Evidence

shows that it probably formed as part of a multiple star
system, or star cluster. Scientists hypothesize that a huge
cloud of gas, ice, and dust began forming our solar system
about 4.6 billion years ago. This cloud, called a nebula, would
have been a million billion kilometers across. A huge shock
wave from nearby space caused the immense cloud to begin
condensing. The shock wave also caused the nebula to split
into small parts. In time, this fragmentation made thousands
of cloud fragments. The Sun formed from a cloud fragment
like the one shown on the next page. Eventually, the process of
fragmentation stopped, but condensing due to gravitation
continued.
3.
Picture This
5.
Interpret a Diagram
The Latin word nebula
means mist, vapor, or
cloud. How does the figure
look like a nebula?
The Suns Size The cloud fragment from which the Sun
formed was the size of our entire solar system. As it rotated
slowly in space, the cloud continued to contract, and its
matter became squeezed into an ever-smaller space. The
clouds density increased, and its increasing gravity pulled
more gas, ice, and dust toward the center. The forces made the
cloud fragments rotate faster, which in turn caused the cloud
to flatten into a disk with a dense center.
The Suns Temperature Temperatures rose inside the dense
disk. They finally reached about ten million degrees Celsius.
At this temperature, hydrogen fuses into helium, and the
process of fusion converts some mass into energy. The Sun
was born. The leftover mass in the outer part of the cloud
fragment condensed to form planets and other objects in the
solar system.
6.
Other Solar Systems

Until recently, ours was the only known solar system.
Now we know that many other stars have planets around
them. Upsilon Andromedae, a yellow star about 44 light-years
away, has planets in orbit around it. Extrasolar planets are
planets in orbit around other stars.
Explain What is mass

converted to in the fusion
process?
How many extrasolar planets are there?

The discovery of extrasolar planets makes it easy to imagine
that there may be billions of planets in orbit around stars
throughout our galaxy. So far, over 100 stars with planets have
been found. Many more are likely to exist. NASA is making
instruments that will look for planets similar to Earth in the
planetary systems. One day, we may even find an Earth-like
planet orbiting a star like the Sun.
Reading Essentials
121
After You Read

Mini Glossary
astronomical unit: a measure that equals the average
distance from Earth to the Sun, about 150 million km.
extrasolar planet: a planet in orbit around other stars
geocentric model: a model of the solar system that has Earth

at its center
heliocentric model: a model that shows that the planets in

our solar system orbit Sun
1. Review the terms in the Mini-Glossary. Explain how the geocentric model of the solar
system differs from the heliocentric model.
2. The planets of our solar system are classified based on their location relative to the Sun
and to the asteroid belt. Label each of the planets in the figure according to this
classification system.
te
As
3. You highlighted key words and ideas. How did this help you understand the information
in this section?

games, and projects to help you learn more about planet motion.
122
End of
Section
ro
id
B
e lt
Sun
The
Solar
System
8
chapter
2
section
The Inner Planets
Before You Read

Two of the inner planets are closer to the Sun than Earth is.
How do you think this location affects what its like on the
surfaces of these planets?
Read to Learn
Planets Near the Sun

The outermost fragments of the cloud that formed the Sun
were not pulled into the star. The remaining gas, ice, and dust
particles collided and stuck together. The gravitational pull of
these objects attracted more particles to them. Close to the Sun,
high temperatures vaporized lighter elements so they could not
condense. This explains why planets close to the Sun have
fewer light elements than planets farther away. As a result,
planets near the Sun are small, rocky, and have iron cores.
What Youll Learn
how the inner planets

compare with Earth
the characteristics of the
inner planets
about the missions to
Mars
Study Coach
Two-Column Notes As
you read about the planets,
write the name of each planet in
one column and details about it
in another.
Mercury
Mercury is the second-smallest planet, and the closest
planet to the Sun. Much of what we know about Mercury
came from the Mariner 10 mission that was sent to
photograph the planet during 1974 and 1975. This space
probe photographed 45 percent of Mercurys surface. The
photographs show a surface much like that of Earths Moon.
Mercurys surface is covered in impact craters.
The space probe found that Mercury has a magnetic field
and a larger-than-expected iron core. Mercurys thick mantle
is missing some lighter materials that scientists expected to
find. One theory is that Mercury collided with another body
soon after it formed. Their cores merged to form one large
iron core. Some of the lighter materials vaporized into space.
Make a Foldable like the one

shown below. Label the left side
Inner Planets and the right side
Outer Planets. As you read this
section, add information about
the inner planets.
Inner
Planets
Outer
Planets
Reading Essentials
123
What is Mercurys surface like?

Mercurys large core shrank much more rapidly than its
thin outer layers. As the outer layers adjusted, they wrinkled,
forming dramatic cliffs as high as three kilometers. This is
similar to what happens when an apple dries and shrivels up.
Is there an atmosphere around Mercury?
1.
Predict If Mercury had

an atmosphere like Earths,
predict, in general, how the
high and low temperatures
might change each day.
Mercury is small, has a low gravitational pull, and

undergoes extreme temperatures on its surface. These
conditions show that Mercury has no atmosphere. Gases that
have been detected on Mercury, such as helium and hydrogen,
turned out to be from the solar wind. They dont stay long
and blow away into space. The lack of an atmosphere and its
closeness to the Sun give Mercury a surface temperature of
about 427C during the day and 170C at night.
Venus, the second planet from the Sun, resembles Earth in

some ways. Its size and mass are almost identical to Earths.
Yet the atmosphere of Venus is different. Venus has a dense
atmosphere that has 92 times the surface pressure of Earths
at sea level. Most of the atmosphere of Venus is carbon
dioxide, and its clouds contain droplets of sulfuric acid. The
atmosphere is so dense, only about two percent of sunlight
reaches the surface. Carbon dioxide traps the solar energy that
does reach the surface, causing what is called a greenhouse
effect. Due to this intense greenhouse effect, temperatures on
the surface of Venus are between 450C and 475C.
In the 1970s, the former Soviet Union sent the Venera
lander probes to Venus. One photographed and mapped the
surface before landing. An hour after landing, the probe was
destroyed by intense heat. In 1995, the U.S. Magellan probe
sent back radar images of Venus that revealed the surface
features shown in the figure below.
Picture This
2.
Identify Trace the

features of the Venusian
surface that are similar to
volcanoes on Earth.
124
Venus
Earth
Earth is the third planet from the Sun. Earth is unlike other
planets in the solar system. Its surface temperature allows
water to exist in its three forms: gas, liquid, and solid. Earth
has an oxygen-rich atmosphere that supports life and burns
up most incoming meteors. The ozone layer in Earths
stratosphere blocks harmful ultraviolet rays from the Sun and
protects organisms from this intense radiation. Life exists all
over Earth. Life has been found at extreme termperatures and
pressures on Earth. These findings encourage scientists to
think that life may be possible on other planets in the solar
system.
3.

states in which water exists
on Earths surface?
4.
Compare What causes
Mars
Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun. It is called the red
planet because iron oxide in some of its surface rocks gives it
a reddish color. From Earth you can see Marss red color and
polar ice caps. The polar caps are made mainly of frozen
carbon dioxide and frozen water.
The tilt of Marss axis and its seasons are similar to Earths
tilt and seasons. During the Martian winter, the polar ice caps
get bigger, then shrink in summer. The color of Marss surface
changes according to its seasons. At one time, people thought
this indicated the growth and dying back of vegetation. Today
we know that these color changes result from seasonal surface
winds. When wind blows dust off one area, the area may
appear darker. In another season, the wind may weaken and
the area may again be covered with light-colored dust.
Does Mars have an atmosphere?

Mars has an atmosphere. It is much thinner than Earths
and is made mostly of carbon dioxide. Its thin atmosphere
does not filter out harmful radiation from the Sun. Surface
temperatures range from 37C to 123C. This large
temperature difference leads to strong winds that can cause
dust storms.
Earth and Mars to have

seasons?
What are the moons of Mars?

Mars has two small moons with many craters. They are
called Phobos and Deimos. Phobos is moving slowly toward
Mars and is predicted to hit the planets surface in 50 million
years. Deimos, the smaller moon, orbits the planet about
23,500 km above the surface.
Reading Essentials
125
Was Mars once wet?

Today, Mars appears to be a dry planet. It may not
always have been this way. Space probes sent to Mars indicate
that liquid water once occurred on the planet and may still be
there in solid form. So-called blueberries (named for their
round shape) were photographed by the spacecraft
Opportunity. The blueberries are deposits most likely
composed of hematite. They form only in the presence of
water. Later probes revealed surface features, such as sediment
layers and gullies, which appear to have been made by flowing
water. Channels at the edges of craters strongly suggest that
Mars once may have had liquid water.
Picture This
of the features in the figure
that might have been made
by flowing water.
NASA
NASA
NASA on Mars
6.
Explain What is Olympus

Mons, and why is its size
significant?
126
Mars has been a major focus of NASA planetary

exploration for many years. The Mariner 9 space probe
(19711972) was one of the earliest Mars missions. It revealed
long channels on the planet that might have been cut by
flowing water. This Mariner mission discovered a long canyon
called Valles Marineris. If this canyon were on Earth, it would
stretch from New York to San Francisco. Mariner 9 also found
some extinct volcanoes on Mars. One, Olympus Mons, is the
largest volcano discovered in the solar system.
Until 2003, NASAs Mariner 9, Viking probes, Mars Global
Surveyor, Mars Pathfinder, and Odyssey were the sources of
most of the information about Mars. The most recent data
about Mars come from the Mars Exploration Rover Mission
and its two landers, Spirit and Opportunity.
5.
What were the Viking probes?

The Viking 1 and Viking 2 probes landed on Mars in 1976.
Each spacecraft had an orbiter and a lander. The orbiters
photographed the entire surface of Mars. The landers touched
down on the planets surface to do experiments. The first
results of the biological tests seemed to show the presence
of life. However, scientists soon realized that the same results
might have come from chemical reactions. The biological
experiments found no definite evidence of life on Mars.
What have other missions discovered?

Cameras on the Global Surveyor revealed that the walls of
a huge Martian canyon, the Valles Marineris, have layers like
those in the Grand Canyon. The cameras also showed a vast
flat region. Similar to a mud flat, it covers a large area of
Mars northern hemisphere. Water once may have covered this
region but then froze to form the poles or soaked into the
ground. The Mars Pathfinder gathered data showing that the
iron on Mars surface may have leached out of groundwater.
A recent probe, Mars Odyssey, showed evidence that water in
the form of frost may occur in a thin layer beneath the surface
in the regions around the poles.
7.
Explain Other than in

polar ice caps, where is
frozen water likely to occur
on Mars?
8.
Evaluate Do you think it

is important to search for
signs of life on other
planets, such as Mars?
Why or why not?
What is the Mars Exploration Rover mission?

The rover Opportunity discovered the blueberries you
read about earlier. In addition, it found evidence that they
were made of hematite. This rover also found that the
blueberries might have been deposited in a standing body
of water. Another rover, the Spirit, found other deposits of
hematite in Gusev Crater. The Mars Exploration Rover mission
placed two landers on Mars. This mission provided a lot of
evidence that water existed on Mars in the past.
What are Martian meteorites?

Space probes are not the only way we have learned about
Mars. Meteorites have been found on Earth that may have
been blasted into space from Mars. In 1984, a Martian
meteorite was found in Antarctica. Scientists who studied it
found long, egg-shaped microscopic structures in it. They
thought these structures might be fossilized evidence of life
on Mars. Scientists published a report in 1996 that started a
debate. Some scientists suggested other possible causes of the
egg-shaped structures. No firm conclusion can be made from
this evidence. Research will continue about whether life exists
on Mars or did exist on Mars in the past.
Reading Essentials
127
After You Read

Mini Glossary
Earth: the third planet from the Sun; water exists in three
Mercury: the planet closest to the Sun; small, rocky, with
forms; supports life

Mars: the fourth planet from the Sun; polar caps of frozen
carbon dioxide and frozen water
extreme temperatures
Venus: the second planet from the Sun; has a dense, carbon
dioxide-rich atmosphere with an intense greenhouse
effect
1. Review the terms in the Mini-Glossary. Explain one way in which Earth differs from at
least two of the other three inner planets.
2. Complete the table.

Planet
Position Relative
to the Sun
Atmosphere
Surface
Mercury
Earth
Mars
3. You made two-column notes as you read this section. How did this help you understand
the information in this section?

and projects to help you learn more about the inner planets.
128
End of
Section
Venus
The
Solar
System
8
chapter
3
section
The Outer Planets
Before You Read

On Earth, the land is solid and familiar. Write a sentence
about how life on a planet with no solid surface might differ
from life on Earth.
Read to Learn
Why are the outer planets so different?

Recall how the small, rocky inner planets formed. High
temperatures prevented the lighter elements from condensing.
The outer planets formed differently. In the outer parts of the
cloud that formed the planets, the lighter elements condensed,
collided, and stuck together. The gravitational pull of the
growing masses attracted more particles. This process produced
the giant planets found in the outer part of the solar system.
Only Pluto does not fit this description.
What Youll Learn
how the outer planets

are alike and different
the characteristics of the
outer planets
about NASA missions to
outer planets
Study Coach
Sticky-Note Discussion
Use sticky-notes to mark those
pages or passages you have
questions or comments about or
that you find most interesting.
Discuss your questions and
interesting facts after you read
the section.
Jupiter
Jupiter, the fifth planet from the Sun, is the largest planet
in the solar system. It is made mainly of hydrogen and
helium, with some ammonia, methane, and water vapor.
Scientists theorize that there is an ocean of liquid metallic
hydrogen in the middle of the planet. Below this liquid may
lie a solid, rocky core that is larger than Earth. The core has
extreme pressure (50 million Earth atmospheres) and
temperature (40,000C). These conditions make Jupiters
core far different from any rock on Earth.
Jupiters colorful clouds are bands of white, red, tan, and
brown. Lightning has been observed within these clouds. The
planet has constant storms of swirling, high-pressure gas. The
Great Red Spot is the most spectacular of these storms.
Continue to use the Foldable

you made for the last section.
As you read this section, add
information about the outer
planets.
Inner
Planets
Outer
Planets
Reading Essentials
129
What space probes have gone to Jupiter?

1.
Explain How did

scientists get information
about Jupiters moons?
In 1979, Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 flew past Jupiter. The

Galileo space probe reached Jupiter in 1995. These probes
provided data about the makeup and motion of its
atmosphere. The space probes gathered data about Jupiters
moons and discovered new ones.
What are Jupiters moons like?
2.
Identity What large

moon of Jupiter probably
does not have an ocean
under its crust?
Saturn
Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and is known for
its colorful rings, as shown on the following page. It is not the
only ringed planet, but it does have the largest and most
complex ring system. In 2004, NASAs Cassini-Huygens
spacecraft reached Saturn and began sending data. Data about
Saturn, including data about its rings and moons, were
collected during the spacefrafts approach. The data
indicated that Saturn could have at least 34 moons.
Low Density Although it is the second-largest planet in the
solar system, Saturn has the lowest density. Saturns cloud
layers are not squeezed as tightly together as Jupiters because
Saturn has a weaker gravitational pull than Jupiter.
130
Jupiter has more than 60 moons. Many are very small and
may be captured asteroids. Four are large enough to be
considered small planets. Galileo was the first to discover
these moons when he looked through his telescope. Jupiters
large moons are called Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto.
Ganymede is the largest moon in our solar system and is
larger than the planet Mercury. Io is caught in a constant tug
of war between the gravitational pulls of Jupiter and Europa.
This tug of war heats up Ios interior and makes it the most
volcanically active body in the solar system. The volcanoes on
Io were first seen in photographs from the Voyager probes.
The most recent findings of the Galileo space probe indicate
that all of Jupiters large moons, except Io, likely have an ocean
of water under an ice-rock crust. Data from the space probe
and the models of the moons made afterward show that the
three large moons probably contain water. Some scientists
speculate that Europas large ocean might contain life.
What is Saturns atmosphere like?

Like Jupiter, Saturn is a large planet with a thick outer
atmosphere composed mostly of hydrogen and helium, with
some ammonia, methane, and water vapor. Deeper into
Saturns atmosphere, the gases begin to change into liquid
hydrogen and helium. Below the atmosphere is Saturns liquid
ocean. The planet may have a small rocky core, but no rocky
surface like Earths. The pressures and temperatures at the
core are great.
What are Saturns rings?
3.
Saturns rings are composed of countless ice and rock

particles, ranging in size from a speck of dust to many meters
across. The rings occur in separate, broad bands, each
composed of thousands of thin ringlets.
The Cassini-Huygens spacecraft took close-up photographs
of Saturns rings. The pictures show a density wave and areas
where the ring material bends up and down. Other photos
indicate that the gravity of Saturns moons affects its rings
and the presence of a new ring associated with the moon,
Atlas. More evidence may that the moon Atlas may have a
ring system of its own.
Describe the gases in

Saturns atmosphere.
What happened to Cassini-Huygens at Saturn?

Cassini-Huygens is actually two spacecraft in one. Cassini
will continue to orbit Saturn for more than four years. When
it passed Saturns moon Titan in 2005, it released the probe
Huygens, which went through Titans thick atmosphere and
landed on its surface.
Picture This
4.
Locate and label in the

figure Saturns density
waves and bends in the
rings.
Reading Essentials
131
Uranus
5.
Explain Why does

methane in the atmosphere
cause Uranus to look
blue-green?
Uranus is the seventh planet from the Sun. Uranus,

discovered in 1781, is a large planet with 27 moons. Voyager 2
revealed numerous thin rings around the planet. The probe
also found that the planets magnetic field is tilted 55 degrees
from its rotational poles.
Uranuss atmosphere contains hydrogen, helium, and about
two percent methane. Methane in the atmosphere gives the
planet its blue-green color. Because methane absorbs red and
yellow light, the clouds reflect only blue and green light.
Uranus has no cloud bands and few storm systems because
of its cold upper atmosphere. The lack of bands and storms
may also be related to the planets relative lack of internal
heat. Some evidence suggests that beneath its atmosphere,
Uranus has other layers. Uranus may have a mantle of liquid
water, methane, and ammonia surrounding a rocky core.
6.
Describe How does

Neptunes gravitational
force affect Uranus?
Neptune, the eighth planet from the Sun, is similar in size

to Uranus. Neptune was discovered in 1846 when studies
showed that the gravity of an unseen planet was pulling
Uranus. Below its atmosphere, Neptune might have liquid
water, methane, and ammonia. It probably also has a rocky
core. The Voyager 2 probe also discovered that Neptune has
rings, which are thin in some places and thick in others.
Neptunes atmosphere is similar to Uranuss, but is has a
little more methane, about three percent. Unlike Uranus,
Neptunes atmosphere has some dark spots similar to Jupiters
Great Red Spot. Neptunes atmosphere is dynamic, probably
because its internal heat is greater than Uranuss.
Neptune has at least 13 moons. Triton is the largest with a
2,700-km diameter. Triton has a thin atmosphere composed
mostly of nitrogen, with some methane. Voyager 2 detected
geysers spewing methane on Triton.
Pluto
Pluto, the ninth planet from the Sun, is the smallest and
least known of the planets. Pluto is considered the ninth
planet because its orbit takes it farther from the Sun than
Neptune. However, during part of its orbit, Pluto does move
closer to the Sun than Neptune does. The two planets never
collide because Plutos orbit is inclined farther from the
eliptical plane creating an angle that will not allow the orbits
to intersect.
132
Neptune
Plutos Features Pluto is unlike the other outer planets. It

has a thin atmosphere and a solid, ice-rock surface. Charon,
Plutos only moon, orbits quite close to the planet.
Comets and Other Objects

Scientists know that there are many objects beyond Pluto,
including comets. A comet is composed of dust and rock
particles mixed in with frozen water, methane, and ammonia.
As a comet approaches the Sun, it develops a distinctive
tail.
When the Suns heat begins to vaporize the comet, dust and
gases are released. These materials form a bright cloud, called
a coma, around the nucleus, or solid part, of the comet. The
solar wind pushes on the vaporized coma particles, forming a
tail. The tail always points away from the Sun, as shown in the
figure below.
7.
List What substances

make up comets?
Origin Places Most comets come from two places. A

huge disk of icy comets, called the Kuiper Belt, exists near
Neptunes orbit. Farther out in space, the Oort Cloud
completely surrounds the solar system. Gravity from the
Sun or passing stars may disturb these regions and set
comets on long journeys toward the Sun. Once in orbit
around the Sun, comets reappear at regular times. The
famous Halleys comet returns every 76 years.
Picture This
8.
Interpret a Diagram
Describe the location of the
tail of the comet in relation
to the position of the Sun.
Reading Essentials
133
What are asteroids?

Asteroids are rocky objects formed from material similar to
that of the planets. Most asteroids are found in an area
between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter called the asteroid
belt. Asteroids range in size from tiny particles to objects
940 km in diameter.
9.
Identify What are

asteroids and where are
they found?
What are meteoroids?

Meteoroids are other rocky objects orbiting within the
solar system. Meteoroids may have formed when asteroids
collided or when comets broke up as they passed close to the
Sun, leaving a trail of debris. When Earth passes through
these trails, meteoroids may enter the atmosphere. Most
objects burn up completely in Earths atmosphere. We see
them briefly as meteors or shooting stars. Some do not burn
up completely. These land on Earth and are called meteorites.
10.
Classify When does a

meteoroid become a
meteorite?
134
Sedna is the unofficial name for another object in the solar

system. It has puzzled scientists for some time. Sedna has been
labeled a distant planetoid. With a diameter of 1,200 to
1,700 km, it is smaller than Pluto but larger than comets.
Sedna also has a highly elliptical orbit, coming as close as 76
AU from the Sun, then traveling to a distance of 950 AU from
the Sun.
Some scientists suggest that Sednas orbit was greatly
affected by a passing star less than 100 million years after the
Sun formed. This supports the idea that our Sun formed as
part of a star cluster. A close encounter with another star so
soon after the Suns formation and so close to it (800 AU)
could be explained if the Sun formed within a cluster.
Another puzzle is Sednas apparent rate of rotation of
40 days. The best way to explain this puzzle is if there is
another object in orbit around Sedna. Even if Sedna has no
companion, there may be similar objects, some even larger
than Pluto, out there. At present, objects that are this far away
and that have orbits this elliptical can be detected by
astronomers only when they are closest to the Sun.
What is Sedna?
After You Read

Mini Glossary
asteroids: rocky objects formed from material similar to that
Pluto: the ninth planet from the Sun; has a rocky surface and is
of the planets; occur in the asteroid belt

comet: a body composed of dusk and rock particles mixed in
with frozen water, methane, and ammonia
Jupiter: the fifth planet from the Sun; the largest planet in the
solar system
meteoroid: a rocky object orbiting within the solar system
Neptune: the eighth planet from the Sun; has rings and at
least 13 moons
the smallest and least known of the planets

Saturn: the sixth planet from the Sun; known for its
colorful rings
Sedna: a distant planetoid with a highly elliptical orbit
Uranus: the seventh planet from the Sun; a large, gaseous
planet with 27 moons
1. Review the terms in the Mini-Glossary. Explain how asteroids, meteoroids, and comets are
similar.
2. Fill in the Venn diagram to show how Pluto and the other outer planets are alike and
different. In the diagram, list the special characteristics of each group of outer planets.
Then, list their shared characteristics.
Pluto
Shared
Jupiter, Uranus,
Saturn, Neptune
3. You used sticky-notes to mark any questions or comments you had on the text. How did
discussing these questions and comments help you understand the information in this
section?

and projects to help you learn more about the outer planets.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
135
The
Solar
System
8
chapter
Life in the Solar System
What Youll Learn
how to evaluate other

planets for the presence
of life
about life-forms on Earth
what planets in the solar
system might contain
life
Study Coach
Authentic Questions As
you read this section, write
down any questions you may
have. Discuss these questions
with the class after you have
completed this section.
C Compare Information
Make a two-tab Foldable like the

one shown below. Label each
part and add information to
each as you read this section.
Before You Read

What conditions do you think must occur on another planet
in our solar system for life to exist?
Read to Learn
Life As We Know It
You know that life exists in our solar system because it is
all around you. On Earth, life occurs in even the harshest
environments. Yet scientists are still trying to find out if life
exists on other planets in our solar system. Where might life
exist and under what conditions? Life on Earth is based on
carbon and water. Is water found on other planets?
On Earth, life easily can be seen: people, animals, and
plants. There is also life we cannot see easily, such as
microorganisms in the soil.
If you were to test Earths soil for microscopic life, you
might look for traces of life that once lived in the soil or for
gases released by respiration. If you were looking for life in
the soil of Mars or other planets in our solar system, you
would need to do the same type of tests. But the tests would
have to be done by a robot lander.
What exotic life exists on Earth?

Life
on Earth
Life
Elsewhere
136
In the 1970s, scientists on the submarine Alvin were on the

ocean floor studying deep-sea volcanic vents. Although no
light reached these depths, the vents were surrounded with
life. Life forms thriving around the vents included crabs,
clams, and tubeworms, shown in the figure on the next page.
They occur nowhere else on Earth.
4
section
Food Chains Colonies of bacteria around the vents live off

the hot material the vents give off. These organisms use the
thermal and chemical energy given off by the vents to survive.
They form the base of the deep-sea vent food chain.
A surprising amount of life has been found in many harsh
environments on Earth. Some life-forms thrive in extreme
heat and others live in extreme cold. Organisms can thrive in
salt, lye, or darkness. This means life may exist in extreme
environments on other planets.
Picture This
1.
Explain how the

creatures that live around
vents get energy.
2.
Define What is the term

for life on other worlds?
Can life exist on other worlds?

Earth differs in many important ways from other planets in
our solar system. None of the planets you have studied has
characteristics that are close to Earths. Yet scientists cannot
say for certain that life cannot exist on other planets.
High temperatures exist on Mercury and Venus. The large
planets, such as Jupiter, lack a solid surface. It is unlikely that
life exists on these planets. Yet these facts do not rule out the
possibility of extraterrestrial life. Extraterrestrial life is life on
other worlds.
Might life exist on Mars?

It is possible that one-celled organisms exist on Mars today.
Perhaps they existed on Mars in the past when the planet was
wetter. If life existed there in the past, future space explorers
will find evidence of it. Such a discovery would be almost as
exciting as finding living life-forms.
The search for life on Mars has already begun. Viking
landers did some tests designed to detect life. The first tests
showed positive results. However, these results might be
explained by chemical reactions rather than life-forms.
Perhaps life on Mars is totally different from life on our planet.
Reading Essentials
137
Might liquid water exist on Europa?

Data from the Galileo probe of Jupiter and its moons reveal
that three of the large moons have ice-covered oceans. The
oceans under the ice of Ganymede and Callisto might be
partially frozen. However, some data show that about 25 km
beneath Europas ocean surface, liquid water may be present.
Data that revealed evidence of surface cracking, tidal bulges,
and movement of the surface over some slippery substance
beneath support the idea of a liquid ocean beneath the ice.
Could life exist on Europa?

3.
Summarize What three

conditions in Europas
oceans have led scientists
to speculate that life may
exist on Europa?
Some scientists speculate that Europas ocean might

contain life. They point out that Europas ocean water is
probably very deep and has existed for a long time. Scientists
also think that Europas liquid oceans might be warmed by
the force of Jupiters gravity.
On Earth, we find life everywhere that water occurs. If
life on Earth can thrive in the super-hot liquid flowing from
undersea vents, could it also exist in a similar environment
on Europa? Ocean currents have been detected on Europa.
Deep-sea vents, or similar types of environments, could exist.
Some scientists think Europa to be the most promising location
to look for extraterrestrial life.
4.
Identify What substances

on Titan make scientists
think it may contain
evidence of life?
138
Titan is one of Saturns moons. It has a dynamic

atmosphere made up mostly of nitrogen, with some argon
and methane. Surface features indicate that Titan has had an
interesting geologic history. Some dark areas on its surface
contain relatively pure water-ice. Brighter areas on Titans
surface contain compounds of carbon and hydrogen, or
hydrocarbons. Life on Earth is carbon-based. Scientists
wonder if Titan has carbon-based life-forms as well.
Scientists who look for life on other worlds are excited by
the hydrocarbons on Titans surface. Furthermore, Titan
seems to have few large impact craters, indicating that it had
internal geologic activity. This activity could provide the
energy needed for organic molecules to develop into the
building blocks of life.
A more detailed study of Titan is planned using data from
the Huygens space probe. The mystery of whether life on Titan
exists now or may have existed in the past might be solved.
Could life exist on Titan?
After You Read

Mini Glossary
extraterrestrial life: life on other worlds
1. Review the term and its definition in the Mini Glossary. In your own words, describe the
conditions that might be necessary for extraterrestrial life to exist on other planets in the
solar system.
2. Complete the table below to show the conditions that exist on other planets and moons in
our solar system that indicate that life may exist on them.
Earth
Mars
Europa
Titan
water
atmosphere
hydrocarbons
sunlight warmth
3. You wrote authentic questions as you read this section. How did writing and discussing
authentic questions help you understand the information in this section?

games, and projects to help you learn more about the possibility
of life on other planets in the solar system.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
139
Heat and States of Matter
1
section
Thermal Energy
What Youll Learn
what temperature is
how thermal
energy depends on
temperature
change in thermal
energy
Study Coach
Make an Outline Make an

outline of the information you
learn about in this section. Use
the headings in the reading
as a starting point. Include the
boldface vocabulary terms in
your outline.
Before You Read

You wake up in the morning and get out of bed. Does the
floor feel cold or warm on your bare feet? On the lines below,
write a sentence that compares how it feels to step on a bare
floor and on a rug on a cold morning.
Read to Learn
The Kinetic Theory of Matter
All around you objects are getting warmer and cooler.
What is temperature? What causes objects to change
temperature? The temperature of an object depends on the
motion of the particles in the object.
The kinetic theory is an explanation of how particles
behave and move. There are three parts to the kinetic theory.
1. All matter is composed of particlesatoms, molecules,
and ions.
2. The particles are in constant random motion. They move
in all directions at different speeds.
3. The particles have kinetic energy because they are
moving. The particles collide with one another and
transfer kinetic energy between them.
Temperature
1.
Define What is the

temperature of a
substance?
140
CHAPTER 9 Heat and States of Matter
The particles in matter are moving at various speeds and

have a range of kinetic energies. The temperature of a
substance is a measure of the average kinetic energy of its
particles. As the temperature of something increases, the
average speed of its particles increases. The temperature of hot
tea is higher than the temperature of iced tea. The reason is
that on average the particles in the hot tea are moving faster
than in the iced tea.
chapter
What are the temperature scales?

The SI unit for temperature is kelvin (K). Two common
temperature scales are the Celsius scale and the Fahrenheit
scale. To convert a temperature from Kelvin to Celsius,
subtract 273 from the kelvin temperature. To convert
temperatures measured in the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales
from one to the other use these equations:
5
To convert temperature in F to C: C
(F 32)
9
9
(C) 32
To convert temperature in C to F: F
5
A Relate Make the following

Foldable to tell how temperature
and mass are related to thermal
energy.
Thermal Energy
Temp.

Mass
For example, to change 68F to degrees Celsius, first

subtract 32, multiply by 5, then divide by 9. So 68F 20C
Thermal Energy
Atoms and molecules that make up matter are constantly
moving, so they have kinetic energy. Molecules also have potential energy that can be changed into kinetic energy. How can
molecules have potential energy? Think about a ball held high
above your head. Earth exerts an attractive gravitational force on
the ball. When you hold the ball above your head, the ball and
Earth are separated. This gives the ball potential energy. The
particles in a substance also exert attractive forces on each other.
The particles have potential energy when they are separated.
As particles in an object move farther apart, their potential
energy increases. As they move faster, their kinetic energy
increases. Thermal energy is the sum of the kinetic and
potential energy of all the particles in an object. The figure
shows that if either potential or kinetic energy increases,
thermal energy increases.
The kinetic energy

increases as the
molecules move faster.
Picture This
2.
Use Scientific
Illustrations In the
space below, sketch the
particles in the figure
if separation increased
even more.
Kinetic energy
increases
Speed increases
The potential energy

increases as the
molecules move
farther apart.
Potential energy
increases
Separation increases
Reading Essentials
141
Does a moving object have thermal energy?

You have learned that the faster an object is moving, the
greater its kinetic energy. When you roll a ball, you increase
its kinetic energy. Does that mean it has greater thermal
energy than a ball that is sitting still? If the balls are at the
same temperature, they actually have the same thermal
energy. Thermal energy is the sum of the potential energy and
kinetic energy of the particles in the ball, not the ball itself.
Rolling the ball does not affect its thermal energy. The
increase in the balls speed does not affect the random motion
of its particles, so it doesnt change its thermal energy.
Heat
3.
Communicate Write
in your own words the
difference between
temperature and heat.
Have you ever noticed that a chair felt warm when you sat
down? You could tell that someone had been sitting in it
recently. The chair felt warm because thermal energy from the
persons body flowed to the chair and increased its temperature.
Heat is thermal energy that flows from something at a
higher temperature to something at a lower temperature.
Heat is a form of energy, so it is measured in joules. Heat
always flows from warmer materials to cooler materials.
4.
Restate What is the term

for the amount of heat
needed to heat 1 kg of a
substance 1C?
142
When you are at the beach in the summer, the ocean

probably feels much cooler than the air or the sand. Energy
from the Sun falls on the air, sand, and water at the same rate.
But the temperature of the water has changed less than the
temperature of the air or sand.
A substance or material changes temperature when heat is
added. How much it changes depends on the amount of heat
added. But it also depends what the material is made of. Some
materials heat more easily than others. For example, think
about 1 kg of sand and 1 kg of water. It takes six times as
much heat to raise the temperature of water 1C than it takes
to raise the temperature of sand 1C. The ocean water at the
beach would have to absorb six times as much heat as the
sand to be at the same temperature.
The specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat
needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of that substance by
1C. Specific heat is measured in joules per kilogram per
degree Celsius [J/(kgC)]. For some familiar materials, the
specific heat, in J/(kgC), is the following: water (4,184), ice
(2,110), asphalt (920), glass (800), and iron (450).
Specific Heat
How does thermal energy change?

The thermal energy of an object changes when heat flows
into or out of the object. You can use the following equation
to calculate the change in thermal energy:
change in thermal energy (J)

J

mass (kg) change in temperature (C) specific heat
kgC
Q m(Tf Ti )C
In the equation, Q stands for the change in thermal energy.
C stands for the objects specific heat. Tf is the final
temperature and Ti is the initial temperature.
Measuring Specific Heat

A calorimeter, shown below, is a device that can be used to
find the specific heat of a material. The specific heat of a
material can be determined if the mass of the material, its
change in temperature, and the amount of thermal energy
absorbed or released are known. In a calorimeter, an object that
has been heated transfers heat to a known mass of water. The
energy absorbed by the water can be calculated by measuring
the waters temperature change. The thermal energy released by
the object equals the thermal energy absorbed by the water.
5.
Explain What is a
calorimeter used to
measure?
How does a calorimeter work?

To determine the specific heat of a material, the mass of the
material is measured. Also, the initial temperature of the
calorimeter is measured. The material is heated and its
temperature is measured. Then the material is placed in the
water in the inner chamber of the calorimeter. The sample cools
as heat is transferred to the water, and the temperature of the
water rises. The transfer of heat continues until the sample and
the water are at the same temperature. Then the final
temperature of the water is measured. The amount of heat
gained by the water can be calculated.
Thermometer
Stirrer
Cover
Inner chamber
Picture This
6.
Identify Use a highlighter

to mark the part of the
calorimeter that is used to
measure temperature
changes. What is the name
of this part?
Insulated flask
(outer chamber)
Reading Essentials
143
After You Read

Mini Glossary
heat: thermal energy that flows from something at a higher
temperature: a measure of the average value of the kinetic
temperature to something at a lower temperature

kinetic theory: an explanation of how particles behave and
move
specific heat: the amount of heat needed to raise the
temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1C
energy of the particles in an object

thermal energy: the sum of the kinetic and potential energy
of all the molecules in an object
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. What is the difference
between temperature and thermal energy?
2. Complete the chart below to organize information from this section about temperature.
Molecules in a substance
slow down when the substance is
so they have
so they have
(more or less) kinetic energy
(more or less) kinetic energy
3. You made an outline as you read this section. How did that strategy help you learn the
material?

projects to help you learn more about temperature and thermal energy.
144
End of
Section
speed up when the substance is
chapter
2
section
States of Matter
Before You Read

Suppose your clothes got wet in the rain. What are two ways
you could dry your clothes?
What Youll Learn
about the four states of

matter
how matter changes
state
about thermal
expansion
Read to Learn
Four States of Matter

Every day you deal with different states of matter. Your
lunch probably includes a solid and a liquid, such as pizza
and a drink. The air you breathe is a gas. The Sun, lightning,
and fluorescent lamps contain a state of matter called plasma.
The differences between solids, liquids, and gases are due to
the differences in the attraction among particles.
Identify New
Information You may
already know about states of
matter. As you read this section,
underline any new or surprising
information about states of
matter that you read.
What is the solid state?

The particles of a solid are closely packed together. You
cant see it, but the particles are constantly vibrating in place.
Because the particles are packed close together, solids have a
fixed volume and shape. That means they are not changing
shape all the time, or moving around freely. The particles in
most solids have a specific geometric pattern. The chemical
and physical properties of solids often depend on this
arrangement.
What is the liquid state?

In a liquid, the particles are attracted to each other, but not
as much as in a solid. This means that they can move around
more. The particles slide past each other. This allows liquids
to flow and take the shape of their container. Because the
particles still cling together, liquids have a definite volume,
even though they dont have a fixed shape.
B Organize Make the
following Foldable to organize

information you learn about the
four states of matter.
Solid
Liquid
Gas
Plasma
Reading Essentials
145
Picture This
1.
Compare Use the figure

to list differences between
the liquid and gas state.
[NEW art: three part diagram of solid, liquid and a gas. No

captions.]
What is the gas state?

In a gas, the particles are much farther apart than in a
liquid. Because the particles are so far apart, the attractive
forces between them are weak. Because these forces are weak,
the particles no longer cling together. As a result, gases do not
have a definite shape or volume. You can compare solids,
liquids, and gases in the figure above.
Because the particles move so quickly and are so far apart,
they spread out to fill their container. Diffusion is the process
in which gases become evenly distributed around a given
volume. Diffusion can occur in solids and liquids, but it
happens most quickly in gases.
2.
Apply How does

diffusion enable you to
smell food cooking from
another room.
The most common state of matter in the universe is

plasma. Plasma is matter consisting of positively and
negatively charged particles. Plasma does not have a definite
shape or volume. Plasma forms when particles moving at very
high speeds collide. The forces of the collisions are so great
that electrons are stripped off atoms, leaving only charged
particles. The Sun and other stars contain matter in the
plasma state. Lightning bolts, neon and fluorescent tubes, and
auroras also contain plasmas.
Changing States
Imagine holding an ice cube or snowball in your hand. It
will change from a solid to liquid. The warmth of your hand
causes a change in state from solid to liquid. You also see a
change in a state when a puddle of water disappears on a
sunny day. The warmth of the Sun caused a change of state
from liquid to gas. Changes in temperature can change the
state of matter. In each case, the thermal energy of the object
and its temperature increase.
146
What is the plasma state?
What causes melting?

Think about an ice cube. As its temperature gets higher, the
particles in the ice move faster. The particles arent as
attracted to each other, so they dont stay in place. As they slip
out of their arrangement, the ice melts. The temperature at
which a solid begins to melt is its melting point.
It takes energy for any solid to melt. The heat of fusion is
the amount of energy required to change 1 kg of a substance
from a solid to a liquid at its melting point.
What causes freezing?
3.

for the amount of energy it
takes to change 1 kg of a
substance from a solid to a
liquid?
How do you make liquid water turn into solid water, or ice?
You can lower its temperature. Then the particles move more
slowly because they have less kinetic energy. The attracting
forces are strong enough so that the particles form into an
ordered arrangement of a solid. Thermal energy is released
when a liquid freezes. The heat of fusion is the energy released
when a liquid freezes. Recall the heat of fusion is also the
amount of energy that is required to change a solid into a
liquid at its melting point.
What is vaporization?
Particles in a liquid stay together because of attractive
forces. But as the particles in a liquid move faster, they can
overcome attractive forces and spread out more. The liquid
then becomes a gas. Vaporization is the process of the liquid
becoming a gas.
In a liquid, particles at the surface can move away more
easily because they are not surrounded by other particles. The
forces holding them to the liquid are not as strong. They have
enough energy to move away and become a gas. Evaporation
occurs when particles at the surface of a liquid leave the
surface and become a gas.
What is boiling?
A second way that a liquid can vaporize is by boiling.
Unlike evaporation, boiling occurs throughout a liquid. It
occurs only at a certain temperature, depending on the
pressure at the surface of the liquid. The boiling point of a
liquid is the temperature at which the pressure of the vapor in
the liquid is equal to the outside pressure acting on its surface.
This outside pressure is a force that pushed down on the
liquid and keeps the particles from escaping. The heat of
vaporization is the amount of energy required for 1 kg of a
liquid at its boiling point to become a gas.
4.
Identify What is the

amount of energy required
for 1 kg of a liquid at its
boiling point to become a
gas?
Reading Essentials
147
What causes condensation?

5.
Explain For any

substance, what is the
relationship between the
processes of freezing and
melting?
The heat of vaporization is also the amount of energy

released during condensation, when a gas changes into a
liquid. You have likely seen droplets of water form on the
outside of a glass filled with a cold liquid. The cold glass
reduced the temperature of water vapor in the air. The
average kinetic energy of the water particles decreased and the
water vapor changed to a liquid.
What happens when water is heated?

Look at the graph below. The graph shows how the water
temperature changes as thermal energy is added. This graph is
called a heating curve. Notice that the temperature does not
increase steadily.
The Heating Curve of Water
3500
d
6.
Read a Graph What

happens to the
temperature of the water
when it reaches 0?
2500
2000
Heat of vaporization
1500
1000
b
500
a
Heat of fusion
0
2010 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Temperature (C)
There are two areas on the graph where the temperature

does not change. One is at 0C, as ice is melting. All of the
energy put into the ice at this point is used to increase the
potential energy of the water molecules. The energy causes
the molecules to move farther apart and weakens the force of
attraction between the molecules. The average kinetic energy
of the molecules does not increase, so the temperature
remains constant during melting.
When ice has melted, the temperature starts to change. As
more energy is added, the water molecules start moving
faster. The average kinetic energy of the molecules increases
and the temperature of the water increases.
When the temperature of water reaches 100C, water
changes from liquid to gas. At that point, all the added energy
is used to overcome the force of attraction between the water
molecules. When all of the liquid water has become a gas, the
temperature of the gas increases as more energy is added.
148
Picture This
Energy Added (J)
3000
Thermal Expansion
Did you ever notice gaps on a highway bridge between the
sections of the bridge? These gaps are called expansion joints.
The materials of the bridge and highway surface expand when
they get warmer. Expansion joints make room for the bridge
materials to expand on warm days without becoming warped
or cracked.
7.
Apply What structures

can you think of, other
than bridges, that have
expansion joints?
8.
Define What is
contraction?
Why does matter expand and contract?

The kinetic theory explains why materials expand when
they are heated. Particles of a material move faster and farther
apart when the temperature rises. The increased distance
between the particles causes the whole object to expand.
Thermal expansion is the increase in the size of an object
when its temperature is increased.
The kinetic theory also explains why materials contract
when they are cooled. As the temperature drops, particles in a
material move slower and they come closer together. The
whole object shrinks in a process called contraction.
Why do liquids expand?

The forces between particles in a solid are stronger than the
forces between particles in a liquid. As a result, an increase in
temperature usually causes liquids to expand much more
than solids. For example, the liquid inside a glass thermometer
expands as the temperature increases. However, the size of the
glass tube hardly changes at all. This causes the height of the
liquid column in the tube to go up as the temperature goes
up. If the length of the glass tube expanded as much as the
liquid, the height of the liquid column in the tube would not
change as the temperature changed.
Why do gases expand?

In a gas, the forces between particles are much weaker than
they are in a liquid. As a result, gases expand much more than
liquids for the same increase in temperature. When thermal
expansion happens, the volume of the object increases. Recall
that the density of an object is its mass divided by its volume.
When the volume of an object increases but its mass does not
change. the density decreases.
The decrease in density caused by the expansion of volume
enables a hot-air balloon to rise. A burner heats the air inside
the balloon. The hot air in the balloon expands and becomes
less dense than the cooler air outside the balloon. The balloon
is pushed up by the cooler, denser air around it.
Reading Essentials
149
After You Read

Mini Glossary
heat of fusion: the amount of energy required to change 1 kg
plasma: state of matter consisting of positively and negatively
of a substance from solid to liquid at its melting point

heat of vaporization: the amount of energy required for
1 kg of a liquid at its boiling point to become a gas
charged particles
1. Review the items in the Mini Glossary above. Use the term heat of fusion and the term
heat of vaporization to explain an event you see in everyday life.
2. Use this flowchart to organize information about the steps that occur as you add thermal
energy to a solid.
more
thermal
thermal
energy
added
point
energy
3. As you read this section, you underlined new or surprising information about states of
matter. What are two things you learned that you didnt understand or know about
before reading this section?

150
End of
Section
Solid
chapter
3
section
Transferring Thermal Energy
Before You Read

There is an old joke that says a sweater is something you put
on when your mother is cold. On the lines below, write about
a time when you felt warm, but someone else felt cold.
What Youll Learn
three ways heat is

transferred
about thermal
conductors and
insulators
how thermal insulators
control the transfer of
thermal energy
Read to Learn
Ways to Transfer Thermal Energy

Thermal energy can be transferred from place to place in
different ways. Particles can transfer heat either by colliding
or moving to another part of a substance. Thermal energy
also can be transferred without matter. There are three ways
that thermal energy can be transferredconduction,
convection, and radiation.
Identify Definitions As
you read the section, highlight
the definition of each word that
appears in bold.
Conduction
The kinetic theory states that particles in matter are always
in random motion. When particles collide, energy is
transferred from one particle to another. This process is called
conduction. Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy by
the collision of particles in matter.
Imagine a metal frying pan heating on a stove. The metal
atoms nearest the burner absorb the most thermal energy
causing their kinetic energy to increase. These atoms start to
move faster. Kinetic energy is transferred when these
faster-moving atoms collide with slower-moving particles
near them. As these collisions continue, thermal energy is
transferred throughout the frying pan. In conduction,
thermal energy is transferred by the collisions between
particles in matter, not by the movement of matter.
C Compare Make the
following Foldable to compare

conduction, convection, and
radiation.
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Reading Essentials
151
Which materials are good thermal conductors?

Thermal energy can be transferred by conduction in all
materials. The rate at which thermal energy is transferred
depends upon the material. A thermal conductor is a material
in which thermal energy is transferred easily. The conduction
of thermal energy is faster in solids and liquids than in gases.
Particles in gases are farther apart than in solids and liquids
and collide less often. The best thermal conductors are metals.
Convection
1.
Explain What is
convection?
A fluid is a substance that can flow. It can be a liquid or a

gas. Thermal energy can be transferred in fluids by
convection. Convection is the transfer of thermal energy in
a fluid by the movement of fluid from place to place. During
convection, particles with more energy transfer energy to
other particles as they move from place to place.
As the particles move faster, they tend to get farther apart.
As a result, a fluid expands when it is heated. Recall that
density is mass divided by volume. The density of a liquid
decreases when it is heated because the volume increases but
the mass does not change. The warmer parts of a fluid are less
dense than the cooler parts around them.
Convection currents can occur because there is a difference
in density between warm and cool fluids. When a beaker of
water is heated from the bottom, convection currents form in
the beaker. The warm water at the bottom of the beaker is less
dense than the cooler water above it. The cooler, denser water
sinks and the warmer, less dense water rises. As it rises, the
warmer water transfers thermal energy to the cooler water
around it. As the warm water cools, it becomes denser and
sinks to the bottom of the beaker. The rising and sinking
forms convection currents. In this way, convection currents
transfer thermal energy by the movement of water from place
to place.
2.

would happen to cooler
regions if heat were not
carried from warmer
regions to cooler regions by
convection currents?
152
Is there convection in the atmosphere?

Earths atmosphere is made of gases and is a fluid. The
atmosphere is warmer at the equator and cooler at the north
and south poles. The atmosphere is warmer at the surface
than at higher altitudes. Temperature differences cause
convection currents in the atmosphere. Heat is carried to
cooler regions by convection currents. Deserts and rainforests
are caused by convection currents.
What causes convection currents?
Radiation
How does thermal energy travel through space? There is
almost no matter between the Sun and Earth, so thermal
energy does not travel by conduction or convection. Instead,
energy is transferred from the Sun to Earth by radiation.
Radiation is the transfer of energy by electromagnetic
waves. These waves transfer energy through solids, liquids,
and gases. They also carry energy through empty space.
Energy transferred by radiation is often called radiant energy.
When you sit by a fireplace, you feel warm because thermal
energy is transferred by radiation to your skin.
3.
Compare How is energy

transferred in radiation?
How does matter affect radiant energy?

When radiation strikes a material, three things happen: The
material absorbs some of the energy, reflects some of the
energy, and some of the energy may be transmitted, or passed
through, the material. The amount of energy absorbed,
reflected, and transmitted depends on the type of material.
Light-colored materials reflect more radiant energy, while
dark-colored materials absorb more radiant energy. When a
material absorbs radiant energy, the thermal energy of the
material increases.
The Flow of Thermal Energy

You control the flow of thermal energy in everyday
activities. For example, you put on a coat when its cool
outside. You wear an oven mitt when you pull a hot pan out
of the oven. In both cases, you use materials to help control
the flow of thermal energy. Your coat reduces the flow of
thermal energy from your body to the surrounding air. The
oven mitt reduces the flow of thermal energy from the hot
dish to your hand.
Thermal Insulators
A coat and oven mitt are thermal insulators. A thermal
insulator is a material through which thermal energy flows
slowly. Thermal insulators include wood, some plastics,
fiberglass, and air. An insulator is the opposite of a conductor.
Good conductors of thermal energy, such as metals, are poor
thermal insulators.
Gases such as air are much better thermal insulators than
solids or liquids. Some kinds of insulating materials have
many pockets of trapped air. These air pockets are poor
conductors of thermal energy. They also keep convection
currents from forming.
4.
Define the meaning of

the term thermal insulator.
Reading Essentials
153
After You Read

Mini Glossary
conduction: the transfer of thermal energy by collisions
thermal insulator: thermal material in which thermal
between particles in matter

convection: transfer of thermal energy in a fluid by the movement of fluid from place to place.
energy moves slowly

radiation: the transfer of energy by electromagnetic waves
1. Review the terms in the Mini Glossary above. Write a sentence below that shows your
understanding of the term thermal insulator.
2. Complete the table to organize information about how thermal energy is transferred.
How Thermal Energy
Is Transferred
Definition
Example
Conduction
Radiation
3. Think about what you have learned. How did identifying definitions help you as you read
this section?

154
End of
Section
Convection
chapter
4
section
Using Thermal Energy
Before You Read
What Youll Learn
the laws of
thermodynamics
how heat is used and
how engines work
how the entropy of the
universe changes
Cars and buses use heat engines. List three more kinds of
devices you know about that use engines.
Read to Learn
Study Coach
Create a diagram You will
How is thermal energy used?
If you use a campfire to keep warm or use a stove to boil

water, you are using thermal energy. Heating a house and
using a gasoline engine to mow a lawn are other uses of
thermal energy. Sometimes thermal energy is used to heat an
object. Sometimes thermal energy is converted to work.
read about open and closed

systems in this section. For each
one, make a diagram that will
help you remember the
difference between them.
Heating Systems
Almost everywhere in the United States, a heating system is
used to make the indoor temperatures more pleasant on cool
days. Heating systems add thermal energy to rooms. The
heating system in a building depends on the local climate and
the construction of the building.
Forced-Air Systems In a forced-air system, fuel is burned
in a furnace. A fan blows the warm air through large pipes
called ducts. The ducts carry heated air to openings called
vents in each room. Cool air is returned through other vents
to the furnace where it is reheated.
D Compare Make the

learn the vocabulary words from
this section.
Forced Air
Radiator
Radiator Systems In a radiator system, fuel is burned in a

furnace which heats a tank of water. Pipes carry the hot
water or steam to radiators in the building. Thermal energy
is transferred from the hot water or steam to the air around
the radiator by conduction. Warm air moves through the
room by convection.
Elec. Heating
Passive Solar
Active Solar
Open System
Closed System
Int. Comb.
Reading Essentials
155
Electric Heating Systems In an electric heating system,

there is no central furnace. Electrically-heated coils in the
floors and walls heat the surrounding air by conduction.
Thermodynamics
There is a way to increase the thermal energy of an object
without heating it. Have you ever rubbed your hands together
to warm them? No heat is flowing to your hands, but they get
warmer. The thermal energy and temperature in your hands
increase. You did work on your hands by rubbing them
together. The work you did caused the thermal energy in your
hands to increase. Thermal energy, heat, and work are related.
Thermodynamics is the study of the relationship among thermal energy, heat, and work.
1.
Identify two things that

can increase thermal
energy in a system.
You can warm your hands by placing them near a fire.

Thermal energy is added to your hands by radiation. You can
also rub your hands together as you hold them near a fire.
The thermal energy of your hands increases even more. Both
the heat from the fire and the work you do increase the
thermal energy of your hands.
In the example above, your hands are a kind of system. A
system can be a group of objects, such a cars engine, or a
single object, such as a ball. The energy transferred to a
system is the amount of energy that crosses the boundary.
The work done on a system is the work done by something
outside the systems boundary.
What is the first law of thermodynamics?
2.
Restate What rule of

science states that the
increase in the thermal
energy of a system equals
the work done on the
system plus the thermal
energy transferred to the
system?
156
The first law of thermodynamics states that the increase in

thermal energy of a system equals the work done on the
system plus the thermal energy transferred to the system.
Doing work on a system is a way of adding energy to a
system.
So the temperature of a system can be increased by adding
heat to the system, doing work on the system, or both. For
example, a bicycle pump is a system. Work is done on the
system by pushing down on the pump handle. The pump gets
warm, and thermal energy is transferred from the system to the
air around it. The first law of thermodynamics is another way
of stating the law of conservation of energy. The increase in
energy of a system equals the energy added to the system.
How do heating and work increase thermal

energy?
What are open systems and closed systems?

A system is an open system if thermal energy flows across
the boundary or if work is done across the boundary. In other
words, energy is added to the system. The energy of an open
system can change. If no thermal energy flows across the
boundary and no outside work acts on the system, the system
is closed. The first law of thermodynamics says that the
thermal energy of a closed system doesnt change. Processes
within the system may change one form of energy into
another, but the total energy of the system stays the same.
3.
Explain Why does

energy of an open system
change, but energy of a
closed system does not
change?
4.
Identify What does a car

engine convert into work
and thermal energy?
What is the second law of thermodynamics?
When thermal energy flows from a warm object to a cool

object, the first law of thermodynamics is satisfied. The
increase in thermal energy of the cool object equals the
decrease in thermal energy of the warm object.
Can thermal energy flow from a cold object to a warm
object? This process wouldnt break the first law of
thermodynamics. However, the natural flow of thermal
energy from a cool object to a warm object never happens.
It breaks another law.
The second law of thermodynamics says that it is
impossible for thermal energy to flow from a cool object to a
warmer object unless work is done. If you hold an ice cube in
your hand, no work is done. Thermal energy flows only from
your hand to the ice, not the other way around.
Converting Thermal Energy to Work

When you rub your hands together, friction converts the
work you do on your hands to thermal energy. Your hands
become warmer. In this example, work was converted
completely into thermal energy. Is it possible to convert
thermal energy completely into work? This would not break
the first law of thermodynamics. But the second law says it is
impossible to build a device that converts thermal energy
completely into work.
What is a heat engine?

A heat engine, such as a car, is a device that changes
thermal energy into work. The engine converts the chemical
energy in gasoline into thermal energy and work, which
makes the car move. About 25 percent of the thermal energy
from burning gasoline is converted into the work of turning
the cars wheels. The rest is transferred to the air surrounding
the engine.
Reading Essentials
157
What is an internal combustion engine?

An internal combustion engine is the heat engine in a car.
In an internal combustion engine the fuel burns inside the
engine in chambers, or cylinders. Car engines usually have
four or more cylinders. Each cylinder has a piston inside it.
The pistons move up and down. Each up-and-down
movement of the piston is called a stroke. A car engine has a
four-stroke cycle.
Moving Thermal Energy
5.
Explain What always

must be done by a
refrigerator to transfer
thermal energy from a cold
area into a warmer area?
Refrigerators A refrigerator contains a coolant that is

pumped through pipes in the refrigerator. The coolant is a
liquid that turns into a gas when it is pumped through an
expansion valve. The gas is cooler than the liquid. The cool
gas is pumped through pipes in the refrigerator. As it goes
through the pipes, the gas absorbs thermal energy and cools
the inside of the refrigerator.
Then the gas goes through a compressor that compresses
the gas. This makes the gas warmer than before. The warm
gas flows through coils that allow some of the thermal energy
in the gas to escape into the room. As the gas gives off thermal
energy, it becomes a liquid again. It is pumped through the
expansion valve and the cycle starts over.
Entropy
You learned how a car engine can convert only some
thermal energy into work. In general, work can be converted
completely into thermal energy, but thermal energy cant be
converted completely into work. Why is this? The answer has
to do with entropy. Entropy is a measure of how spread out,
or dispersed, energy is. When energy is more spread out,
entropy increases.
6.
Explain What is entropy?
Why does entropy always increase?

All events increase the entropy of the universe. This means
that if a car engine runs, or a person walks up stairs, or a ball
is dropped, entropy must increase. When you drop a ball, its
potential energy becomes thermal energy that spreads out and
becomes less concentrated.
158
The second law of thermodynamics allows for thermal

energy to flow from a cool object to a warmer object if work
is done. A refrigerator does work to move thermal energy
from inside the refrigerator to the warmer room.
After You Read

Mini Glossary
entropy: a measure of how dispersed, or spread out, energy is
first law of thermodynamics: the increase in thermal
second law of thermodynamics: heat cannot flow from a

cool object to a warmer object unless work is done
energy of a system equals the work done on the system

plus the heat transferred to the system
1. Review the terms in the Mini Glossary above. On the lines below, write a sentence that
describes the relationship between a entropy and an energy in the universe.
2. Complete the missing information in the following chart using the terms provided.
thermal
work
entropy
thermal
cool
increases
warm
work
energy
system
energy
First law of thermodynamics: the increase in thermal __________________ of a

system equals the __________________ done on the system plus the
__________________ energy transferred to the __________________
Second law of thermodynamics: it is impossible for __________________ energy
to flow from a __________________ object to a __________________
object unless __________________ is done
Entropy: when __________________ is dispersed, this quantity is increased; the
__________________ of the universe is always__________________
3. Entropy may seem like a complicated concept. How could you explain entropy to
someone using everyday language?

games, and projects to help you learn more about radioactivity.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
159
Waves
10
chapter
The Nature of Waves
What Youll Learn
how waves transfer

energy but not matter
about mechanical,
transverse, and
compressional waves
Study Coach
Communicate Work with

another student. When you read
a paragraph that is hard to
understand, share with your
partner what you think it
means. Continue to discuss the
information until you understand
it better.
Before You Read

Write what you think a wave is and list two types of waves
you have seen or heard about.
Read to Learn
Whats in a wave?
Imagine that you are watching a surfing championship on
television. As you look at the surfers riding the giant waves,
you heat up some leftover pizza in the microwave. You call a
friend to tell her about the surfing. Your friend tells you to turn
on your radio to listen to a song you both like. You have just
experienced three different types of waves. You saw the waves
in the ocean. You cooked using microwaves. Sound waves were
produced by the television, your friends voice, and the radio.
A wave is a repeating disturbance or movement that
transfers energy through matter or space. For example, ocean
waves disturb the water and transfer energy through it. In an
earthquake, powerful waves transfer energy through Earth.
Light is a type of wave that can travel through empty space to
transfer energy from one place to another, such as from the
Sun to Earth.
Waves and Energy
1.
Identify What do waves

transfer with them?
160
CHAPTER 10 Waves
Have you ever watched a pebble fall into a pool of water

and seen ripples form? The pebble causes a disturbance in the
water. Some of the energy from the falling pebble transfers to
the water molecules that are close by. The water molecules
pass the energy along to other water molecules that are next
to them. In this way, the energy passes from molecule to
molecule until it is far from where the pebble first fell. A wave
is formed. It carries the energy across the water.
1
section
Do waves carry matter?

Suppose you are in a boat on a lake. The waves in the water
bump against your boat. You notice that the boat moves up and
down and maybe even back and forth a little. After the waves
have moved past, your boat has not moved to a different place.
The waves dont carry the water along with them. They only
carry energy as they move. This is true for all waves. They carry
energy without moving matter from place to place.
How can you make a wave?

A wave will travel as long as there is both energy and a
medium to carry it. Think of the pebble and the pool of
water. The ripples eventually stop and the water is smooth
again. There is no more energy to carry.
The figure shows a hand making a wave with a rope. As the
hand moves up and down, a wave begins to travel along the
rope. The wave moves along the rope until it reaches the end.
Once the wave reaches the end, the rope is still because there
is no more energy to transfer.
Picture This
2.
pen or a pencil to circle the

parts of the rope that show
the location of the wave.
Producing a Wave
Mark the Figure Use a
The hand in the figure is moving up and down. Anything

that moves up and down or back and forth repeatedly is
vibrating. The hand moving up and down is a vibrating
movement. Vibrations cause all waves.
Mechanical Waves
Sound waves travel through the air to reach your ears.
Ocean waves travel through water to reach the shore. Both
kinds of waves move their energy through a medium. A
medium is the matter through which a wave travels. A
medium can be a solid, a liquid, or a gas. It can also be a
combination of these forms of matter. The medium for
sound waves is air. The medium for ocean waves is water.
Not all waves need a medium in order to travel. Light waves
and radio waves are examples of waves that do not need a
medium. They can travel through space. Waves that can
travel only through matter are called mechanical waves. The
two types of mechanical waves are transverse waves and
compressional waves.
3.
Identify What must a

mechanical wave travel
through?
Reading Essentials
161
How does matter move in a transverse wave?

Use two quarter-sheets of
notebook paper to make a
Foldable that compares and
contrasts transverse waves
and compressional waves.
Transverse
Waves
Compressional
Waves
Picture This
4.
In a transverse wave, the matter in the medium moves at a

right angle to the direction the wave travels. An ocean wave
moves across, horizontally, while the water it passes through
moves up and down, vertically. The wave and the matter in
the medium move at right angles to each other.
How does matter move in a

compressional wave?
In a compressional wave, matter in the medium moves
back and forth in the same direction that the wave travels.
The figure below shows how a compressional wave moves
along a coiled spring. Suppose you hold onto both ends of a
spring. You squeeze some coils together at one end of the
spring, then let go of them. A wave travels along the spring.
If you tie a piece of yarn to one of the coils of the spring,
you can see the back-and-forth movement in the spring. As
the wave passes through the coil with the yarn, the yarn
moves in the direction of the wave. After the wave passes the
yarn, it moves back to its original position. However, the wave
continues to move to the end of the spring. The yarn moves
back and forth as the wave passes. The wave carries energy
with it, but it doesnt carry matter. Another name for
compressional waves is longitudinal waves.
Explain Why are the

coils closer together at the
middle of the spring in
the figure?
Compressional wave
How do sound waves move?

Sound waves are compressional waves. Some sound waves
travel through air. If you pick a string on a guitar, the string
vibrates. The vibration pushes nearby air molecules close
together. The air molecules squeeze together like the coils in
the spring. Then the compressions travel through the air to
make a wave. Sound waves also can travel through mediums
such as water and wood. The particles in those mediums also
squeeze together and move apart when sound waves travel
through them.
When a sound wave reaches your ear, it causes your
eardrum to vibrate. Your inner ear sends signals to your brain.
Your brain understands these signals as sound.
162
CHAPTER 10 Waves
A Compare and Contrast
How do water waves move?

Water waves look like transverse waves. They are actually
a combination of transverse and compressional waves. The
figures below show the movement of water in a wave. The
small arrows show the direction of the wave and the large
arrows show the movement of the water. As a wave goes by,
the water moves up and down. The water also moves back
and forth for a short distance in the same direction that the
wave moves. Waves have both high and low points. Water
pushes forward or backward toward the high part of the wave.
This causes the low part of the wave to form as the first figure
shows. Then as the wave passes, the water that was pushed
forward or backward moves back to where it was.
Picture This
Water is pushed aside.
5.
Observe Use your

highlighter to trace the
arrows that show the
movement of water when
it is pushed forward or
backward toward the high
part of the wave.
6.
Identify What usually

starts the movement of a
wave in an ocean?
Water returns to where it was.
The up-and-down and back-and-forth motion causes the

water to move in circles. An object that floats on the surface
of the water takes in some of the energy from the waves.
This causes it to bob in a circular motion.
How are ocean waves formed?

Wind blowing across the ocean surface causes most ocean
waves to form. The changing speed of the wind acts like a
vibration on the water. The size of the waves depends on the
speed of the wind, the length of time the wind blows, and
how far it travels over the water.
What are seismic waves?

Forces in Earths crust can cause parts of the crust to shift,
bend, or even break. When this happens, Earths crust vibrates
and releases energy. This creates seismic (SIZE mihk) waves
that carry energy outward and cause an earthquake.
Seismic waves are a combination of transverse and compressional waves. They travel through Earth and along Earths surface. Objects on Earths surface move and shake when they take
in some of the energy from the seismic waves. The more Earths
crust moves during an earthquake, the more energy is released.
Reading Essentials
163
After You Read

Mini Glossary
compressional wave: a wave in which the matter in the
transverse wave: a wave in which matter in the medium
medium moves back and forth in the same direction that

the wave travels
medium: the matter through which a wave travels
moves back and forth at a right angle to the direction the

wave travels
wave: a repeating disturbance or movement that transfers
energy through matter or space
1. Review, the key terms and definitions in the Mini Glossary above. What is the difference
between a transverse wave and a compressional wave?
2. Complete the chart below to list what you learned about mechanical waves.
Compressional Waves
How they move
How they move
Examples
Example
End of
Section
164
Mechanical Waves
CHAPTER 10 Waves

and projects to help you learn more about the nature of waves.
Tranverse Waves
Waves
10
chapter
2
section
Wave Properties
Before You Read
What Youll Learn
Have you ever sat high in the stadium at a baseball game and
heard the sound of a ball being hit by a bat? Did you notice
that you heard the sound after you saw the ball being hit?
Explain why you think this happened.
about wavelength,
frequency, period, and
amplitude
how frequency and
wavelength are related
how a waves energy
and amplitude are
related
how to calculate
wave speed
Read to Learn
The Parts of a Wave

How are sound waves, water waves, and seismic waves different? Some waves have more energy than others. Some travel
faster than others. There are other ways that waves are different.
Remember that transverse and compressional waves act
differently as they travel through a medium. The first figure
below shows a transverse wave. Notice that the medium (the
rope) has alternating high points and low points. A crest is the
high point of a transverse wave. A trough is the low point of a
transverse wave. The second figure shows a compressional wave
in a coiled spring. It does not have crests or troughs. Instead, the
wave creates areas where the coils are close together. This area is
called a compression. In other areas, the coils are spread apart.
A rarefaction (RAYR uh fak shun) is the area in a
compressional wave where the medium is more spread out.
Underline As you read this

section, look for important
information about the
properties of waves. Underline
all of the ideas that you think
are important to understand
and remember.
Picture This
Crest
1.
Trough
Rest position
Describe the pattern

shown in the medium by
the transverse wave.
Rarefaction
Compression
Reading Essentials
165
Wavelength
B Summarize Make a
Foldable to record the

differences among wavelength,
frequency, speed, and amplitude
and energy.
Wavelength
Frequency
Speed
Amplitude
and Energy
Another way to describe a wave is by its wavelength.

A wavelength is the distance between one point on a wave and
the nearest point just like it. The first figure below shows a
transverse wave. The wavelength is the distance from the top of
one crest to the top of the next crest. You could also measure the
wavelength from the bottom of one trough to the bottom of the
next trough.
The second figure below shows a compressional wave.
The wavelength is the distance from the center of one compression to the center of the next compression. You could also
measure the wavelength from the center of one rarefaction to
the center of the next rarefaction.
Humans cannot hear all sounds. You can hear sounds that
have wavelengths between a few centimeters and about 15 m.
The highest-pitched sounds you hear have wavelengths that
are smaller than a few centimeters. The deepest sounds you
hear have wavelengths that are about 15 m.
Wavelength
Wavelength
2.
Analyze In the figure

showing the transverse
wave, how do the sizes of
the wavelengths compare?
Wavelength
Rest
position
Frequency and Period

Have you ever heard someone use the word frequency?
It usually refers to how often something happens in a given
period of time. Frequency has a similar meaning when referring
to waves. The frequency of a wave is the number of wavelengths
that pass a point each second. To find the frequency of a
transverse wave, count the number of crests or troughs that pass
by a point each second. In the same way, to find the frequency of
a compressional wave, count the number of compressions
or rarefactions that pass by a point each second.
When you tune a radio to a certain station, you are
choosing radio waves of a certain frequency. Frequency is
expressed in hertz (Hz). A frequency of 1 Hz means that
one wavelength passes by in 1/s. In SI units, 1 Hz is the
same as 1/s.
166
CHAPTER 10 Waves
Picture This
Wave Periods The period of a wave is the amount of time

it takes one wavelength to pass a point. Periods are measured in units of seconds. If it takes two seconds for an
ocean wave, from one crest to the next, to pass a point, the
wave has a period of two seconds.
How are frequency and wavelength related?
3.
a wave is 120 seconds, how

long does it take the wave
to pass a point?
There is a relationship between frequency and wavelength.

If you make transverse waves with a rope, you can increase
the frequency by moving the rope up and down faster. The
frequency increases because more crests or troughs pass by a
point in one second. Moving the rope faster also makes the
wavelength shorter. The distance from crest to crest or trough
to trough is shorter. This relationship is always true: as frequency increases, wavelength decreases.
Look at the two figures below. The waves in the ropes show
that as the frequency of waves increases, their wavelengths
decrease. The first figure shows one wavelength passing by in
one second. The frequency of the first wave is 1 Hz. The second
figure shows two wavelengths passing by in one second. The
frequency of the second wave is 2 Hz. As more wavelengths pass
by in one second, the wavelengths get shorter. In the two figures,
the frequency increases from 1 Hz to 2 Hz, so the wavelengths
decrease. If you move a rope up and down five times in 1 s, the
frequency of the wave is 5 Hz. However, the wavelengths would
be shorter than for the rope with a frequency of 2 Hz.
Distance traveled in 1 s
Distance traveled in 1 s
Picture This
4.
Rest position
One
wavelength
One
wavelength
Analyze If the period of
Identify What kind of

waves are shown in
the figure?
One
wavelength
Wave Speed
Look back at the question at the beginning of this section.
It asks if you have ever sat up high in the stadium at a
baseball game, heard the sound of a ball being hit by a bat,
and realized that you heard the sound after you saw the ball
being hit. You saw the baseball being hit before you heard it
because light waves travel through gases much faster than
sound waves. Air is a gas. The light waves reflected from the
ball reached your eyes before the sound waves created by the
bat hitting the ball reached your ears.
Reading Essentials
167
What determines wave speed?

The speed of a wave depends on the medium it is traveling
through. Light waves travel faster than sound waves through
gases. Sound waves usually travel faster than light waves
through liquids and solids. Sound waves are compression
waves. Compression waves travel faster in liquids and solids
than they do in gases. Also, sound waves usually travel faster
in a material when the temperature of the material is
increased. For example, sound waves travel faster in air at
20C than in air at 0C.
5.
Determine Do light
waves or sound waves
travel faster through
gases?
How do you calculate wave speed?

You can calculate the speed of any wave by multiplying its
frequency times its wavelength. The Greek letter lambda ()
represents the wavelength, f represents the frequency, and v
represents the speed of the wave. The wave speed equation is:
speed (in m/s) frequency (in Hz) wavelength (in m)
vf
Applying Math
6.

speed of a sound wave
that has a frequency of
150 Hz and a wavelength
of 0.00002 mm? Show
your work.
Step 1
What do you know?

f 500.0 Hz
3.0 m
Step 2 Write the equation and put in the known numbers.

vf
v 500.0 Hz 3.0 m
Step 3 Solve the equation.
v 1,500.0 m/s
The speed of the wave is 1,500 m/s.
Amplitude and Energy

Why do some earthquakes cause terrible damage, while
others hardly are felt? This is because waves can carry
different amounts of energy. Amplitude is a measure of the
energy that a wave carries. The greater a waves amplitude, the
more energy the wave carries. Amplitude is measured
differently for compressional and transverse waves.
168
CHAPTER 10 Waves
Why does multiplying the frequency unit (Hz) by the distance unit (m) result in the unit for speed (m/s)? Recall that
the SI unit Hz is the same as 1/s. So multiplying m Hz
equals m 1/s. Which equals m/s.
Using the equation, you can calculate the speed of a wave
traveling in water. If the wave has a frequency of 500 Hz and
a wavelength of 3 m, what is the speed of the wave?
How is amplitude measured for

compressional waves?
The amplitude of a compressional wave depends on how tightly
the medium is pushed together at the compressions. The tighter
the medium is pushed together at the compressions, the greater its
amplitude. The greater the amplitude is, the more energy the wave
carries. Think of a coiled-spring toy. It takes more energy to push
the coils tightly together than it does to barely move them.
Compare the compressions in the figure on the left with the
compressions in the figure on the right. The coils in the
compressions of the figure on the right are closer together. The
second wave has greater amplitude and more energy compared to
the first wave.
Picture This
7.
Identify In the figure on

the right, are the coils in
the rarefactions closer
together or farther apart
than in the figure on the
left?
Look at the rarefactions in the two springs. The closer the

coils are in the compression, the farther apart they are in the
rarefaction. So the less dense a medium is at the rarefactions,
the more energy the wave carries.
How is amplitude measured for

transverse waves?
Have you ever been knocked over by an ocean wave?
If so, you know that the higher waves carry more energy.
Remember that the greater a waves amplitude, the more
energy the wave carries. So a tall ocean wave has a greater
amplitude than a short ocean wave. The amplitude of a
transverse wave is measured differently than the amplitude of
a compressional wave. The figure below shows that the
amplitude of a transverse wave is the distance from the crest
or trough of the wave to the rest position. The greater this
distance is, the greater the amplitude is.
Crest
Amplitude
Picture This
8.
Amplitude
Rest position
Trough
Draw Using the same rest

position, draw a wave with
a greater amplitude than
the one shown. Then draw
a wave with a smaller
amplitude.
Reading Essentials
169
After You Read

Mini Glossary
amplitude: measure of the energy that a wave carries
crest: the high point of the transverse wave
frequency: the number of wavelengths that pass a fixed
point in one second
period: the amount of time it takes one wavelength to pass a
fixed point
rarefaction: the section in a compression wave where the

material is less crowded and more spread out
trough: the low point of the transverse wave
wavelength: the distance between one point on a wave and
the nearest point just like it
1. Review the key terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary above. Explain how a
transverse waves wavelength is different from its amplitude.
Properties
of Waves
3. Look back at the important ideas you underlined about wave properties. How did
underlining these ideas help you learn the information?
End of
Section
170
CHAPTER 10 Waves

and projects to help you learn more about wave properties.
2. Complete the concept map below to list the properties of waves that you learned about in
this section.
10 Waves
chapter
3
section
The Behavior of Waves
Before You Read

Think about a time when you walked down an empty hallway
and heard the echo of your footsteps. Write what you think
caused the echo.
Read to Learn
Reflection
Suppose you and a friend are the last students to leave your
school building. You shout to your friend at the other end of
the hallway. Your voice echoes throughout the hallway. You also
notice your reflection in one of the glass windows. These are
both examples of wave reflection. Wave reflection causes the
echo you hear and the image you see of yourself. Wave
reflection happens when a wave strikes an object or surface and
bounces off it. All types of wavesincluding sound, water, and
light wavescan be reflected.
What Youll Learn
the law of reflection

how waves change
direction
what are refraction
and diffraction
how waves interfere
with each other
Study Coach
Create a Quiz Write

questions on index cards as you
read this section. After you read,
form a group of three students.
Take turns asking each other your
questions and answering them.
How do light waves reflect?

What happens when you see your face in a mirror? First,
light waves strike your face and bounce off. Then, the reflected
light strikes the mirror and reflects back to your eyes.
What are echoes?

Echoes are reflected sound waves. When you called to your
friend in the school building, your voice echoed around the hall.
Sound waves formed when you shouted. The waves traveled
through the air to your ears and to other objects. The waves
reflected off the walls, floor, and ceiling and then came back to
your ears. You could hear your voice again, a few seconds after
you first heard your voice. This caused the echo. Dolphins and
bats use echoes to determine where objects are. Dolphins make
clicking noises and listen to the echoes.
C Build Vocabulary
Make the following Foldable. It

will help you understand the
content of this section by
defining the terms used.
ction
Refle
ction
Refra
ion
Diffract
nce
Interfere
Standing
Waves
e
Resonanc
Reading Essentials
171
What is the law of reflection?

The figure below shows a flashlight shining on a mirror. The
light beam that strikes the mirror is called the incident beam.
The light beam that bounces off the mirror is called the reflected
beam. The line that is at a right angle to the mirror is called the
normal. The angle made by the incident beam and the normal is
the angle of incidence. The angle made by the reflected beam
and the normal is the angle of reflection. The law of reflection
says that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
Picture This
1.
Label On the figure of

the flashlight and the
mirror, label the incident
beam as i and the reflected
beam as r.
Normal
Reflection
Refraction
Suppose you put a pencil in a glass of water and then look

at it from the side of the glass as shown above. The pencil
looks like it is broken in two at the water line. But if you pull
the pencil out of the water, you see that it is not broken. What
makes the pencil appear broken?
What is refraction?
2.
Identify What can

change the speed of a
wave?
172
CHAPTER 10 Waves
Remember that a waves speed depends on the medium it

is moving through. When a wave moves from one medium
to another, such as from water to air, it changes speed. If this
wave travels at an angle when it passes from one medium to
another, it changes direction, or bends, as it changes speed.
Refraction is the bending of a wave caused by a change in its
speed as it moves from one medium to another. Two things
happen to the light waves as they move from the air to the
water in the glass. The light waves change speed and direction. They are refracted so the pencil appears to be broken.
When does light bend?

When a light wave passes into a material in which it slows
down, it bends toward the normal. When a light wave passes
into a material in which it speeds up, the wave bends away
from the normal.
Refraction
Refractions The figures show what these refractions look like.

The figure on the left shows light waves moving from air to
water. The light waves slow down when they enter the water.
This makes them change direction and bend toward the normal.
The figure on the right shows light waves moving from water to
air. The waves speed up and bend away from the normal.
Light
Air
Air
Picture This
Normal
Normal
3.
Highlight Look at the

figure on the right. Use
your highlighter to trace
the angle that shows the
light bending away from
the normal.
4.
Identify Circle the term
Water
Water
Light
Air to water
Water to air
How does light bend in water?

Have you ever noticed that the feet of someone standing in a
swimming pool look closer to the surface than they really are?
Your brain wants to think that the light waves travel in a straight
line. But refraction causes the light waves from the feet to bend
away from the normal as they pass from the water to the air.
This is similar to the pencil in the glass of water. The pencil
looks broken at the surface of the water. The light waves
coming from the part of the pencil above the water are not
bent. The light waves that move from the air to the water in the
glass change speed and bend. This makes the part of the pencil
that is under water look like it has shifted.
Diffraction
Suppose you are in a classroom and you hear music coming
from another room. The sound waves bend around corners and
travel from the room down the hall to where you are. Refraction
does not cause sound waves to bend. Instead, they bend because
of diffraction. Diffraction takes place when an object causes a
wave to change direction and bend around it.
Light waves can diffract, too. Light waves do not diffract as
much as sound waves do. Suppose you walk toward the room
where you hear the music. As you walk toward the open door,
you can see light coming out of the room. Light waves bend
around the edges of the open door. But the amount of light
that bends is not enough for you to be able to see around the
corner and into the room. Yet, you can hear the all the music
that is being played in the room.
that describes the bending

of a wave around an object.
a. reflection
b. refraction
c. diffraction
d. rarefaction
Reading Essentials
173
Picture This
5.
Trace Using a pencil,

trace along the waves in
the figure that have passed
through the opening.
What happens to the waves
after they pass through
the opening?
When do water waves diffract?

Ocean waves refract when they strike an island. The waves
change direction and bend around the island. Diffraction and
refraction both cause waves to bend, but there is a difference.
Waves refract when they pass through an object. They diffract
when they pass around an object.
Waves also can diffract when
they pass through a narrow
opening. The figure shows
water waves passing through a
small opening in a barrier. They
diffract and spread out after
they pass through the opening.
The waves are bending around
the corners of the opening.
To find out how much a wave will bend when it strikes an
object, compare the size of the object to the wavelength.
When an object is smaller than the wavelength, the waves
bend around it. Suppose you shine a large spotlight on a very
thin tree. The object is smaller than the wavelength, so the
light waves bend around the tree. The shadow is narrower
than the tree. A large amount of diffraction takes place.
Suppose you shine a small flashlight on a very large tree.
The object is larger than the wavelength, so the light waves
will not bend around the tree easily. The shadow is wider
than the tree. Almost no diffraction takes place.
How do sound waves bend around corners?

6.
Apply Why is it hard to

see around a corner?
Think back to the example of the music coming from

another room in your school. You can hear the sounds before
you reach the door. The wavelengths of sound waves are
about the same size as the door opening. The sound waves
diffract around the door and spread out into the hallway.
How is this different from the light waves in the room? You
arent able to see into the room because light waves have a much
shorter wavelength than sound waves. This is why the light waves
are not diffracted by the door as much as the sound waves are.
How do radio waves diffract?

AM radio waves have longer wavelengths than FM radio
waves. So, AM radio waves can diffract around big objects
much more than FM radio waves. You can get more AM than
FM radio stations when you are near tall buildings and hills.
174
CHAPTER 10 Waves
How much will a wave bend?
Interference
Suppose you throw two pebbles into a still pond. Each
pebble causes ripples to form around it. The waves of ripples
travel toward each other. When the two waves meet, they pass
right through each other and continue moving. Interference
is the point where two waves meet each other and overlap to
form a new wave. The new wave lasts only as long as the two
waves continue to overlap. There are two kinds of
interference, constructive and destructive.
7.
Describe a time when

you heard or used the word
interference or interfere.
What is constructive interference?

The figure below shows constructive interference. In constructive interference, the waves meet at the same point and
add together. This happens when the crests of transverse
waves overlap each other. The troughs of the waves also
overlap. The amplitudes of the two waves add together to
make a larger wave. So, the new wave has a higher crest and a
lower trough. The amplitude of the new wave is the sum of
the amplitudes of the other two waves. Constructive
interference also happens when two compressional waves
overlap. When the compressions of one wave overlap the
compressions of another, the compressions add to make a
combined wave with larger amplitudes. If they are sound
waves, the new wave is louder.
Wave 1
Wave 1 Wave 2
Wave 1
Wave 1 Wave 2
Wave 2
Picture This
8.
Wave 2
Constructive Interference
Destructive Interference
Use Models In both

figures, use a highlighter
to trace over the new wave
that forms during either
constructive or destructive
interference.
What is destructive interference?

In destructive interference, the overlapping waves subtract
from each other. This happens when the crest of one transverse
wave overlaps with the trough of another transverse wave. The
amplitudes of the two waves combine to make a new wave with
a smaller amplitude. The figure above on the right shows the
new wave that forms during destructive interference.
The same is true for compressional waves. When the
compression of one wave overlaps the rarefaction of the other
wave; destructive interference occurs. The compressions and
rarefactions combine to form a smaller wave. In sound waves
destructive interference causes a decrease in loudness.
Reading Essentials
175
Standing Waves
Suppose you and a friend are holding the ends of the same
rope. You both shake the rope and make waves the same size
that travel toward each other. Interference happens when the
waves from one end overlap waves from the other end. A new
wave forms when a crest of one of your waves meets a crest of
one of your friends waves. The new wave has a larger amplitude.
When a crest of one wave meets a trough of another wave,
the waves cancel each other out. Then there is no movement.
A standing wave is a wave pattern that forms when two
equal-sized waves travel in opposite directions and
continuously interfere with each other. The interference of
these two waves makes the rope vibrate and creates a pattern
of crests and troughs. This makes it look like the rope is
standing still. Nodes are the places where the two waves
cancel each other. The nodes always stay in the same place on
the rope. The wave pattern vibrates between the nodes.
Describe What happens
when a crest of one wave
meets a trough of another
wave of the same
amplitude?
What are some standing waves?

When you use a bow to play a violin, the string vibrates and
creates standing waves. The standing waves in the string make a
rich, musical tone. Other instruments also use standing waves to
create music. A flute creates standing waves in a column of air.
The material in a drum vibrates to make standing waves.
Resonance
10.
Summarize How can

resonance cause an
object to break?
176
CHAPTER 10 Waves
Bells of different sizes and shapes make different sounds.

When you strike a bell, it vibrates at its own natural
frequencies. All objects have their own natural frequencies of
vibration. The frequencies depend on the size and shape of
the object. Frequency also depends on the kind of material
that the object is made of.
There is another way to make an object vibrate at its natural
frequencies. Suppose you have a tuning fork with a single
natural frequency. Imagine that a sound wave of the same
frequency strikes the tuning fork. Because the sound wave has
the same frequency, the tuning fork will vibrate. Resonance
is when an object vibrates by absorbing energy from another
object that is vibrating at its natural frequencies.
Resonance can cause an object to absorb a large amount of
energy. An object vibrates more strongly as it keeps absorbing
more energy at its natural frequencies. If enough energy is
absorbed, the object can vibrate too much and break apart.
9.
After You Read

Mini Glossary
diffraction: the bending of a wave around a barrier
interference: the point where two waves meet each other
and overlap to form a new wave
refraction: the bending of a wave caused by a change in its
speed as it moves from one medium to another
resonance: an object vibrates by absorbing energy from

another object that is vibrating at its natural frequencies
standing wave: a wave pattern that forms when two
equal-sized waves travel in opposite directions and
interfere with each other
1. Review the key terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. How are refraction and
diffraction the same? How are they different?
2. List the main topics you learned about the behavior of waves. For help, use the main
headings in the section.
The Behavior of Waves

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
3. Look at the questions you wrote on index cards during this section. How did writing these
questions help you learn?

and projects to help you learn more about the behavior of waves.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
177
Sound
and
Light
11
chapter
1
section
Sound
What Youll Learn
how sound travels

the different properties
of sound
the Doppler effect
ways sound can be used
Before You Read

Place your hand on your throat and hum a tune. How is the
movement that you feel related to the sound you make?
Read to Learn
Main Ideas Highlight the
Sound Waves
An amusement park is a noisy place. Music is playing,
videogames are beeping, and people on rides are screaming.
These sounds are all different, but they all have something in
common. Each sound is made by an object that vibrates.
Remember that vibration is a quick, rhythmic back-and-forth
movement.
What makes sound waves?
A Build Vocabulary

define the vocabulary terms of
this section.
178
uses
loudness
speed
compression
waves
Sound
CHAPTER 11 Sound and Light
When an object like a tuning fork vibrates, it makes sound

waves. Sound waves are compressional waves. Recall that a
compressional wave is made of compressions and
rarefactions. Compressions occur where molecules are closer
together. The molecules in rarefactions are farther apart.
A tuning fork makes sound by creating compressional
waves. When the end of a tuning fork moves outward, it
pushes air molecules together to make a compression on that
side. The compression moves away from the tuning fork as
the molecules collide with other molecules in the air.
When the end of the tuning fork moves back to its original
place, a rarefaction is formed. There, the molecules are farther
apart. As a tuning fork vibrates, it makes a series of
compressions and rarefactions that travel outward. This is the
sound wave you hear.
main idea of each paragraph.

Review what you highlighted
after you finish reading this
section.
The Speed of Sound

A sound wave moves in air as collisions between air
molecules transfer energy from place to place. Sound waves
can move in other materials. Any material in which a sound
wave moves is called a medium. Sound waves can move in
solids, liquids, and gases as a vibrating object transfers energy
to the particles in the medium. However, sounds waves
cannot move in empty space where there are no particles.
Applying Math
1.
Calculate Sound travels

through air at 347 m/s. If
lightning strikes 2 km away,
how long it would take the
sound of the thunder to
reach you? Divide the
distance by the speed of
sound through air. Round
your answer to the nearest
tenth of a second.
2.
Explain Why does sound

travel faster in hot air than
in cold air?
Does the medium affect the speed of sound?

How quickly a sound wave moves through a medium
depends on whether the medium is a solid, liquid, or gas.
The speed of sound also depends on the type of molecules
and atoms that make up the medium. Sound travels slowest
through gases and fastest through solids.
Does temperature affect the speed of sound?
The speed of sound waves also depends on the temperature

of the medium. As the temperature of a substance increases,
its atoms and molecules move faster. Molecules and atoms
collide more often at higher temperatures. If the particles in a
medium are colliding more often, sound waves can move
faster. So as the temperature of a medium increases, sound
waves move faster through the medium. For example, when
the air temperature is 0C, sound travels at a speed of 331 m/s.
When air is at a temperature of 20C, sound travels at 343 m/s.
Amplitude and Energy of Sound Waves

Think about the differences among the sounds you hear.
Some sounds are loud and others are soft. The flute plays high
notes and the tuba plays low notes. The properties of sound
waves cause the differences in the sounds you hear.
Recall that the amount of energy a wave carries is related to
its amplitude. The amplitude of a compressional wave is
related to the density of the particles in the waves
compressions and rarefactions.
Reading Essentials
179
What increases sound energy?

A vibrating object makes a wave by transferring energy to
the medium. More energy is transferred when the particles in
the medium are forced closer together in the compressions
and spread farther apart in the rarefactions. A sound wave has
higher amplitude and carries more energy when the particles
in the medium are closer together in the compressions and
more spread out in the rarefactions. Two sound waves with
different amplitudes are shown in the figures below.
Picture This
3.
Explain What is the

density difference between
a low-amplitude wave and a
high-amplitude wave?
Low-amplitude
sound wave
High-amplitude
sound wave
Imagine listening to your CD player. Sound waves produced

by the CD player travel through the air and transfer energy from
the CD player to your ears. The amount of energy that reaches
your ears depends on the amplitude of the sound waves and
your distance from the CD player. As sound waves travel farther
from their source, the energy of the sound waves spreads out
over a greater area. The amount of energy transferred by a
sound wave through a certain area each second is the intensity
of the sound wave.
As sound waves travel away from the source of the sound, the
intensity of the waves decreases as the waves spread out. This
means that as you get farther from the source, less energy
reaches your ears each second.
What is loudness?
You do not need special equipment to know which sounds
have greater intensity. Your ears and brain can tell the difference.
Loudness is the human perception of sound intensity. As the
intensity of a sound wave increases, the loudness of the sound
also increases.
4.
Determine What is
How is loudness measured?

loudness and intensity?
The intensity of sound can be described using a measurement

scale. A decibel (DE suh bel) is the unit for measuring sound
intensity. The abbreviation for decibel is dB. The quietest sound
that most people can hear is 0 dB. A whisper is about 15 dB. The
sound level in an average home is about 50 dB.
180
Intensity and Loudness
Harmful Sounds Sounds that are louder than 120 dB can

cause pain and permanent hearing loss. During some rock
concerts, sound intensity reaches this damaging level.
Factories, construction sites, and other workplaces can
have noise levels that might damage hearing. Wearing ear
protection, such as earplugs, around loud sounds can help
protect against hearing loss.
5.
Apply How can you

prevent hearing damage
and loss?
6.
Explain How is pitch
Pitch and Frequency

Have you ever sung the musical scale do, re, mi, fa, so, la, ti,
do? When you sing this scale, your voice starts low and gets
higher with each note. You hear this as a change in pitch. Pitch
is the human perception of the frequency of sound waves. Pitch
gets higher as the frequency of sound waves increase.
How is frequency measured?

Frequency is a measure of the number of wavelengths
that pass a fixed point each second. The frequency of a
compressional wave, such as sound, is the number of
compressions or the number of rarefactions that pass by each
second. Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz). A frequency of
1 Hz means that one complete wavelength passes by in 1 s. A
whistle with a frequency of 1,000 Hz has a high pitch.
Low-pitched thunder has a frequency of less than 50 Hz.
A healthy human ear can hear sound waves with
frequencies from about 20 Hz to about 20,000 Hz. Humans
can best hear sounds that are between 440 Hz and 7,000 Hz.
Most people can hear much softer sounds in this range than
they can at higher or lower frequencies.
related to the frequency of

sound waves?
Are there sounds humans cant hear?

Ultrasonic sound waves have frequencies above 20,000 Hz.
People cannot hear such high sound frequencies. Dogs can
hear sounds with frequencies up to about 35,000 Hz. Bats can
hear sounds with frequencies of more than 100,000 Hz. Even
though humans cant hear ultrasonic waves, they use them for
many things. Ultrasonic waves are used to diagnose and treat
illnesses. Ultrasonic waves also are used to estimate the size,
shape, and depth of underwater objects.
Sound waves that have frequencies below 20 Hz are called
infrasonic waves, or subsonic waves. These frequencies are too
low for most people to hear. Wind, heavy machinery, and
earthquakes make infrasonic waves. Although you cannot
hear infrasonic waves, you might feel them as a rumble inside
your body.
Reading Essentials
181
The Doppler Effect

Suppose that you are standing beside a racetrack watching
race cars zoom past. As a car moves toward you, the pitch of
its engine becomes higher. As it moves away from you, the
pitch becomes lower. The Doppler effect is the change in pitch
or frequency due to the relative motion of a wave source.
Explain What is the
Doppler effect?
What happens when a sound source moves?

As a race car moves, it produces sound waves made up of
compressions and rarefactions. Look at the figure below. The
race car creates a compression, labeled compression A.
Compression A moves through the air toward the flagger.
Look at the second figure. By the time compression B leaves
the race car, the car has moved forward. Compressions A and
B are closer together than they would be if the car had stayed
still. Because the compressions are closer together, more
compressions pass by the flagger each second than if the car
were not moving. The flagger hears a higher-pitched sound.
Look at the second figure again. The compressions behind
the moving car are farther apart and the sound has a lower
frequency. The flagger hears a lower pitch as the car moves
away.
Compression A
Picture This
8.
Draw Circle the picture in

which the flagger nears a
higher pitch.
Compression A
Compression B
What happens when a listener moves?

You also can notice the Doppler effect when you are moving
past a sound source that is standing still. If you pass a building
with a ringing bell, the pitch of the bell sounds higher as you
get closer to the building. The pitch sounds lower as you get
farther from the building. The Doppler effect happens any
time the position of the source of a sound or the listener
changes. The faster the change in position, the greater the
change in frequency and pitch.
182
7.
Using Sound
When sound waves strike an object, three things can
happen. The sound waves can pass through the object, be
absorbed by the object, or be reflected from the object.
Reflected sound waves can be used to determine the size,
shape, and location of an object.
What is echolocation?
Some species of bats use sound waves to find their prey.
Echolocation is the process of locating objects by making
sounds and interpreting the sound waves that are reflected
back. Bats can discover how far away and how big an insect is
from the sound waves that bounce back. Dolphins, whales,
and other animals use echolocation to locate objects.
What is sonar?
Sonar is a system that uses the reflection of underwater

sound waves to find objects. A sound wave is sent
underwater. When the sound wave hits something solid, it is
reflected, or bounces back. An underwater microphone picks
up the reflected sound.
The speed of sound in water is known. The distance to the
object can be found by measuring how much time passes
between the time the sound was sent to when the reflected
signal was received.
9.
Identify What are the

frequencies of ultrasonic
waves?
How are ultrasonic waves used in medicine?

Ultrasonic waves can create images of the inside of a
patients body. Special instruments are used to send ultrasonic
waves into a patients body. The reflected waves create an
image that allows medical professionals to study conditions
such as pregnancy, heart disease, and cancer.
Ultrasound is used to examine many parts of the body.
These include the heart, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, spleen,
kidney, breast, and eye. Ultrasound is used to keep track of a
developing fetus. Ultrasound is not too useful for examining
bones and lungs. Hard tissues and air absorb the ultrasonic
waves instead of reflecting them.
Ultrasound is used to treat some medical problems. Small,
hard deposits of calcium called kidney stones, can form in the
kidneys. Bursts of ultrasonic waves are used to create
vibrations that break the stones into small pieces. The pieces
then pass out of the body with the urine.
10.
Explain Why isnt

ultrasound used to examine
bones and lungs?
Reading Essentials
183
After You Read

Mini Glossary
decibel: the unit for measuring sound intensity
Doppler effect: a change in pitch or frequency due to the
loudness: the human perception of sound intensity

pitch: the human perception of the frequency of sound waves
relative motion of a wave source

intensity: the amount of energy transferred by a sound wave
through a certain area each second
1. Review the vocabulary terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary above. How are
intensity and loudness similar and different?
2. Fill in the blanks below with the following words to make correct statements about the
topics you studied in this section:
intensity, high-amplitude, ultrasonic, decibel, frequency
sound frequencies are too high for humans to hear.
of a sound wave increases, the pitch increases.
In a
sound wave, the compressions are dense.
The
is the unit for measuring how intense a sound is.
As the
of a sound wave increases, the loudness increases.
3. You highlighted the main idea of each paragraph in this section. How did this strategy
help you learn the material? Would you recommend that a friend use this strategy?

and projects to help you learn more about sound.
184
End of
Section
As the
Sound
and
Light
11
chapter
2
section
Reflection and Refraction of Light
Before You Read

Have you ever used a flashlight in the dark? Why is the
flashlight so important?
Read to Learn
Imagine looking around a dark room. Your eyes slowly get
used to the darkness. Everything is a shade of gray or even
black. When you turn on the light, the objects are colorful
again. What you see depends on the amount of light in the
room and on the color of the objects. For you to see an object,
it must reflect or emit some light that reaches your eyes.
light waves interact with

matter
regular and diffuse
reflection
the index of refraction
prisms separate light
Study Coach
Create a Quiz After you

read each paragraph, write a
question that you think your
teacher might ask on a quiz.
After you finish reading the
section, try to answer all of your
quiz questions.
How do objects affect light?

Objects can absorb light, reflect light, or transmit light.
Objects that transmit light allow light to pass through them.
Whether light is absorbed, reflected, or transmitted depends
on the material that makes up the object. Think of a coffee
mug. Most likely, you cant see through it because no light
passes through it. It only absorbs or reflects light. An opaque
(oh PAYK) material absorbs or reflects all light.
Have you ever seen a dark-colored drinking glass? You can
see light through the glass, but you cant really see whats
behind it. Translucent (trans LEW sunt) materials allow
some light to pass through. You cannot see clearly through
translucent materials. Matter that is clear, such as water or
glass, is transparent. Transparent materials transmit almost
all the light striking them, so you can see objects clearly
through them.

help you understand the ways in
which light is absorbed,
reflected, and transmitted.
absorbed
reflected
LIGHT
The Interaction of Light and Matter
What Youll Learn
transmitted
Reading Essentials
185
Reflection of Light
Did you look in a mirror this morning before you left for
school? When you saw your reflection, you actually saw light
that reflected off your body. The light then reflected off the
mirror and traveled to your eye. Because light behaves as a
wave, it obeys the law of reflection.
According to the law of reflection, the angle at which a light
wave strikes a surface is the same as the angle at which it is
reflected. The figure below shows the law of reflection. Light
follows this law when it is reflected from any surface, whether
it is a mirror or a piece of paper.
Picture This
Observe Suppose the
light from the flashlight hits
the mirror at a 60 angle.
What will be the angle of
the reflected beam of light?
What are regular and diffuse reflections?
C Find Main Ideas Make

a Foldable to record information
about the main ideas about the
law of reflection.
186
You can sometimes see your reflection in a window, but

you cannot see your reflection on a sheet of paper. Why not?
How well you can see your reflection depends on the
smoothness of the surface. A glass window has a very smooth
surface and a sheet of paper has an uneven surface. Smooth
surfaces like the glass window usually reflect light in an even
pattern. They make sharp images. Reflection of light waves
from a smooth surface is called regular reflection. Rough or
uneven surfaces like the sheet of paper reflect light in many
directions. Reflection of light from a rough surface is called
diffuse reflection.
Light Scattering Diffuse reflection is a type of scattering.
Scattering occurs when light waves traveling in one direction
are reflected in many different directions. Scattering also
occurs when light waves reflect off small particles. Light
scattering makes a cloud appear white, though its water
droplets are transparent.
1.
Refraction of Light
Have you ever seen a spoon sitting in a glass of water? If
you look at the glass from the side, the spoon looks bent or
broken. The image that you see is caused by the refraction, or
bending, of light.
Refraction is caused by a change in the speed of a light ray.
The speed of light depends on the substance it travels
through. Light travels at different speeds in air, glass, and
water. When light is traveling at an angle and passes from one
substance into another, the wave is bent, or is refracted.
What is the index of refraction?

The amount that light rays bend when they are refracted
depends on the speed of light in both materials. The greater
the change in speed, the more the light will be bent as it
passes at an angle from one material to the other. Every
material has an index of refraction. The index of refraction is
the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of
light in the material. The greater the index of refraction, the
more light slows down in the material. For example, because
glass has a larger index of refraction than air, light moves
more slowly in glass than air.
How do prisms affect light?
.
2.
Define What is the index

of refraction?
3.
Explain What happens

to light waves as they pass
through air layers with
different densities.
A prism is a glass object with two flat sides at an angle. A

prism refracts sunlight into colorful patterns. How does
refracting light create colors? White light, such as sunlight, is
made up of different wavelengths of visible light. Red light
has the longest wavelengths and violet light has the shortest.
The different wavelengths are refracted different amounts
by a prism. The red wavelengths are bent the least, and the
violet wavelengths are bent the most. Light is bent in a prism
when it enters and as it leaves. The light that leaves the prism
is separated into different colors as a result of the bending.
What causes mirages?

Have you ever traveled in a car and seen what looked like a
pool of water on the road ahead? As you got closer, the pool
of water seemed to disappear. What you saw was a mirage. A
mirage is an image of a distant object that is made when light
is refracted through air layers of different densities.
Mirages occur when the air at ground level is much warmer
or cooler than the air above. The density of air increases as it
cools. Light waves move slower in cooler air than in warmer air.
Light waves are refracted as they pass through air layers with
different temperatures.
Reading Essentials
187
After You Read

Mini Glossary
index of refraction: a ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum
translucent: a material that allows some light to pass through

transparent: a material that transmits almost all light that
to the speed of light in the material

opaque: a material that absorbs or reflects all light
strikes it
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Why might you use
translucent glass in windows and doors?
2. Complete the graphic organizer to organize the information you learned in this section
about the behavior of light.
Reflection
Happens when light waves
Refraction
off objects.
The angle at which light strikes a surface and the angle at

which it is reflected are the
The
of light.
A property of a material that indicates how much light

slows down when traveling in the material is the
.
Regular reflection
surfaces
images
light
wavelengths
Diffuse reflection
Rainbows
surfaces
light
formed by light refracting in
Mirages
formed when light is refracted through

and projects to help you learn more about the behavior of light.
188
End of
Section
Prisms
Sound
and
Light
11
chapter
3
section
Mirrors, Lenses, and the Eye
Before You Read

People who wear glasses are either nearsighted or farsighted.
What is the difference?
What Youll Learn
about three kinds of

mirrors
how convex and
concave lenses form
images
how lenses and the
human eye work
Read to Learn
Locate Information Many
Light Rays
A light source, such as the Sun or a light bulb, sends out

light waves in all directions. Think of light from a source as
being many narrow beams of light traveling in all directions.
Each narrow beam is called a light ray.
headings in this section are

questions. Underline the
answers to these questions.
Mirrors
A mirror is any surface that makes a regular reflection. A
pool of still water, a metal pan, and even the back of a shiny
spoon can be mirrors. Mirrors can be flat, curved inward, or
curved outward.
What are plane mirrors?

A flat, smooth mirror is a plane mirror. When you look in
a plane mirror, your image appears upright. If you stand 1 m
from the mirror, your image appears 1 m behind the mirror,
or 2 m from you. In fact, your image is what a friend standing
2 m from you would see.
When you stand in front of a mirror, the light rays from a
light source hit you. Rays reflect off you in all directions.
Some rays hit the mirror. The mirror reflects these rays in all
directions. Some reflected light rays hit your eyes. You see
your image in the mirror. If there are no light rays to reflect,
then there is no image for you to see.
D Find Main Ideas Make

a six-tab Foldable to record
information about old and new
vocabulary terms in this section.
reflection
plane mirror
concave mirror
convex mirror
convex lens
concave lens
Reading Essentials
189
What are virtual and real images?

Your brain interprets light rays as if they travel in a straight
line. Actually the light rays change direction when they reflect
off a mirror. Imagine extending the reflected light rays back
behind the mirror to the image. Your brain thinks that the
light rays are coming from this point. However, no light is
coming from behind the mirror.
The image you see in a plane mirror is always a virtual
image. A virtual image is any image formed without light rays
passing through the place where the object seems to be
located. Real images are formed when light rays from an
object pass through the location of the image.
1.
Explain What kind of

image will you always see
in a plane mirror?
What are concave mirrors?

A plane mirror is flat, but some mirrors are curved. A
concave mirror is a mirror with a surface that is curved inward.
Every concave mirror has an optical axis. The optical axis is
an imaginary line that is perpendicular to the surface of a
mirror and passes through the center of the mirror.
Some light rays travel parallel to the optical axis on their
way to a concave mirror. These rays reflect off the mirror
and pass through a point. As the figure below shows, the
reflected rays cross each other at the focal point. The focal
point is the point where the reflected light rays intersect. The
focal length is the distance from the center of the mirror to
the focal point.
Look at the figure below. Some light rays cross through the
focal point on their way to a concave mirror. The mirror
reflects these rays parallel to the optical axis.
Ray B
Picture This
2.
Ray A
Highlight the point

where the reflected light
rays intersect.
Optical axis
Focal
point
Concave Mirror
190
How does a concave mirror reflect light?
What images are seen in a concave mirror?

The image of an object in a concave mirror does not always
look the same. The kind of image depends on how close the
object is to the mirror. If an object is exactly one focal length
from a concave mirror, the mirror will reflect no image. An
object less than one focal length from the mirror produces a
virtual image that is upright and larger than the object. When
an object is between one and two focal lengths from a concave
mirror, the image is read, inverted, and larger than the object.
How does a convex mirror reflect light?

A convex mirror is a mirror that curves outward, like the
back of a spoon. The security mirrors in banks and some rearview mirrors and side-view mirrors in cars are convex.
When a convex mirror reflects light rays, it spreads the
reflected light rays apart. Because of this, a convex mirror can
show the image of a large area.
The light rays that reflect off a convex mirror never meet,
so a convex mirror forms only a virtual image. The image is
upright and smaller than the object.
3.
Define What is a convex

mirror?
Concave Mirror
Ray B
Ray A
Optical axis
Picture This
4.
Describe The image of

the candle produced by the
mirror in the figure.
Lenses
What do your eyes have in common with cameras,
eyeglasses, and microscopes? They all contain at least one
lens. A lens is a transparent object with at least one curved
surface. The lens causes light rays to refract. Like curved
mirrors, lenses form images. The image depends on the shape
of the lens. A lens can be either convex or concave.
Reading Essentials
191
What are convex lenses?

A convex lens is thicker in the middle than at the edges.
The optical axis of a convex lens is an imaginary line that is
perpendicular to the thickest point on the lens. The figure
below shows a convex lens.
Light rays traveling along the optical axis are not bent at all.
Some light rays travel parallel to the optical axis on their way
to a convex lens. The lens refracts these light rays so they all
cross each other at the same point, called the focal point. The
focal length of the lens is the distance from the center of the
lens to the focal point.
Picture This
5.
Predict A light ray travels

along the optical axis to a
convex lens. Draw a line on
the figure to show what will
happen to the ray as it
passes through the lens.
Focal length
The focal length of a convex lens depends on the curve of

the lens. If the curved sides of the lens are very rounded, the
light rays bend sharply and the focal point is close to the lens.
As a result, the focal length of the lens is short. If the sides of
the lens are flatter, the light rays bend less and the focal point
is farther from the lens. Therefore, the focal length is longer.
The images made by a convex lens can be real or virtual.
What are concave lenses?
6.
Describe the physical

characteristics of a concave
lens.
192
A concave lens is thinner in the middle and thicker at the

edges. When a concave lens refracts light rays, it bends the
rays outward, away from the optical axis as shown in the figure
on the next page. The rays spread out and never meet at a
focal point. A concave lens creates a virtual image. The image
is right side up, and smaller than the object. Concave lenses
are used in some types of eyeglasses and some telescopes.
Often they are used in combination with other lenses.
Focal point
Picture This
7.
Communicate Use the

figure to explain to another
student how concave
lenses form images.
Optical axis
The Human Eye
What determines how well you can see the words on this
page? If you do not need eyeglasses, the parts of your eyes
give you the ability to focus on words and objects.
Light enters your eye through the cornea (KOR nee uh). As
shown in the figure below, the cornea is a transparent
covering of the eyeball. The cornea bends light rays to bring
them together. Then the light passes through an opening
called the pupil. Behind the pupil is a flexible convex lens.
Muscles attached to the lens change its shape to help focus
light, forming a sharp image on the retina.
The retina is the inner lining of the eye. Cells on the retina
that are sensitive to light change the image into electrical
signals. The optic nerve sends the signals to your brain.
Retina
Focal
point
Lens
Pupil
Cornea
Optic nerve
Picture This
8.
Identify Use a colored

marker or pen to identify
the places where light
bends when it enters the
eye.
When does the eye adjust?

The human eye adjusts to the brightness of light that hits
it. Your eyes react to bright light by decreasing the size of your
pupil. In dim light, the size of your pupil increases.
Light intensity is the amount of light energy that hits a
certain spot each second. Brightness is the human perception
of light intensity.
Reading Essentials
193
9.
Apply Why would

someone using an
arc-welding machine that
gives off a bright light need
to wear a helmet with
dark-colored protective
lenses?
Brightness and Distance The intensity of a light source

depends on your distance from the light source. The more
distance between you and the light source, the less light
energy strikes your retina.
Correcting Vision Problems

If you have good vision, you should be able to see objects
clearly when they are 25 cm or farther from your eyes.
However, many people have trouble seeing objects at certain
distances. The eyes lenses may not be able to change shape
properly, causing poor vision.
What does it mean to be farsighted?

Farsighted people see distant objects better than nearby
objects. The eyeball may be too short or the lens may be too
flat. The lens does not curve enough to form a sharp image of
nearby objects on the retina. Convex lenses can be used to
correct this problem. As you can see in the figure, the convex
lenses bend the incoming light rays before they enter the eye.
Nearsighted people see nearby objects better than distant
objects. The eyes of nearsighted people cannot form a sharp
image on the retina of an object that is far away. Instead, the
image forms in front of the retina and appears blurry.
Eyeglasses with concave lenses cause incoming light rays from
distant objects to spread apart before they enter the eye. Then
the rays are focused by the eye to form a sharp image on the
retina.
Picture This
10.
Compare and
Contrast What are
Focal
point
the differences between

farsightedness and
nearsightedness?
Light from
nearby object
Light from
distant object
Nearsighted eye
Light from
nearby object
Corrected
farsighted eye
Farsighted eye
Focal
point
194
Focal
point
Focal
point
Light from
distant object
Corrected
nearsighted eye
What does it mean to be nearsighted?
After You Read

Mini Glossary
concave lens: a lens that is thinner in the middle and thicker
at the edges
concave mirror: a curved mirror with edges that are closer to
convex mirror: a curved mirror with a center that is closer to

the viewer than to the edges of the mirror
plane mirror: a flat, smooth mirror
the viewer than the center of the mirror

convex lens: a lens that is thicker in the middle than at the
edges
1. Review the terms in the Mini Glossary. Write one or more sentences to show that you
understand how concave mirrors form images.
2. In the first box, draw a convex lens. In the second box, draw a concave lens. Add light rays
to show how they travel through each lens. Label the focal point if one is formed.
convex lens
concave lens
3. Describe some uses of convex mirrors.

and projects to help you learn more about mirrors, lenses, and the eye.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
195
Sound
and
Light
11
chapter
4
section
Light and Color
What Youll Learn
how you see color

how light color differs
from pigment color
what happens when
colors are mixed
Before You Read

Colors are important in everyday life. Name a time when
seeing color is important.
Read to Learn
Identify the Main Ideas
Why Objects Have Color

Why do some apples appear red, while others look green or
yellow? Recall that white light is made up of all colors of
visible light. The color of an object, like an apple, depends on
which wavelengths of light it reflects. For example, when
white light hits a red apple, only red light is reflected. This is
why the apple appears to be red. The apple absorbs all other
wavelengths of light.
Some objects reflect all wavelengths of visible light. Objects
that reflect all wavelengths of visible light appear to be white.
Black is not a color of visible light. Black is the absence of
visible light. Black objects absorb all wavelengths of light.
Since almost no light is reflected from these objects, they
appear to be black.
What are colored filters?

E Compare and Contrast

compare information about
light color and pigment color.
light
color
196
Both
pigment
color
Have you ever worn tinted glasses? Maybe you noticed that
tinted glasses change the color of almost everything you see.
Yellow glasses make everything look yellow. Red glasses make
the world look red. If you put a clear green plastic sheet over
this page, the paper would look green. Tinted glasses and
plastic sheets are filters. A filter is a transparent material that
transmits one or more colors of light, but absorbs the rest.
The color of a filter is the color of light that it transmits.
After you read each paragraph,

highlight the topic sentence, or
the main idea, of the paragraph
to help you remember the main
ideas in this section.
What do you see through a colored filter?

When you look at a baseball field, you see green grass. But
what would happen if you looked at it through a green filter?
Since a green filter lets green light pass, the grass would still
look green. Suppose you looked at the same field with a red
filter. The grass would look black because a red filter would
block the green light reflected from the grass.
1.
Infer What color would

red cloth appear to be if
you looked at it through a
green filter?
Seeing Color
As you approach an intersection, the traffic light changes
from green to yellow to red. What could happen at the
intersection if you couldnt see the color changes? Your safety
depends on seeing colors. How do you see colors?
How does your eye detect light?

Light enters your eye through the lens. The lens focuses
light onto the cornea. The retina is an area on the inside of
your eyeball. The retina has two types of cells that absorb
light. When these cells absorb light energy, chemical reactions
change light energy into nerve impulses. The impulses are
transmitted to your brain. The two types of retina cells are
called cones and rods.
What are cones and rods?

Your eyes have three types of cones. Cones are sensitive to
color and bright light. Each type of cone responds to a range
of different wavelengths. Red cones respond to mostly red and
yellow light. Green cones respond to mostly yellow and green
light. Blue cones respond to mostly blue and violet light. The
second type of cell in the retina is a rod. Rods are sensitive to
dim light and they aid night vision.
How do you interpret color?

When you see a stop sign, how do you know it is red? Red
light reflected by the stop sign enters your eye and is focused
on the retina. Red cone cells send a signal to your brain. Your
brain then understands the signal to mean red.
2.
Think Critically
Nocturnal animals are active
at night. They probably
have the most of which
type of retina cells?
What is color blindness?

If one or more sets of cones did not work correctly, you
would not be able to detect certain colors. This condition
is called color blindness. About eight percent of men and
one-half percent of women have some form of color
blindness. Most people who have color blindness have trouble
telling the difference between some colors, usually between
red and green.
Reading Essentials
197
Mixing Colors
Have you ever noticed the variety of paint colors in a paint
store? You even may have mixed paints to make new colors in
art class. It is possible to create different paint colors by
mixing pigments. A pigment is a colored material that is used
to change the color of other substances. A pigments color
depends on the wavelengths of light it reflects.
What happens when you mix colored light?

All the colors you can see are made by mixing three colors
of light. These three colorsred, green, and blueare the
primary colors of light. They correspond to the three
different types of cones in the retina of your eye. Mixing
them in different ratios makes all visible colors. If they are
mixed equally, the result is white light.
3.
Identify What three

colors combine to make all
the light you can see?
What are paint pigments?

If you mixed equal amounts of red, green, and blue paint,
would you get white paint? No, because mixing paint is
different from mixing colored light. Paints are made with
pigments. Paint pigments are made from chemical
compounds. Titanium dioxide is a bright white paint
pigment.
4.
Explain A hardware
store clerk uses green
pigment to make green
paint. Is green pigment a
primary pigment, or is it
made from a mixture of
primary pigments? Explain
your answer.
198
There are three primary colors of pigments. They are cyan,

magenta, and yellow. Cyan is a greenish blue. Magenta is a
bluish red. You may have seen these color names on ink
cartridges in a color printer. You can make any pigment color
by mixing different amounts of the three primary pigment
colors.
A primary pigments color depends on the wavelengths of
light it reflects. Pigments both absorb and reflect many colors.
Your eyes and brain, however, see this as one color. For example, a yellow pigment appears yellow in white light because it
reflects red, and green light. It absorbs blue and violet light.
So, the color of a mixture of primary pigments depends on
the primary colors of light that both pigments reflect.
Black pigments Recall that the three primary colors of
light combine to make white light. They are called additive
colors. The opposite is true with pigments. When equal
amounts of cyan, magenta, and yellow pigments are mixed,
they make black. The blended primary pigments absorb all
colors of light. Because black is the result of no light being
reflected, primary pigments are called subtractive colors.
What happens when you mix pigments?
After You Read

Mini Glossary
pigment: a colored material that is used to change the color of
other substances
1. Review the term and its definition in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence describing a
product you have used that contains pigments.
2. Complete the Venn diagram to organize the information you learned about color.
Colored Light
Color Pigments
The primary colors are
The primary colors are

.
Mixing all three

primary colors produces
All other
colors can be
produced by
mixing the
primary
colors.
.
Mixing all three
primary colors produces
3. What colors do each of the three types of cones detect?

and projects to help you learn more about light and color.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
199
Earths
Internal
Processes
12
chapter
Evolution of Earths Crust

Before You Read
What Youll Learn
evidence for the

continental drift
hypothesis
failings of the
continental drift
hypothesis
If you look at a map of the world, you will notice that the
continents look like pieces of a puzzle. Why do you think they
look that way?
Read to Learn
Study Coach
Discussion After reading

this section, use an index card
to write down the two most
important things you learned.
Put one idea on each side of the
card. Form a group of four
students to discuss the things
you learned.
Continental Drift
At the start of the twentieth century, geologists only studied
the land that was close to them. They developed theories
about erosion and mountain-building processes. There was
no theory to explain that the geologic processes on Earth
were related.
What was Pangaea?

In 1915, Alfred Wegener (VEG nur) proposed a hypothesis
that suggested Earths continents once were part of a supercontinent called Pangaea (pan GEE uh). He thought that
Pangaea broke into pieces that drifted over Earths surface to
their current locations.
Wegener hypothesized that Pangaea probably started to
break apart around 200 million years ago. Unfortunately, he
was unable to find a force strong enough to move continents.
Puzzle pieces Compare the eastern coastline of South
America and to the western coastline of Africa. Do they
match? When South America and Africa are joined together,
their southern tips fit very well into the Weddell Sea of
Antarctica. The coastlines of these continents are like puzzle
pieces that fit together.
200
CHAPTER 12 Earths Internal Processes
1
section
Picture This
1.
Highlight the coastlines

of South America and Africa
where they meet.
How are continents like a torn newspaper?

Wegener needed to prove that the continents once actually
were joined. He compared the continents to a torn newspaper.
To repair a torn newspaper, you need to make sure the words
connect as well as the edges. In other words, the lines of print
had to match in terms of their content, not just their shapes.
Wegener argued that rock types, fossils, erosion features,
and mountain ranges on different continents could be
matched. He said that continents could have been joined if
there were similar structures and formations on them.
How are fossils evidence of Pangaea?

Wegener thought that he could prove Pangaea existed by
using fossils. If fossils of large land animals that could not
swim or fly across oceans were found on different continents,
it would suggest that the continents once had been joined.
The fossils of large land animals, such as Lystrosaurus and
Cynognathus, supported Wegeners hypothesis. The fossils
of Glossopteris, a large fern with large, heavy spores, also
supported the idea.
How are mountains evidence of Pangaea?

When Pangaea broke apart, some mountain ranges were
split. For decades, geologists had studied these mountain
ranges as if they were separate ranges that had no
connections. Wegener showed that they were once joined
because they shared specific rocks and minerals.
Why didnt people believe Wegener?

Other scientists did not accept Wegeners hypothesis
because he could not describe a force strong enough to move
the continents apart. He thought that Earths rotation, the
gravitational pull of the Sun and the Moon, and centrifugal
force could move continents. Physicists quickly proved that
even when these forces were combined, they werent strong
enough to move continents.
2.
Explain What was the

main reason Wegeners
hypothesis was not
accepted?
Reading Essentials
201
Seafloor Spreading Hypothesis

After World War II, Dr. Harry Hess studied Wegeners ideas.
Hess used sonar to map the seafloor. Three-dimensional
models of the seafloor were created from sonar data. Look at
the figure below. The mid-ocean ridge system is a continuous
underwater ridge on the seafloor that wraps around Earth.
Picture This
3.
Identify Using a
highlighter, trace the MOR.
After studying the MOR, Hess proposed a hypothesis of

seafloor spreading. He said that liquid rock, or magma, from
Earths mantle is forced upward through the MOR because
magma has lower density than the surrounding rock. This
causes the crust to crack (fault) and move apart. Twin
mountain ranges are formed with a valley in between. A rift
valley is a down-dropped valley between twin mountain
ranges caused by faulting.
4.
Explain What allows

magma to travel upward
through the MOR?
What are the ages of seafloor sediments and

rocks?
In the 1960s, scientists drilled into the ocean floor and took
out samples, or cores, of the rock layers. Sediments near the
continents are thick, but thin near the MOR. Continental
rocks are billions of years old, but seafloor rocks are less than
200 million years old. Rocks of the oceanic crust increase in
age as their location extends from the MOR.
What is magnetic polarity of rocks?

Recall that Earths magnetic field can reverse, causing the
magnetic poles to reverse. The seafloor also has bands of
reversed magnetic polarity. Geologists discovered bands of
reversed polarity in the seafloor rocks similar to those on the
continents. The bands are parallel and equally distant from
the MOR. As crystals form in magma pushing out at the
MOR, they take on the polarity of Earth when they form.
202
What is seafloor spreading?
Theory of Plate Tectonics

The theory of plate tectonics originated in the 1960s. It
describes how many moving, crustal plates cover Earths
surface. Seafloor spreading showed that Earths crust moves
sideways. Scientists wanted to understand the motion of all
Earths plates.
Plates are made of a rigid layer of uppermost mantle and a
layer of either oceanic or continental crust above. Some plates
are made only of oceanic crust. Others are made of part
oceanic and part continental crust. There are about 12 major
plates and many minor ones.
There are three main kinds of plate motions. At their
boundaries, plates can move apart, together, or slide past
each other.

help you organize information
about the type of plates
boundaries.
Divergent
Convergent
Ocean - ocean
Continental
Transform
What are divergent plate boundaries?

Divergent boundaries are places where plates are pulling
apart. You learned that magma is pushed up through faults in
a rift valley at a mid-ocean ridge (MOR). The magma
spreads, cools and hardens to form new oceanic crust at this
divergent boundary.
What are convergent plate boundaries?

Convergent boundaries are areas where plates collide.
Several things can happen at these boundaries depending on
the types of plates that collide.
Continental lithosphere is less dense and thicker than
oceanic lithosphere. When a continental plate meets an
oceanic plate, the oceanic plate bends and is forced under the
continental plate. Subduction is the process of one plate
being forced under another plate.
When heat along a subduction zone partially melts rock,
magma forms and rises to the surface. It travels into a
volcanic arc that runs along side the subduction zone. A deep
sea trench also runs parallel to a subduction zone. The Andes
mountain range in South America is a subduction zone.
Picture This
Volcanic arc
Deep-sea
trench
Identify At plate
boundaries, what kind of
motion can occur?
Island arc
Continental
crust
Continental
crust
Lithosphere
5.
Mountain range
Deep-sea
trench
Asthenosphere
Lithosphere
Oceanic crust
Lithosphere
Oc
ea
nic
Asthenosphere
cru
st
st
ru
cc
ni
ea
Oc
st
cru
nic
ea
c
O
Asthenosphere
Reading Essentials
203
Ocean-Ocean Convergent Boundaries Convergent plate

boundaries also exist between two slabs of oceanic lithosphere.
The colder, denser plate subducts. Magma that erupts there
creates chains of volcanic islands called island arcs. Japan is an
example of an ocean-ocean convergent boundary.
Continental Convergent Boundaries Along some
convergent plate boundaries, two continental slabs of low
density collide but do not subduct. Since both are low in
density, they both buckle upward to form a high range of
folded mountains. The Himalaya of Asia are an example.
What are transform plate boundaries?

At transform boundaries two plates slide by each other.
No new lithosphere is created. No old lithosphere is being
destroyed, or recycled. The main result of transform
boundaries is horizontal plate movement.
6.
Explain What are

transform boundaries?
What drives the plates?

Research shows that plates are driven by a combination of
forces. One force is ridge push at the MOR. Because divergent
boundaries are higher at the center of the ridge, gravity forces
material down the slopes of the MOR.
Slab pull is a process that occurs when a plate subducts
back into Earth at some convergent boundaries. You probably
have experienced an analogy to slab pull. When you wake up
and your bed covers are on the floor, something like slab pull
has occurred. Heres what happens. While you tossed and
turned at night, your covers began to move off the bed.
Eventually, enough of the covers were over the side that
gravity pulled the rest of them to the floor. Subducting plates
act in much the same way. Portions of descending plates pull
the rest of the plate down with them.
How does friction act as a force?
7.
Determine What causes

the movement of all
plates?
204
Friction is another force between a plate and the mantle

material below the plate. Plates that drag continental material
along with them move slower than plates that are purely
oceanic. Scientists think that continental plates have deep
roots that cause more frictional force.
Internal convection of mantle material is the driving force
for all plate motion. The main source for the heat in Earths
mantle is the decay of radioactive elements.
What is a slab pull?
After You Read

Mini Glossary
convergent boundary: where tectonic plates collide
divergent boundary: where tectonic plates are pulling
apart
mid-ocean ridge: an underwater mountain ridge on the

seafloor of the Atlantic Ocean that wraps around Earth
rift valley: a down-dropped valley between twin mountain

ranges caused by faulting.
subduction: when one tectonic plate is forced under another
tectonic plate
transform boundary: where two tectonic plates slide by
each other
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence that explains
how subduction occurs.
2. Complete the chart below. List three arguments Wegener used to prove that the continents
were once joined:
Pangaea
1.
2.
3.
3. Review the ideas your group wrote on the index cards. Write one idea that you all agreed
was important. How did this idea help you to understand the evolution of Earths crust?

games, and projects to help you learn more about the evolution
of Earths crust.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
205
Earths
Internal
Processes
12
chapter
2
section
Earthquakes
Before You Read
What Youll Learn
causes of earthquakes
characteristics of
earthquakes
how seismic waves
affect Earths surface
seismic waves and
Earths internal structure
Have you ever felt the ground shake? What do you think
caused it to shake? How did you feel when it shook?
Read to Learn
Global Earthquake Distribution
For decades, scientists have known that earthquakes are not
distributed randomly. Earthquakes occur in particular places.
These zones are along the boundaries of Earths lithospheric
plates. Earthquakes occur near the edges of the plates. Seismic
data gathered from an earthquake gives scientists information
about the structure of the ocean floor and the structure and
motion of Earths plates.
Depth of Focus Scientists who plot data about depths of
earthquakes on a world map have seen patterns develop.
Transform faulting of divergent boundaries lets plates move
in opposite directions. This creates a narrow band of shallow
earthquakes. In an opposite way, convergent boundaries have
wide earthquake zones. The shallowest focal points in these
zones are near the surface at the point the boundaries
converge. The deepest focal points lie under volcanoes or
mountains that are created in the area where boundaries
collide.
Causes of Earthquakes
An earthquake is any seismic vibration of Earth caused by a
rapid release of energy. Earthquakes can be either natural or
caused by humans.
206
Organize Information
As you read this section, use a
highlighter to mark the most
important ideas in each
paragraph.
What is deformation?
Earths crust is made of rigid, rocky material and can be
considered brittle. When a stress is put on a brittle material, it
shows little sign of strain or deformation. However, it might
suddenly break. A strain is the manner or deformation in
response to a stress. Stress is the force per unit area that acts
on a material.
What are the four types of stress?

There are four types of stress:
1. Compressive stress occurs when a material is squeezed or
shortened.
2. Tension stress occurs when a material is stretched or
lengthened.
3. Shear stress occurs when different parts of a material are
moved in opposite directions along a plane.
4. Torsion stress occurs when a material is twisted.
B Understand Cause
and Effect Make the

understand the causes and
effects of the four types of stress.
Compressive
Tenision
Shear
Torsion
What are the kinds of deformation?

Elastic deformation occurs when a material deforms from
stress and then snaps back when the stress is removed.
A rubber ball that changes shape as it hits the ground and
then returns to its original shape is an example of elastic
deformation.
Plastic deformation occurs when a material deforms from
stress and stays in a new shape when stress is released. For
example, modeling clay behaves plastically. Rocks at great
depth, where temperatures are high enough, also show plastic
behavior.
Rocks in different temperatures can be compared to wax
candles. If you put stress on a candle when it is cold, it will
break. But a candle will bend easily under stress when the wax
is warm.
How is energy released?

Stress creates strain energy along cracks in Earths crust.
When this strain energy is released suddenly, it causes the
rock to lurch, or move suddenly, to new position. A fault is a
crack along which movement has taken place. If no
movement takes place, the crack is called a fracture. You can
see a diagram of a long fault in the figure on the next page.
Earthquakes occurs when the rocks lurch and break because
they are brittle. The sudden energy release that goes with the
fault movement is elastic rebound. Elastic rebound causes
seismic vibrations, or earthquakes.
1.
Describe elastic
rebound.
Reading Essentials
207
Earthquake Waves
Earthquake waves travel out in all directions from a point
where strain energy is released. This point is the focus, or
point of origin, of an earthquake. The focus is usually deep
inside Earth. The epicenter is the point on Earths
surface directly above the focus. This is demonstrated in the
figure below.
Picture This
2.
Describe what happens

to the waves in the figure
as they travel farther from
the focus?
Epicenter
Wave
fronts
Focus
Fault s
Faults
What are two types of body waves?

Primary waves travel through all kinds of matter. Secondary
waves only can travel move though solids.
3.
Infer three types of

matter through which
P-waves can travel.
Primary Waves Primary waves or P-waves cause particles in

a material to undergo a push-pull motion. Because this
motion is in the direction of wave travel, the wave energy is
transferred very quickly. The particles move, but they do not
permanently change position. Primary waves can travel
through all kinds of matter.
Secondary Waves Secondary waves, or S-waves, also are
called shear waves because they make particles move at right
angles to the direction of wave travel. S-waves travel only
through solid matter.
208
When you throw a rock into still water, you see rings of
waves. The center of these rings, where the rock hit, is similar
to the focus of an earthquake. The difference is that the rings
of waves in an earthquake move in spheres, not circles.
There are two main types of earthquake waves. Body waves
are waves that travel through Earth. Surface waves are waves
that travel across Earths surface.
Wave Speed S-waves travel more slowly than P-waves. As

the body waves move away from the focus of an earthquake,
S-waves fall farther and farther behind the P-waves. The
time between the P-wave and the S-wave can be measured.
Scientists use this time difference to find the epicenters of
earthquakes.
What is a surface wave?
4.
Discuss why side-to-side

rocking can destory a
building foundation.
Surface waves roll, much like ocean waves. When surface

waves travel through material on Earths surface, they move in
an up and down rolling motion and also a side-to-side
motion. The side-to-side rocking is the motion that destroys
the foundations of buildings.
Earthquake Measurement
The Modified Mercalli Intensity scale ranks earthquakes in
a range from I-XII. XII describes the worst, most serious
earthquakes. The Modified Mercalli scale describes
earthquakes by intensity and uses eyewitness obervations to
assign intensity value.
The Richter magnitude scale is often called the Richter
scale. It uses the amplitude of the largest earthquake wave as
a comparison. The Richter scale describes how much energy
was released during an earthquake. A seismograph is an
instrument used to measure earthquake waves and determind
a Richter value. A seismogram is the tracing of the
seismographs pen.
What determines earthquake damage?

Research has shown that poorly built buildings increase
earthquake damage and loss of life. Poorly constructed
buildings can cause tens of thousands of people to die in an
earthquake. Buildings can be made earthquake resistant, but
they cannot be made earthquake proof.
Earthquake damage can also cause other disasters, such
as landslides, fires, and tsunamis. Scientists know where
earthquakes are likely to occur. These places are called active
earthquake zones. But no one can yet predict when exactly an
earthquake will hit.
5.
Identify three types of

natural disasters caused by
earthquakes
Reading Essentials
209
After You Read

Mini Glossary
elastic rebound: the sudden energy release that goes with
the fault movement
fault: a crack along which movement takes place
focus: the point of origin of an earthquake

epicenter: the point on Earths surface directly above the
focus
1. Review the vocabulary words and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence
that uses the terms fault and elastic rebound to describe an earthquake.
2. Complete the chart by filling in the corresponding scale:

Measures
Intensity
Measures
Energy Released
3. Look at the parts of the text that you highlighted. How did this help you to learn about
earthquakes?

games, and projects to help you learn more about earthquakes.
210
End of
Section
Name
of scale
Earths
Internal
Processes
12
chapter
3
section
Earths Interior
Before You Read
What Youll Learn
Knock on a piece of wood, a brick wall, and a window. Listen

to the sounds they make. Why do you think these materials
sound different?
Read to Learn
Whats inside?
How do scientists learn about Earths interior? In 1961
scientists drilled a hole 200 m into the oceanic crust. They
hoped to reach the Mohorovicic (moh huh ROH vee chihch)
discontinuity. Unfortunately, the project was canceled after
Phase I. Earths center is 6,371 km below the surface.
Seismologists are geologists who study seismic waves to
learn about Earth. Studying the behavior of earthquake waves
to gather data about Earths interior is similar to using sound
waves to see inside the human body. Observing seismic waves
allows scientist to infer images of Earths interior.
Is Earths interior the same throughout?

Suppose Earth had the same structure and composition
throughout its interior. If you knew how fast earthquake
waves traveled through it, you would know exactly when the
earthquake waves would reach the opposite side. But
scientists have observed that earthquake waves arrive at
different times than expected. This tells scientists that Earths
interior is not uniform.
how geologists study

Earths inner structure
about the internal
structure and
composition of Earth
Study Coach
Sticky Notes Discussion

Write questions about the
section on the sticky notes. At
the end of the section, meet
with two or three students to
exchange questions and come up
with answers as a group.
C Build Vocabulary As
you read this section, make a
three-tab vocabulary Foldable to
show that you understand the
vocabulary terms.
athenosphere discontinvity shadow zone
Reading Essentials
211
Earthquake Observations
Seismic wave recording stations across Earth record seismic
wave data. From this data, scientists make discoveries. Data
has shown that refracted waves bend when they encounter
sharp changes in density. A discontinuity is a boundary that
marks a density change between layers. The Mohorovicic
discontinuity separates the crust from uppermost mantle.
Shadow Zones Observations show that P- and S-waves
1.
Explain Why do
scientists think the outer
core is a liquid?
spread out in a pattern from a given epicenter. They travel

through Earth for 105 degrees of arc in all directions. The
shadow zone is a dead zone between 105 and 140 degrees
from the epicenter where nothing is recorded. From 140
degrees to 180 degrees (directly opposite the epicenter) only
P-waves are recorded.
Earths Core Shadow zones reveal interesting facts about
Earths interior. Scientists think that there is a layer in Earth
that is absorbing waves. The S-waves may turn into P-like
waves in the outer core. Recall that S-waves only travel
through solids. This suggests that the outer core is a liquid.
When P-waves pass through the core, they are refracted, or
bent. This proves that the inner core is denser than the outer
core and soil. The pressure from the material outside the
inner core keeps the inner core solid. The high temperatures
cause the outer core to remain liquid even under great pressure.
Composition of Earths Layers
2.
Compare and
Contrast the lithosphere
and the asthenosphere.
212
Earths internal layers become denser with depth. The

crust and uppermost mantle together form the lithosphere.
They are made of rocky materials mostly silicates. The
asthenosphere is a weaker, plastic-like layer under the
lithosphere. Earths lithospheric plates move on the
asthenosphere.
Under the asthenosphere is more mantle. Like the upper
mantle in the lithosphere, this layer is made of silicates.
However, the minerals present have different structures
because they are under higher pressure. Earths cores are made
mostly of metallic materials, such as nickel and iron.
Astronomers hypothesize that Earth may have formed from
meteorite-like material. This material was forced together by
gravity and melted. The densest materials settled toward the
core and lower-density ones floated the Earths surface.
Does Earth have a solid inner core?
After You Read

Mini Glossary
asthenosphere: the layer of Earth under the lithosphere
discontinuity: the boundary that marks a density charge
shadow zone: a dead zone between 105 and 140 degrees

from epicenter where no seismic waves are recorded
between layers
1. Review the definitions of the vocabulary words in the Mini Glossary. Choose one of the
words and write what it means in your own words.
2. Draw a cross section of Earth with the layers you learned about in this section. Place the
layers in the correct order. Shade the layer that contains the crust and uppermost mantle.
Draw stripes on the layer on which plates move.
3. Think about the question you wrote on. Write one question and the anser you and your
group decided on. How did these notes help you learn?

games, and projects to help you learn more about Earths interior.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
213
Earths
Internal
Processes
12
chapter
Volcanoes
Before You Read
What Youll Learn
types and causes of

different types of
volcanoe eruptions
the link between
volcanoes and plate
tectonics
Have you ever pumped air into a bicycle tire? What would
happen if the tire had many small cracks? What would
happen if the tire had no cracks and you kept pumping in air
after it was full?
Study Coach
Read to Learn
Make Flash Cards Make a

flash card for each important
idea or term in this section. Use
these cards to help you review
after reading this section.
Origin of Magma
Faults are weaknesses in Earths crust along which
movement takes place. This movement causes a decrease in
pressure, called decompression. When pressure decreases, the
melting point of rock also descreases, even though the
temperature does not change.
Magma comes from Earths asthenosphere. This nearly
molten rock can change to liquid by decompression melting.
As magma rises to Earths surface, it becomes even more fluid
as it decompresses, especially if it contains a lot of gas.
Why does magma rise?

C Find Main Ideas As you
read this section, use a half

sheet of paper to make the
following Foldable to show that
you understand the volcanoes.
volcanoes
214
Any molten rock material has a lower density than solid

rock. A buoyant force caused by the difference in density
between molten rock and solid rock causes magma to rise.
The rising magma may reach Earths surface if pressure
conditions allow and there are paths for it to flow through.
Imagine hot magma rising through the crust creating brittle
deformation near the surface in the form of fractures and
faults. The cracks cause a drop in pressure and more paths are
available for magma to flow through. Deformation continues
until the magma reaches Earths surface as a volcanic eruption.
When magma erupts at the surface, it is called lava.
4
section
Where does lava flow?

Most surface lava flows or eruptions occur on or near
boundaries between Earths plates, above hot spots, or mantle
plumes, on continents, or in the ocean basins.
Eruptive Products
Volcanoes throw out, or expel, a variety of different
materials. These materials occur in different states of matter.
Volcanoes erupt lava, gases, and chunks of solid material, as
shown in the figure of Mt. St. Helens below.
What solids erupt from volcanoes?
1.
All solid materials expelled by a volcano are called

pyroclasts. Often lava is thrown into the air as globules, or
small globs. These globules cool and turn into solids as they
fall toward Earth.
The smallest particles cool quickly and turn into volcanic
ash. Ash can be picked up by wind and blown hundreds or
even thousands of kilometers away. The larger, heavier
globules cool, harden and fall closer to the volcano.
Often chunks of solid material are ripped away from the
conduit of the volcano. These solid chunks of rock are called
blocks. Blocks fall close to the volcano.
Explain What three kinds

of materials do volcanoes
expel?
What gases erupt from volcanoes?

Volcanoes release many superheated gases. The most
common one is water vapor. In addition, carbon dioxide and
gases that contain sulfur compounds are released into the
atmosphere. There is strong evidence that volcanoes
contribute greenhouse gases that have an affect on the climate
long after an eruption is over.
Picture This
2.
Label the places where

the following materials
would be found after a
volcano erupts like the one
show here.
a.
b.
c.
d.
Ash
Gases
Globules
Blocks
Reading Essentials
215
What liquids erupt from volcanoes?
3.
Explain What is
viscosity?
Recall that when magma flows to Earths surface, it is

known as lava. Because the composition of lava can vary,
lavas physical properties can vary.
Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid to flow.
The temperature of molten rock influences its viscosity. For
example, have you ever tried to pour cold pancake syrup? It
has high viscosity when it first comes out of the refrigerator.
But if you let the syrup warm, it flows more easily because its
viscosity decreases. Other factors that affect viscosity and flow
are gas content and composition.
What are basaltic lavas?

Low-viscosity lavas are mostly basaltic. Basaltic lavas are
low in silica (SiO2) content. They are high in some chemical
elements such as calcium, magnesium, and iron.
Basaltic lavas flow from fissure cracks, such as along the
mid-ocean ridge (MOR) and from hot spot volcanoes. They
tend to flow easily and form huge volcanic forms that cover
large areas on Earths surface. Shield volcanoes and flood
basalts are basaltic lava flows.
How does gas affect lava?
Eruptive Styles
4.
Apply List two fluids with

different viscosity. Which
one pours more easily?
Volcanoes can erupt in many different ways. The viscosity

of magma affects the kind of eruption that occurs. Thick,
high-viscosity magmas do not erupt. Instead, they cause the
pressure inside a volcano. When Earths crust fails from the
high pressure to rise, a violent, explosive eruption occurs. This
type of eruption contains large quantities of solid material, or
pyroclasts. In contrast, runny, low-silica, high-temperature
basaltic lavas erupt easily. These eruptions are quiet and have
freely flowing lava. Other factors that affect eruptions are
temperature, composition, and the type of plate boundary.
What comes from convergent boundaries?

Most of Earths volcanoes are located along the Ring of Fire
that runs along the edges of the Pacific Ocean. In the Ring of
Fire, volcanoes lie in subduction zones. There, an oceanic and
a continent material are being mixed and partially melted.
216
If lavas have large amounts of gas dissolved in them, then

the viscosity is lowered. High gas quantities help magma force
its way through rock. Sometimes it spews out explosively as a
lava fountain that behaves much like a geyser.
Picture This
Mt. St. Helens

Vesuvius
5.
Fujiyama
Pinatubo
Mauna Loa
the world where most of

the active volcanoes exist.
Etna
Kilauea
Highlight the regions of
Pele
Paricutin
Kilimanjaro
Krakatoa
Tambora
The motion of the plates and melting create a wide variety

of magma types. Large earthquakes and violent volcanic
eruptions often occur in ocean-continent and ocean-ocean
boundaries.
What comes from divergent boundaries?

Divergent plate boundaries are where plates pull apart.
They are also volcanically active. However, most of the
activity is underwater along the MOR. It goes unnoticed by
most people. Where divergences take place on land, volcanic
activity can be seen. Iceland and the East African Rift Valley
are land areas that are part of divergent boundaries. Lava that
erupts in these places is mostly low-viscosity and basaltic in
make-up.
What kind of volcano comes from hot spots?

Hot spots are volcanically active sites caused by large
quantities of magma that move to the surface in large,
column-like plumes. Scientists think that plumes are caused
by heat in Earths mantle. When a hot spot occurs under an
oceanic plate, volcanic island chains form. Other hot spots
occur under continental plates. Hawaiian volcanoes and the
Yellowstone region in North America are examples of hot
spots.
6.
Identify Where does

most of the volcanic activity
at divergent plates take
place on Earth?
What lava comes from a hot spot volcano?

The lava that erupts from hot spot volcanoes contains alkali
metals, such as potassium and sodium. Like divergent
boundary or MOR lavas, hot spot lavas tend to have fluid,
basaltic lavas. The composition of lava can change. It depends
on the make-up of the rock material it forces through, such as
the rock in continental crust.
Reading Essentials
217
Types of Volcanoes
Volcanoes are classified by their size, shape, and the
materials that compose them. Recall that the magma source
helps to determine the kind of materials that erupt from a
volcano. The physical properties of magma include
temperature, make-up, and gas content of magma.
What is a cinder cone volcano?

A Cinder cone volcano forms when large pieces of solid
material erupt from a volcano. When gas-rich magma erupts,
large chunks of solid materials are spewed into the air.
Materials pile up near the vent. These volcanoes are small,
usually hundreds of meters tall. The figure below shows the
size of cinder cones are compared to other volcanoes.
Picture This
7.
Identify In the figure,

circle the cinder cone
volcano.
9 km
Mauna Loa, Hawaii

0.3 km
3 km
Sunset Crater, Arizona
Mount Rainier, Washington
Shield volcanoes, which form from high-temperature,

fluid, basaltic lava, are broad and flat with many layers of lava.
Think of pancake batter. If the batter is cold and thick, it piles
up and you get thick pancakes. If you add more milk and
make a runny batter, it flows easily across the pan and makes
thin pancakes. Shield volcanoes are found in Hawaii.
8.
Determine What shape
What are composite volcanoes?
are shield volcanoes?
Composite volcanoes are large and composed of

alternating layers of lava flows and chunks of solids. They are
often thousands of meters high and tens of kilometers wide.
They occur on convergent plate boundaries and have
magmas with high silica content. When subduction happens
in convergent boundaries, water and sediment are forced
downward. They are pushed into places with higher
temperatures. When the materials begin to melt, the
silica-rich part of the rock and sediment melts first. It
produces viscous magma. This thick magma causes explosive
eruptions followed by lava flows.
218
What are shield volcanoes?
After You Read

Mini Glossary
cinder cone volcano: forms when the majority of materials
shield volcano: broad and flat, formed by high-temperature,
erupting from a volcano are large pieces of solid material

composite volcano: tall and wide, composed of alternating
layers of lava and pieces of solid material
fluid, basaltic lava

viscosity: is a measure of the resistance of a fluid to flow
1. Review the definitions of the vocabulary words in the Mini Glossary. Describe why
viscosity changes.
2. Complete the chart below to organize information you have learned about volcanoes.
Type
Shield Volcano
Volcanoes
Composite Volcano
Cider Cone Volcano
Type of Magma
Type of Eruption
Boundary where
volcano forms
3. Think about what you have learned in this section. Pick a partner. Quiz each other with
the flash cards you made. How did these cards help you learn?

games, and projects to help you learn more about volcanoes.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
219
13
Electricity
1
section
Electric Charge
What Youll Learn
how electric charges

exert forces
about conductors
and insulators
how things become
electrically charged
Identify Main Ideas

Highlight the main point under
each heading. Then explain the
main point in your own words.
Before You Read

Think about some electric objects that are plugged into an
outlet. But cars, cell phones, and even wristwatches also use
electricity. List three things you use every day that use
electricity but do not plug in.
Read to Learn
Positive and Negative Charge
Sometimes, when you walk across a carpet and then touch an
object, you get a shock. Why does this happen? The answer has
to do with electric charge. The center of an atom is made up of
particles called protons and neutrons. Other particles, electrons,
move around the center of the atom. Protons and electrons have
electric charge. Neutrons have no electric charge. In the figure
below, the light gray particles are the protons, the black particles
are the neutrons, and the floating particles are the electrons.
Picture This
1.
Differentiate Circle the

electrons with a colored
pen or pencil.
220
CHAPTER 13 Electricity
Center of an Atom
There are two types of electric charge, positive and

negative. Protons have positive electric charge. Electrons have
negative electric charge. The amount of positive charge on a
proton is the same as the amount of negative charge on an
electron. Each atom has the same number of protons and
electrons. So, the positive and negative charges cancel each
other out. This makes atoms electrically neutral. They have
no overall electric charge. An atom becomes negatively
charged if it gains extra electrons. An atom that loses
electrons becomes positively charged.
chapter
How is electric charge transferred?

Electrons are bound more tightly to some atoms and
molecules than to others. Electrons in the soles of your shoes
are bound tightly to the atoms. Electrons in atoms in carpet
are not bound as tightly. When you walk on carpet, electrons
are transferred from the carpet to the soles of your shoes.
Now, the soles of your shoes have more electrons than
protons. They are negatively charged. The carpet has fewer
electrons than protons. It is positively charged. The transfer of
electrons changed the electric charge of each object. Static
electricity is the buildup of electric charges on an object. When
there is static electricity, electric charges are not balanced.
A Build Vocabulary As
you read this section, make the

following vocabulary Foldable.
Write the definition for each
vocabulary word under its tab.
Static
ricity
Elect
Law of n
rvatio
Conse rge
of Cha
ctor
Condu
tor
Insula
g by
Chargin
Contact
Is new electrical charge created?
Charging by
Induction
The electrons that moved to your shoe are not new

electrons. The law of conservation of charge states that
charge can be transferred from one object to another, but it
cannot be created or destroyed. An object becomes charged
when electric charges move from one place to another.
What happens when electrical charges move?
Have you ever taken clothes out of a dryer and had them
cling together? Look at the figure below. Opposite electric
charges attract each other. They tend to move toward each other.
Electric charges that are the same repel each other. They tend to
move away from each other.
Picture This
2.
Opposite charges attract

Like charges repel
When clothes tumble in a dryer, the atoms in some clothes

lose electrons. Those clothes become positively charged. The
atoms in other clothes gain electrons and become negatively
charged. The clothes have opposite charges. Objects that have
opposite charges attract each other, so the clothes cling together.
Illustrate Look at the

figures of like and unlike
charges. Highlight the
negative charges in one
color and the positive
charges in other color.
Notice the charges only
attract when the colors are
different.
How do charges exert forces?

The electric force between two charged objects depends on
how far apart the objects are. The electric force between two
charges decreases as the charges move farther apart.
The electric force also depends on the amount of charge on
each object. When the amount of charge on one of the objects
increases, the electric force increases.
Reading Essentials
221
What are electric fields?
3.
Identify Look at the

figure of electric fields. Why
do the arrows point
outward from the positive
field? Why do they point
inward toward the negative
field?
of ainPositive
f a PositiveMove
Charge
Electric Charge
Fields in Electric Fields
There is an electric field around every electric charge. The

electric field exerts a force that attracts or repels other electric
charges. The figure shows two electric fields. The arrows show

the direction a positive
charge would
move in each electric field.
Your hair has the positive charge and moves to the balloon.
The force of gravity between you and Earth seems very
strong. However, electric forces are much stronger. Electric
forces between the protons and the electrons hold the particles
in atoms together. For example, the electric force between a
proton and an electron in a hydrogen atom is a thousand
trillion, trillion, trillion times larger or, 1039 times larger than
the attractive gravitational forces between the same proton and
electron.
Forces Between Atoms Atoms also are held together by
electric forces. Electric forces between atoms cause chemical
bonds. These electric forces are also much greater than the
gravitational forces between the atoms.
4.
Explain in your own

words why usually there is
very little electric force
between two objects.
222
Forces Between Objects Many of the forces that act on

objects are due to the electric forces between atoms and
molecules. All atoms contain electrically charged protons and
electrons. When atoms or molecules get close enough, they
can exert forces that attract or repel. For example, when you
push on a door, the atoms in your hand get close to the atoms
in the door. The atoms are close enough to exert forces on
each other. The forces between the atoms in your hand and
the atoms in the door cause the door to move.
Picture This
When a charged balloon comes near your hair, your hair will
move toward it. Your hair does not have to touch the balloon for
an electric force to act on it. So what makes your hair move? It is
positively charged. The balloon is negatively charged.
They are

attracted to each other because they have opposite electric charges.
Conductors and Insulators

Remember the example of electrons moving from the
carpet to your shoe? If you reach for a metal doorknob after
walking on carpet, you might see a spark. Electrons moving
from your hand to the doorknob cause the spark. How did
those electrons move from your shoe to your hand?
What is a conductor?
Electrons can move more easily in some materials than
in others. A conductor is material in which electrons can
move easily. Your skin is a better conductor than your shoes.
Electrons move from your shoes to your skin, spreading to
your hands. The best electric conductors are metals. Atoms in
metals have electrons that are able to move easily through the
metal. Copper is one of the best conductors.
What is an insulator?
An insulator is a material in which electrons cannot move
easily. In insulators, electrons are held tightly to atoms. The
plastic coating around an electric wire keeps you from getting
a dangerous electric shock when you touch the wire. Wood,
rubber, and glass are other good insulators.
5.
Explain why it is hard for

electrons to move through
an insulator.
Charging Objects
Just like the clothes in the dryer, when two materials are
rubbed together, electrons can be transferred between them.
One object will have a negative charge. The other will have
the same amount of positive charge. Charging by contact is
the transfer of charges by touching or rubbing.
How can something be charged at a distance?

Remember, electric forces change when objects move closer
together. If a charged object is moved near a neutral object,
electrons on the neutral object will move around.
Think about the balloon that was charged by rubbing it on
your hair. The charged balloon doesnt need to touch the hair to
make the hair move toward it. The same is true if you hold the
charged balloon close to a wall. The extra electrons on the
balloon repel the electrons in the wall. The electrons in the wall
move away from the balloon. Now there is a positively charged
area on the wall. The negatively charged balloon is attracted to
the positive area of the wall. Charging by induction is when a
charged object causes the rearrangement of electrons on a
nearby neutral object. The wall was charged by induction. The
balloon will stick to the wall. An electric force holds it there.
Reading Essentials
223
What is lightning?
Have you ever seen lightning hit the ground? Lightning is
a large static dischargea transfer of charge between two
objects. It happens if there is a buildup of static electricity.
A large amount of static electricity is formed when air
moves around in thunderclouds. Areas of positive and
negative charge build up. When enough charge builds up,
there is a static discharge between the cloud and the ground.
As the charges move through the air, they hit atoms and
molecules and cause them to give off light.
What is thunder?
Lightning makes a bright light. It also creates powerful sound
waves. Thunder is the sound that lightning makes. The electrical
energy in lightning heats the air to 25,000C. This rapid heating
of the air causes sound waves you hear as thunder.
Why is grounding important?

Analyze Why do you
think a lightning rod is
made of metal?
Lightning can cause damage and injury because it releases a

great amount of energy. One way to avoid the damage is to
make the charges flow to Earths surface. Earth is a large,
neutral conductor that can absorb a lot of excess charge.
Grounding provides a path for electric charges to move to
Earth. For example, a metal lightning rod on top of a building
provides a path to move excess charges to Earths surface.
Detecting Electric Charge

An electroscope can detect when an object has an electric
charge. One type of electroscope is a glass beaker with a metal
rod inside it, as shown. The metal rod connects to a knob at the
top of the beaker. There are two metal branches, or leaves, at the
bottom of the metal rod. The metal leaves hang down when
there is no charge to the rod. When an object with a negative
charge touches the knob, electrons travel down the rod to the
leaves. Both leaves gain negative charges. When an object with a
positive charge touches the knob, it attracts electrons that move
up the rod. The leaves have a positive charge. When the leaves
have a charge, they repel each other and spread apart.
Knob
Picture This
7.
Draw On the figure, draw
Metal rod
what the leaves would look

like if they had a charge.
Metal leaves
224
6.
After You Read

Mini Glossary
charging by contact: transferring charges by touching
or rubbing
charging by induction: when electrons on a neutral object

are moved by a charged object
conductor: a material in which electrons can move easily
insulator: a material in which electrons cannot move easily

law of conservation of charge: charge can be transferred
from one thing to another, but it cannot be created
or destroyed
static electricity: the buildup of electric charges on an object
1. Read the definitions of an insulator and a conductor in the Mini Glossary above. Use the
words in a sentence that shows that you understand them.
2. Column 1 lists some of the concepts you learned about in this section. Column 2 gives a
fact about each concept. Write the letter of the fact on the line next to the concept that
matches it.
Column 1
1. transferring charge
Column 2
a. static electricity is discharged
between a cloud and the ground
2. conservation of charge
3. insulator
4. lightning
b. electrons cannot move easily in

some materials
c. electrons can move from one object
to another
d. charge cannot be created or destroyed
3. You highlighted the main points to help you understand electric charge. How did you
decide what the main points were?

and projects to help you learn more about electric charge.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
225
13
Electricity
2
section
Electric Current
What Youll Learn
what makes current flow

how batteries work
what causes electrical
resistance
what Ohms law says
Identify Details Use one

color to highlight each question
heading. Then use another
color to highlight the answer
to the question.
1.
Explain How many

electrons must move past a
point every second to equal
one ampere of electric
current?
226
Before You Read

Have you noticed that one end of a battery is marked with a
plus sign and the other end with a minus sign? What happens
if you put the batteries in a flashlight in the wrong direction?
Read to Learn
Current and Voltage Difference
You have read about the ways electric charges move. One
example is the spark that can jump between your hand and a
metal doorknob. Electric current is the net movement of
electric charges in one direction.
To understand net movement, consider the movement of
electrons in all materials. In all materials, electrons move in
every direction. Since the electrons are not moving in the same
direction, there is no electric current. When electric current
flows in a wire, the electrons still move in all directions, but they
also drift in the direction that the current flows. The drifting of
the electrons is the net movement in one direction.
Electric current is measured in units called amperes.
Amperes are also called amps. The symbol for amperes is the
letter A. Amperes measure the electrons that flow past one
point. One ampere is equal to 6,250 million billion electrons
moving past a point every second.
What is voltage difference?

Even though the electrons are moving in all directions, an
electric force acts on the charges to make them flow in one
direction. Voltage is the electric force that makes charges move.
Voltage is also like the force that acts on water in a pipe.
Water flows from higher pressure to lower pressure. In the
same way, electric charge flows from higher voltage to lower
voltage. A voltage difference is related to the force that makes
electric charges flow. Voltage difference is measured in units
called volts. The symbol for volts is V.
chapter
What is an electric circuit?

Look at the figure. It shows an electric current doing work
by lighting a lightbulb. Electric current must have a closed
loop-like path to follow. If there is no closed path to follow,
the current stops. A circuit is a closed path that electric
current follows. If the circuit in the figure is broken by taking
away one part, such as the battery or the lightbulb, current
will not flow. It will also not flow if a wire is broken or cut.
The lightbulb will not light.
Picture This
Lightbulb
Electron
flow
Battery
2.
Describe Look at the

figure of a circuit. Which
direction do electrons flow
in the circuit, away from the
negative terminal or away
from the positive terminal?
Batteries
A circuit needs a voltage difference to keep electric current
flowing in it. A battery can provide the voltage difference
that keeps electric current flowing. Look at the figure of the
circuit again. The positive end and the negative end of a
battery are called the terminals. When a closed path connects
the terminals, the current will flow.
How do dry-cell batteries work?

The batteries used in a flashlight are called dry-cell batteries.
Look at the figure below of a dry-cell battery. The battery has
two electrodes. One electrode is a carbon rod. The other
electrode is a zinc container.
Around the electrodes is a moist paste. The paste is called
an electrolyte. The electrolyte contains chemicals that are
conductors. The electrolyte lets charges move from one
electrode to the other electrode. This kind of battery is called
a dry cell because the electrolyte is a paste, not a liquid.
Positive terminal
Plastic insulator
Moist paste
Carbon rod
B Build Vocabulary
Make a Foldable as shown. Write

the definitions under the tabs
and add information as you read
this section.
Dry-Cell
Batteries
Zinc container
Negative terminal
Wet-Cell
Batteries
Dry cell
Reading Essentials
227
3.
Describe when the

chemical reaction occur
in a dry-cell battery.
Making Electricity When the two terminals of a dry-cell

battery are connected in a circuit, there is a reaction between
the zinc and the chemicals in the electrolyte. Electrons move
between some of the compounds in this chemical reaction.
The carbon rod become positive. The positive terminal is
marked with a plus sign (). Electrons build up on the zinc,
making it the negative terminal. The negative terminal is
marked with a minus sign (). The voltage difference between
the terminals cause current to flow through a closed circuit.
How do wet-cell batteries work?

Another kind of battery is the wet-cell battery shown
below. A wet cell has two connected plates made of different
metals. The metals are in a conducting solution. Chemical
reactions transfer electrons from the lead plates to the lead
dioxide plates. This battery is called a wet cell because the
conductor is a liquid. A wet-cell battery contains several wet
cells that are connected. Together the cells give a larger voltage
difference than each of the cells alone.
Picture This
4.
Compare What two
Negative terminal
Positive terminal
Partition
Lead plate
Battery solution
Wet cell
Lead dioxide plate

plate
What is a lead-acid battery?

Lead-acid batteries are wet-cell batteries. They are usually
used in cars. A lead-acid battery has six separate wet cells that
are connected. The cells are made of lead and lead dioxide
plates. The plates are in a sulfuric acid solution. A chemical
reaction gives a voltage difference of about 2 V in each cell.
There are six cells, so the total voltage difference is 12 V.
How are electric outlets different

from batteries?
Electric outlets, such as wall sockets, also give a voltage
difference. This voltage difference usually is much higher than
the voltage difference a battery gives. Most wall sockets give a
voltage difference of 120 V. Some outlets have a voltage of 240
V that is needed for large appliances, such as electric ovens
and clothes dryers.
228
things are shown in both

the figure of the dry-cell
battery and the figure of
the wet-cell battery?
Resistance
Flashlights use dry-cell batteries to make the current that
lights up the lightbulb. What makes a lightbulb glow? Part of the
circuit is a thin wire in the bulb. The wire is called a filament.
The electrons in the current flow through the filament. As they
move, they bump into the metal atoms in the filament.
The electrons bump into the metal atoms, turning some of
their electrical energy into thermal energy. The metal filament
gets hot enough to glow. The radiant energy lights up the
room.
How do materials resist current?
5.
List the three types of

energy needed to make a
lightbulb in a flashlight
glow.
Electric current loses energy when it moves through material

because of resistance. Resistance is the tendency for a material
to oppose, or go against, the flow of electrons. Resistance turns
electrical energy into thermal energy and light.
Almost all materials have electrical resistance. Materials that
are electrical conductors have less resistance than materials
that are electrical insulators. Resistance is in units called
ohms().
What can affect resistance?

The temperature, length, and thickness of a material can
affect the electric resistance of the material. Usually, the hotter
something is, the more resistance it has. The resistance of an
object also depends on its length and thickness. The longer the
circuit is, the more resistance it has. Resistance also increases as
the wire gets thinner.
A lightbulb filament is a thin piece of tungsten wire made
into a short coil. The uncoiled wire is about 2 m long and
very thin. Tungsten is a good conductor, but since the wire is
so long and thin, it has resistance. The resistance makes the
filament glow. The more resistance a filament has, the
brighter it glows.
The Current in a Simple Circuit

A simple electric circuit has three main parts. First, it has a
source of voltage difference, such as a battery. Second, it has a
device that has resistance, like a lightbulb. Third, it has conductors, such as wires. The conductors connect the resistance
device to the battery terminals. When the wires are connected
to the battery terminals, the path is closed and current flows.
Two electric circuits are shown in the figures on the next
page. Each circuit is a battery connected to a lightbulb by wires
and a rod. The circuit on the right is shorter because the wires
are closer together on the rod. That circuit has less resistance.
6.
Recognize Cause and

Effect How does the
resistance of a filament
affect its glow?
Reading Essentials
229
Picture This
7.
Compare In which
circuit will the light be
brighter, the one on the left
or the one on the right?
More resistance
Less resistance
Batt
ery
Batt
ery
The voltage difference, current, and resistance in a circuit are

related. If the voltage difference stays the same as the resistance
decreases, the current in the circuit increases. If the wire is
short, the lightbulb will be brighter. If the resistance doesnt
change, increasing the voltage difference increases the current.
If you use a larger battery, the lightbulb will be brighter.
What is Ohms law?

There is a relationship between voltage difference, current,
and resistance in a circuit. Ohms law states that the current in
a circuit equals the voltage difference divided by the resistance.
If I stands for electric current, Ohms law can be written as:
voltage difference (in volts)
current (in amperes)

resistance (in ohms)
V
Ohms law also can be used to measure resistance. Change

the equation so that resistance, R, is alone on one side. Do
this by multiplying both sides of the equation by R. The new
equation is:
V
R I
Applying Math
8.
Solve the equation to

V
show how I R becomes
V
R I. Show your work.
Suppose a current of 0.5 A flows in a 75-W lightbulb.

The voltage difference between the ends of the filament is
120 V. Find the resistance of the filament.
V
R I
120

0.5
240
The resistance is 240 .
230
I R
After You Read

Mini Glossary
circuit: a closed path that electric current follows
electric current: the rate at which electric charges move in
one direction past one point
Ohms law: the current in a circuit equals the voltage
difference divided by the resistance
resistance: the tendency for a material to oppose the flow of

electrons, changing electric energy into heat and light
voltage difference: something related to the force that
makes electric charges flow
1. Read the terms and definitions of resistance in the Mini Glossary above. Rewrite the
definition of resistance in your own words on the lines below.
2. Complete the table below to describe a simple circuit. The first column lists the parts of a
circuit. In the second column, give an example of each part of a circuit. Under the heading
Function, write a short description of what job each part does in the circuit.
Parts of a Simple Circuit
Part
Example
Function
Voltage difference
Source of resistance
Conductors
3. As you read this section, you highlighted the question headings and their answers. Why
was using two colors helpful?

and projects to help you learn more about electric current.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
231
13
Electricity
3
section
Electrical Energy
What Youll Learn

series and parallel
circuits
why circuit breakers and
fuses are important
how electric power is
calculated
Study Coach
Create a Quiz As you read

this section, think of five quiz
questions. Write them down.
After you read the section,
answer the quiz questions you
wrote.
D Gather Information
Use two quarter-sheets of

notebook paper to organize
information about series circuits
and parallel circuits. Include
terms and calculations.
Series Circuit
232
Parallel Circuit
Before You Read

Do adults ever remind you to turn off the lights when you
leave a room? Like many things we use, electricity is not free.
How does the electric company know how much electric
energy you use?
Read to Learn
Series and Parallel Circuits
Think of your home. How many things are plugged into
electric outlets? You might think of lamps, stereos, televisions,
and clocks.
As you read in the last section, a circuit includes three
parts. The first part is something that provides a voltage
difference. It can be a battery or an electric outlet. The second
part is something that uses electric energy and provides
resistance. Lightbulbs and hair dryers are two examples. The
third part is a conductor that connects the other parts. An
example of a conductor is a wire. These three parts form a
closed path for the electric current to travel on.
Think about using a hair dryer. The dryer needs to be
plugged into an electric outlet. A generator at a power plant
produces the voltage difference that ends up at the wall outlet.
The voltage difference makes electric charges move when the
circuit is complete. The dryer and the circuit in your house
have conducting wires. The wires carry the current.
Closing the Circuit When you turn on the hair dryer, you
close the circuit. The hair dryer turns electrical energy into
thermal energy and mechanical energy. Mechanical energy is
the energy that moves the fan in the hair dryer.
chapter
Opening the Circuit When you turn the hair dryer off, you
open the circuit. This breaks the path of the current. To use
electrical energy, you need a complete circuit. There are two
kinds of circuits, series circuits and parallel circuits.
What is a series circuit?

One kind of circuit is called a series circuit. In a series circuit,
the current has only one loop to flow through. Series circuits are
used in flashlights.
How does an open circuit affect a series circuit?
1.
Some older strings of holiday lights will not work if just one
lightbulb is burned out. The lights are connected in a series
circuit. In a series circuit, the parts are wired one after another.
The amount of current is the same through every part. When
any part of a series circuit is disconnected, no current flows
through the circuit. This is called an open circuit. One burnedout bulb makes the string of lights an open circuit.
Identify How many

loops does a series circuit
have?
Where are parallel circuits used?

What would happen if your home were wired in a series
circuit? If you turned off one light, the circuit would be open.
All the other lights and appliances in your house would go
off. This is why houses are wired with parallel circuits.
Parallel circuits have at least two paths for current to move
through.
Look at the parallel circuit in the figure. The parallel circuit
divides the current into two paths. This lowers the resistance.
Remember Ohms law from the last section. More current
flows through the paths that have lower resistance.
Picture This
2.
Conductor
Lightbulbs
Illustrate In the space

below, draw a parallel circuit
that has three branches.
Label the parts of the circuit.
Battery
Houses, cars, and most electric systems use parallel circuits.

When one path is opened, the current still flows through the
other paths. One part can be turned off without turning off
the whole circuit.
Reading Essentials
233
Household Circuits
Many things in your house use electric energy. You dont
see all the wires, because they are hidden behind the walls,
ceiling, and floors. The wiring is mostly a combination of
parallel circuits. The circuits are connected in an organized
and logical way.
Look at the figure below showing the wiring in a house.
There is a main switch and a circuit breaker or fuse box.
These are like the electric headquarters for the house. Parallel
circuits branch out from the circuit breaker or fuse box. The
circuits run to wall outlets, appliances, and lights.
Light circuit
Wall socket
Stove
circuit
Meter
Picture This
3.
Light switch
Highlight In the figure,

use a highlighter to trace a
path of a circuit from the
meter to the wall socket on
the far side of the room.
Fuse box
or circuit
breaker
Ground
In a house, many appliances use current from the same

circuit. If more appliances are plugged in on a circuit, more
current will flow through the wires. As more current flows
through the wires, more heat is produced in the wires. If the
wires get too hot, the insulation can melt. The bare wires can
touch, get hot, and cause a fire. To keep the wires from getting
too hot, household circuits include either a fuse or a circuit
breaker.
4.
Describe What happens

to the current flow in
a circuit when more
appliances are added
to the circuit?
234
What are fuses?

A fuse is a safety device that stops the wires from getting
too hot. A fuse is a small glass tube with a piece of metal
inside. If the current is too high, the metal melts. When it
melts, it breaks the flow in the circuit. The current stops. To
get the current to flow again, you need to replace the old fuse
with a new one.
Before you replace the fuse, you should turn off or unplug
some of the appliances on the circuit. Using too many
household appliances at the same time is the main cause for a
blown fuse.
Wall socket
How does a circuit breaker work?

A circuit breaker is another device that keeps a circuit from
overheating. A house usually has a metal box, called a breaker
box, which contains many circuit breakers. A circuit breaker
is a switch, like a light switch, that has a piece of metal inside.
If the current in the circuit is too high, the metal warms up
and bends. When the metal bends, it flips the switch and
opens the circuit. The flow of current stops before the wires
get too hot.
You can usually reset the circuit breaker by flipping the
switch inside the breaker box back to its original position.
But, before you flip the switch, you should turn off or unplug
some of the appliances on the circuit. Otherwise, the circuit
breaker will flip the switch off again if too many appliances
are using the current in the circuit.
5.
Apply Think about the

circuits in your house. Why
is it a good idea to have
circuit breakers and fuses?
Electric Power
Electrical energy is useful because it is easy to change into
other kinds of energy. For example, it can be changed to
thermal energy in a hair dryer. It can also be turned into light,
or radiant energy, in a lamp or mechanical energy in a fan.
Electric power is the rate at which electrical energy is changed
into another form of energy.
Different appliances use different amounts of electric
power. Appliances are usually marked with a power rating.
The power rating tells how much power the appliance uses.
Appliances that have electric heating elements, such as ovens
and hair dryers, usually use the most power.
How is electric power calculated?

The amount of electric power something uses depends on
the voltage difference and the current. You can use the
following equation to calculate electric power.
electric power
(in watts)
current
(in amperes)
voltage difference
(in volts)
P IV
The unit for power is the watt. The abbreviation for watt is
W. The watt is a small unit of power. Because of this, electric
power usually is measured in kilowatts. Kilo- means thousand.
One kilowatt equals 1,000 watts. The abbreviation for kilowatt
is kW. You may see this symbol, or something similar, if you
look at an electric bill.
Applying Math
6.
Calculate The current in

an electric clothes dryer is
15 A when it is plugged into
a 240-V outlet. How much
power does the clothes
dryer use? Show your work.
Show your answer in kW.
Reading Essentials
235
How is electrical energy calculated?

7.
Infer Why do you think

electric companies charge
by the amount of electric
energy used as opposed to
the amount of electric
power used?
Using electric power costs money. However, electric

companies charge by the amount of electrical energy used,
not the amount of electrical power. Electrical energy usually
is measured in units of kilowatt hours. The abbreviation for
kilowatt hours is kWh. Kilowatt hours can be calculated using
this equation:
electrical energy electric power
(in kWh)
time
(in kW)
(in hours)
E Pt
How much does it cost to use electric energy?

You can figure out how much it costs to use an appliance.
You do this by multiplying the electric energy used by the
cost of each kilowatt hour. Suppose you leave a 100-W
lightbulb on for 5 h. The amount of electric energy it uses is
E Pt (0.1 kW) (5 h) 0.5 kWh
If the power company charges $0.10 per kWh, the cost of
using the light for 5 h is
So, in this example, it costs five cents to use a 100-W

lightbulb for 5 h.
The cost of using some household appliances is given in the
table. The cost of $0.09 per kWh was used in the calculations.
Cost of Using Home Appliances
Picture This
8.
Observe Which
appliance has the greatest
monthly cost?
236
Appliance
Hair
Dryer
Stereo
Color
Television
Power rating
1,000
100
200
Hours used daily
0.25
2.0
4.0
kWh used monthly
7.5
6.0
24.0
Cost per kWh
$0.09
$0.09
$0.09
Monthly cost
$0.68
$0.54
$2.16
cost (kWh used) (cost per kWh)

(0.5 kWh) ($0.10/kWh) $0.05
After You Read

Mini Glossary
electric power: the rate at which electric energy is changed
into another form of energy
parallel circuit: a circuit with at least two paths for current to
move through
series circuit: a circuit with just one loop for current to move
through
1. Read the terms and definitions in the Mini Glossary above. On the lines below, write a
sentence that shows your understanding of the difference between a series circuit and
a parallel circuit.
2. Complete the graphic organizer.

Electric Fuse
Circuit Breaker
contains
contains
that
that
when
when
and makes the current
3. You used the create-a-quiz strategy as you read this section. Look at the quiz questions
you wrote. How many of them can you answer correctly? Did this strategy help you
understand and remember what you read?

and projects to help you learn more about electrical energy.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
237
Magnetism
14
1
section
Magnetism
What Youll Learn
how a magnet applies

force
how temporary and
permanent magnets act
magnetic materials
and magnetic domains
Study Coach
Discussion After reading

this section, use an index card
to write down the two most
important things you learned.
Put one idea on one side and the
second idea on the back. Form a
group of four students to discuss
your topics.
Before You Read

Think about a magnet that you have used. Tell what it looked
like and the kinds of materials it attracted.
Read to Learn
Magnets
Magnets were discovered more than 2,000 years ago. Greeks
discovered a mineral that could attract pieces of iron. This
mineral is now called magnetite. About 1,000 years ago, Chinese
sailors used magnetite to make compasses. Compasses are tools
that can help you determine which direction you are traveling.
Since then many items have been invented that use magnets.
Magnetism refers to the properties of magnets and how
magnets act when they are near each other, or interact.
What is a magnetic force?

about magnets.
238
Attract
Repel
Poles
Field
Magnets
CHAPTER 14 Magnetism
Magnets exert a force on each other. These forces cause

magnets to do one of two things. The magnets can attract, which
means they pull together. Or the magnets can repel, which
means they push each other away. How they react depends on
which ends of the magnets are close together. Two magnets
interact with each other even before they touch. As the magnets
move closer together, the force between them increases. As the
magnets move farther apart, the force decreases.
What is a magnetic field?

The way magnetic forces interact with each other is caused
by magnetic fields. The magnetic field exerts a force on other
magnets and objects that are made of magnetic material. The
magnetic force is strongest close to the magnet. The magnetic
force becomes weaker as distance from the magnet increases.
chapter
Magnetic Field Lines Lines can represent a magnetic field.

The figures below show the magnetic field lines around three
different magnets. The arrows show that magnetic fields do
have direction.
What are magnetic poles?

Magnetic poles are the places on a magnet where the
magnetic force is strongest. All magnets have a north and a
south pole. As shown in the figure below, the north and south
poles are at opposite ends of a bar magnet. The lines that
represent the magnetic field are closest together at the poles.
A horseshoe-shaped magnet has its north and south poles
at its two ends. The magnetic field lines start at the north pole
and end at the south pole. In the disk magnet the poles are on
the top and bottom. Notice that the magnetic field lines of the
disk magnet go from the north pole to the south pole.
Picture This
N
N
1.
Highlight Using a
highlighter, trace the lines
of the magnetic fields for
all three types of magnets
shown on this page.
2.
Explain What causes a

compass needle to turn?
How do magnetic poles interact?

Two magnets can either attract or repel each other. How
they interact depends on which poles of the magnets are
placed close together. Two north poles will repel each other.
The same is true for two south poles. However, a north pole
and a south pole always attract each other. Like magnetic
poles repel each other and unlike poles attract each other.
How do magnets affect compasses?

A compass needle is a small bar magnet. The force exerted
by another bar magnet when brought near the compass will
make the compass needle turn. The needle turns until it lines
up with magnetic field lines. The north pole of a compass
points toward the south pole of a magnet.
How does Earth act like a magnet?

Earth is like a giant bar magnet. It has magnetic north and
south poles. It has a magnetic field that exerts a force on other
magnets. No one is sure what causes Earths magnetic field.
Earths inner core is made of iron and nickel. One theory is
that this core may produce Earths magnetic field.
Reading Essentials
239
Why does a compass point north?

A compass needle is a small magnet that lines up with Earths
magnetic field lines. Because of Earths magnetic field, a
compass needle points north and south. The north pole of a
compass needle is the end that points toward Earths geographic
north pole. However, recall that opposite magnetic poles attract.
The north pole of a compass is also called the south-seeking
pole. The south pole of a compass is the north-seeking pole.
When a compass points toward the geographic north pole of
Earth, it is actually pointing to the south pole of Earths
magnetic field.
Picture This
3.
North geographic pole
Determine Write an N
on the figure to show where
Earths north magnetic pole
is. Write an S on the figure to
show where Earths south
magnetic pole is.
South geographic pole
4.
Explain Why do the

atoms in nickel act like a
magnet?
A magnet will not attract all metal objects. For example, a

magnet will not attract aluminum foil. Only a few metals, such
as iron, cobalt, and nickel are attracted to magnets. Recall what
you have learned about electrons. Electrons have magnetic
properties. In the atoms of most elements, the magnetic
properties of the electrons cancel out. But in iron, cobalt,
and nickel, they dont cancel out. Each atom in these metals
acts like a small magnet with its own magnetic field.
Even though the atoms in iron, cobalt, or nickel have
magnetic fields, objects made from them do not always act
like magnets.
What are magnetic domains?

In magnetic materials, the magnetic field made by each
atom exerts a force on other nearby atoms. This causes the
atoms to rotate and form a magnetic domain. A magnetic
domain is a large group of atoms with their magnetic poles
lined up in the same direction. Because the atoms are lined
up, a domain acts like a magnet. A domain has a north pole
and a south pole.
240
Magnetic Materials
How do domains line up?

An iron nail has a large number of magnetic domains
that act like magnets. So why doesnt a nail always act like a
magnet? The poles of the domains point in different directions.
Since the domains do not line up, the magnetic fields cancel
each other out. Therefore, the nail does not act like a magnet.
The figure below shows the magnetic domains of a nail.
One way to make the domains line up is to touch a bar
magnet to the nail. Then the domains will rotate and point
in the same direction because of the magnetic field of the
magnet. Now the nail acts like a magnet. The circle at right
shows domains that have lined up.
Picture This
5.
Observe Look at the

figures. How are the north
and south poles lined up
differently?
6.
Explain How does a

strong magnetic field affect
a magnetic material?
If the bar magnet is taken away, the atoms in the nail start
to move around and bump each other. This motion causes
the domains to move out of line and cancel each other. This
is why a nail is not always a magnet.
How can you make a permanent magnet?

Permanent magnets can be made by placing a magnetic
material, such as iron, in a strong magnetic field. The strong
magnetic field causes the magnetic domains to line up and
combine to make a strong magnetic field inside the material.
This strong magnetic field keeps the atoms from bumping
the domains out of line. The material then becomes a
permanent magnet.
Heating a permanent magnet causes it to lose its magnetism.
Heat causes the atoms in the magnet to move faster. As the
atoms bump each other, the domains are moved out of line.
Then the domains cancel each other and the permanent
magnet loses its magnetic field.
Can a pole be isolated?

Suppose a magnet is broken into two pieces as shown in the
figure. Is one piece a north pole and the other piece a south
pole? Remember, each atom in a magnetic material acts like a
tiny magnet. So every magnet is made up of many smaller
magnets that are lined up. All the broken pieces of a magnet
have their own north and south poles.
Reading Essentials
241
After You Read

Mini Glossary
magnetic domain: groups of atoms with poles that line up in
magnetic pole: the north and south pole where the forces of
the same direction

magnetic field: the lines of force around a magnet
the magnet are strongest

magnetism: the properties of magnets and how magnets
interact with each other
1. Review the terms in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence that explains why Earth has a
magnetic field.
2. Complete the chart below. List the different things you learned about in this section that
have the word magnetic as part of their description.
Magnetism
1. magnetic force
2.
4.
5.
3. Think about the ideas your group wrote on index cards. Write one idea that everyone
agreed was important. How did this idea help you to understand magnetism?
End of
Section
242

games, and projects to help you learn more about magnetism.
3.
chapter
14
Magnetism
2
section
Electricity and Magnetism
Before You Read
What Youll Learn
List some machines that use motors to make them work.
how an electric current

and an electromagnet
produce magnetic fields
about electromagnets
and electric motors
Read to Learn
Electric Current and Magnetism
In 1820, a Danish physics teacher found that there is a link

between electricity and magnetism. He was demonstrating
electric current. There was a compass near the electric circuit.
He saw that the compass needle changed direction depending
on the flow of the electric current. The teacher hypothesized
that an electric current produces a magnetic field around the
wire and that the direction of a magnetic field changes with
the direction of the electric current.
Highlight As you read this

section, use a highlighter to
mark the most important ideas
in each paragraph.
How do magnetic field lines change?

The teachers hypothesis was correct. Moving charges create a
magnetic field. When an electric current flows in a wire, a
magnetic field forms around the wire. The direction of the
magnetic field depends on the direction of the current in the
wire. Look at the figure below. Magnetic field lines form circles
around a wire carrying electric current. When the current
changes direction, then the direction of the magnetic field lines
also change. If the current gets stronger, the magnetic field gets
stronger. As the distance from the wire increases, the strength of
the magnetic field decreases.
Magnetic field lines
B Note Cards
As you read
this section, make note cards
out of half-sheets of paper to
write notes about the three
main topics.
Electron flow
Electric Current
and Magnetism
Electromagnets
Electric Motors
Electron flow
Magnetic field lines
Reading Essentials
243
Electromagnets
The magnetic field that surrounds a wire carrying current can
be made much stronger in an electromagnet. An electromagnet
is a temporary magnet made by wrapping wire coil carrying
electricity around an iron core. The figure below at right is an
electromagnet.
The magnetic field inside a loop of wire is stronger than the
magnetic field around a straight wire. The magnetic field is
stronger because the magnetic fields inside the loop combine.
A solenoid (SOH luh noyd) is a single wire wrapped into a
coil. The magnetic field inside a solennoid is stronger that the
magnetic field inside a single loop of wire. The figure below at
left is a solenoid.
If a solenoid is wrapped around an iron core, it forms
an electromagnet. The solenoids magnetic field magnetizes
the iron core. As a result, the magnetic field inside the
electromagnet can be 1,000 times stronger than the field
inside a solenoid without a core.
Solenoid
Picture This
Electromagnet
Identify Label the part of

the electromagnet that is
different from the solenoid.
Electron
flow
N
S
Electron
flow
How do electromagnets work?
2.
Describe two ways to

increase the strength of the
field of an electromagnet.
244
Electromagnets are temporary magnets. The magnetic field

is present only when current is flowing in the solenoid. The
magnetic field of an electromagnet can be made stronger by
adding more coils of wire or by adding more current.
An electromagnet acts like any other magnet when current
flows through the solenoid. It has a north and a south pole,
attracts magnetic materials, and is attracted or repelled by
other magnets. If put in a magnetic field, an electromagnet
will line itself up along the magnetic field lines.
Electromagnets are useful because you can control how they act
by changing the electric current flowing through the solenoid.
When the current moves toward or away from another
magnet, electrical energy is changed into mechanical energy.
The mechanical energy will do work. Electromagnets make
mechanical energy to do work in many devices, such as stereo
speakers and electric motors.
1.
How do electromagnets make sound?

There is an electromagnet in the speaker you use when you
listen to a CD. The electromagnet is connected to a speaker
cone made from paper, plastic, or metal. A permanent magnet
surrounds the electromagnet.
Changing Electric Current Recall that increasing the current
passing through a wire increases the strength of a magnetic
field. A CD player produces a voltage, a measure of electrical
potential energy that can be changed into other forms of
energy. As voltage increases, more electrical potential energy is
ready to be changed into other forms of energy. The CD players
voltage produces an electric current in the electromagnet
next to the speaker cone.
The CD has data that changes the amount and direction of
electric current. The changing current causes the direction and
the strength of the magnetic field around the electromagnet to
change. A change in direction causes the electromagnet to
attract or repel the permanent magnet. This attracton and
repulsion moves the electromagnets back and forth.
The electromagnet changes electrical energy to mechanical
energy. The mechanical energy vibrates the speaker cone so it
reproduces the sound that was recorded on the CD.
3.
Determine What causes

the speaker cone of a CD
player to vibrate?
What makes an electromagnet rotate?

A permanent magnet can apply forces to an electromagnet to
make it rotate. The figure below shows an electromagnet
between the north and south poles of a permanent magnet. The
north and south poles of the electromagnet are attracted to the
opposite poles of the permanent magnet. This causes a
downward force on the left side of the electromagnet in the
figure and an upward force on the right side. These forces make
the electromagnet rotate until opposite poles are lined up.
The electromagnet continues to rotate until its poles are next
to the opposite poles of the permanent magnet. Once the north
and south poles of the electromagnet are in opposite directions,
the electromagnet stops rotating.
Electromagnet
Electromagnet
Picture This
4.
Permanent
magnet
Electron
flow
Permanent
magnet
Electron
flow
Identify Which pole of

the electromagnet is
attracted to the north pole
of the permanent magnet?
Reading Essentials
245
How does a fuel gauge work?
Picture This
5.
Analyze What would

make the needle in the fuel
gauge turn to the right?
A galvanometer is a device that uses an electromagnet to

measure electric current. Look at the first figure below. On the
left is a galvanometer. An electromagnet is located between the
poles of a permanent magnet and is connected to a small
spring. The electromagnet rotates until the force applied by the
spring is balanced by the magnetic forces on the electromagnet.
A needle is attached to the electromagnet, so it turns also.
In the same figure, on the right, is a fuel gauge from a cars
dashboard. A fuel gauge is a galvanometer. When the amount of
gasoline in the cars fuel tank changes, the needle in the gauge
moves. A sensor in the fuel tank tells when the fuel level
changes. This sensor sends an electric current to the
galvanometer. The current change causes the electromagnet to
turn. This makes the needle move to different positions on the
gauge. The gas gauge is set so that when the fuel tank is full, the
needle moves to the full mark on the gauge.
Scale
Needle
Spring
Electromagnet
Galvanometer
Fuel Gauge
Electric Motors
An electric motor is a machine that changes electrical
energy into mechanical energy. The wires carrying electric
current produce a magnetic field. This magnetic field acts the
same way as the magnetic field of a magnet. Two wires carrying electric current can attract each other as if they were two
magnets, as in the figure below.
6.
Identify What is a
machine that changes
electric energy into
mechanical energy called?
ron flo w
Elect
f l ow
tron
lE ec
246
Wires
carrying
current to coil
Permanent
magnet
Where are electric motors used?

Electric motors are used in many types of machines in
industry, agriculture, and transportation. Objects as large as
airplanes and cars use electric motors, and as small as CD
players also use motors.
How does a simple electric motor work?

The main parts of a simple electric motor include a wire coil,
a permanent magnet, and a source of electricity, such as a battery.
The battery supplies the electric current that makes the coil an
electromagnet. In the figure below, the current flows into the
coil and this causes the coil to rotate. A simple electric motor
also contains brushes and a commutator. The brushes are
connecting pads attached to the battery. The brushes touch
the commutator, which is a split metal ring that conducts
current. Each half of the commutator is attached to one end
of the coil. The commutator rotates with the coil. The brushes
and commutator make a closed electric circuit between the
battery and the coil.
When the current flows in the coil, the forces between the coil
and permanent coil make the coil turn, as shown below in step
1. The coil turns until it reaches the position shown in step 2.
The brushes do not touch the communicator and no current
flows to the coil. Inertia keeps the coil turning.
In step 3, the coil has turned so the brushes touch the
communicator. However, the halves of the communicator that
connected to the positive and negative terminals of the battery
have switched. The current reverses direction. The magnetic
poles of the coil reverse and are repelled by the permanent
magnet. The coil keeps turning.
In step 4, the coil spins until its poles are opposite the poles of
the permanent magnet. Then the communicator again reverses
the direction of the current and the coil keeps turning.
7.

main parts of a simple
electric motor?
Step 2
Step 1
Picture This
N
S
N
8.
S
Step 4
Step 3
Identify Circle the steps

when the communicators
are not touching the
brushes.
Reading Essentials
247
After You Read

Mini Glossary
electric motor: a device that changes electrical energy into
galvanometer: a device that uses an electromagnet to
mechanical energy
electromagnet: a single wire carrying an electric current
that is wrapped around an iron core
measure electric current

solenoid: a single wire carrying electric current that is
wrapped into a coil shaped like a cylinder
1. Review the vocabulary words and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence
that shows how a solenoid and an electromagnetic are related.
2. Complete the chart to list three items that use electromagnets to make them work.
3. Look at the parts of the text that you highlighted. How did this help you learn about
electricity and magnetism?
End of
Section
248

and projects to help you learn more about electricity and magnetism.
Use electromagnets to make them work
chapter
14
Magnetism
3
section
Producing Electric Current
Before You Read

Name three things you used today that use electrical energy
to make them work. Where do you think the electrical energy
came from?
Read to Learn
From Mechanical to Electrical Energy

In 1831, two scientists discovered the same thing
independently. If they moved a loop of wire through a magnetic
field, it caused an electric current to flow in the wire. They also
found that moving a magnet through a loop of wire produced a
current in the wire. In both cases, the movement caused an
electric flow in the wire. In other words, mechanical energy was
changed into electrical energy.
The loop of wire or the magnet has to move to make an
electric current. This makes the magnetic field inside the loop
change. When the magnetic field changes, it causes an electric
current to flow in the wire. The current change in the wire can
start a current in a nearby coil. Electromagnetic induction is
the generation of a current by a changing magnetic field.
How do electric generators work?

A generator uses electromagnetic induction to change
mechanical energy into electrical energy. Generators make
most of the electricity that you use each day. On the following
page, you will see a simple hand-cranked generator. Turning
the handle provides mechanical energy to rotate a coil. The
coil spins between the poles of a permanent magnet. This
action produces an electric current in the coil. The electric
current can then be sent through wires to do useful work.
What Youll Learn
what electromagnetic
induction is
how a generator
produces current
direct and alternating
current
how to change the
voltage of an
alternating current
Study Coach
Sticky-Note Discussions
Place sticky notes at parts of the
section you find interesting
orthat you have a question
about. Write the question on the
sticky note.
C Build Vocabulary As
you read this section, make a

vocabulary Foldable to show that
you understand the vocabulary
terms.
Electromagnetic
Induction
Generator
Turbine
DC
AC
Transformer
Reading Essentials
249
Current Flow In a simple generator with a turning wire coil,

shown in the figure below, the coil spins through the magnetic
field of the permanent magnet. This makes a current flow
through the coil. Each time the coil makes a half turn, the
ends of the coil move pass opposite poles of the permanent
magnet. This causes the current to change direction. The
current in the coil changes direction twice each time it makes
one full turn. You can control how often the current changes
direction by controlling how fast the generator rotates. In the
United States, generators rotate 60 times per second to produce
electric current.
Picture This
1.
Explain What provides

the original mechanical
energy for the simple
generator in the figure?
Electron flow
Electron
flow
A changing magnetic field can cause electric charges to move

in a wire. Also, a moving electric charge can cause a magnetic
field. When electric charges move inside atoms, the atoms
become a magnet. The electric force and the magnetic force are
two different aspects of a force called the electromagnetic force.
How is electricity produced for your home?
2.

sources of thermal energy
used by power plants?
250
The electrical energy you use in your home comes from a

power plant with giant generators. These generators have many
coils of wire wrapped around huge iron cores. A turbine
(TUR bine) is a large windmill-like wheel connected to big
magnets. The turbine rotates when it is pushed by steam,
water, or wind, and the rotating magnets produce the electric
current in the wire coils.
Some power plants use thermal energy to generate electricity.
To produce thermal energy, power plants burn fossil fuels
such as oil, natural gas, and coal, or use heat made by
nuclear reactors. The thermal energy is used to heat water
and produce steam. When the steam pushes the turbine
blades, the thermal energy is changed into mechanical energy.
The generator then changes the mechanical energy into
the electrical energy you use. Other power plants use the
mechanical energy of wind or water directly.
What is the electromagnetic force?
Mechanical Energy Some power plants use the mechanical

energy in falling water to turn the turbines and others use
wind energy. Windmills, like those in the figure below, capture
mechanical energy in wind to turn generators. The propeller
on each windmill is connected to an electric generator. The
turning propeller rotates a coil or a permanent magnet.
Picture This
3.
Make Connections
What do the propellers
rotate?
Direct and Alternating Currents

Have you ever had a power outage in your house? The
electrical devices do not work because electrical energy is not
coming into your house. Some electrical devices use batteries
as a primary source of energy. A battery-operated radio is one
of these devices. The current produced by a battery is different
from the current produced by an electric generator.
A battery produces a direct current. Direct current (DC)
is a current that flows in only one direction through a wire.
A CD player or any other appliance that plugs into a wall outlet uses alternating current. Alternating current (AC) reverses
or changes the direction of the current twice during each
rotation of the coil. Electronic devices that use batteries for
backup energy, such as a radio, usually need direct current to
operate. When the radio is plugged into a wall outlet, electronic parts in the radio change the alternating current to
direct current.
Transmitting Electrical Energy

Have you ever seen power lines along a highway? They carry
electrical energy from a power plant to buildings. When
electrical energy travels through wires, some of it changes into
thermal energy because of electrical resistance in the wires. As
wires get longer, there is more electrical resistance and thermal
energy increases. To reduce the thermal energy produced in a
power line the electrical energy is sent at high voltage. This
voltage in the lines is too high for appliances. A transformer is
used to lower the voltage before it enters your home.
4.
Identify Why can some

radios work both on
batteries and when plugged
into a wall outlet?
Reading Essentials
251
Transformers
A transformer is used to increase or decrease the voltage of
an alternating current. A transformer has a primary coil and a
secondary coil. Both coils are wrapped around the same iron
core. An input voltage of alternating current passes through the
primary coil. This causes the coils magnetic field to
magnetize the iron core. When the current in the primary coil
changes direction, this causes the magnetic fields in the
primary coil and the iron core to also change directions. This
causes an output voltage in the secondary coil.
The figures below show two kinds of transformers, a
step-up transformer and a step-down transformer.
Picture This
5.
Identify In each figure,

circle the labels that are
the same.
Primary coil
10 turns of wire
Secondary coil
20 turns of wire
Increase
2 times
Step-up Transformer
240 volts
AC in
Primary coil
40 turns of wire
120 volts
AC out
Secondary coil
20 turns of wire
Decrease
2 times
120 volts
AC out
Step-down Transformer
Step-Up Transformer A step-up transformer increases voltage

so that the output voltage is greater than the input voltage.
The secondary coil then has more turns than the primary coil.
In the figure, an input voltage of 60 volts in the primary coil
provides an output voltage of 120 volts in the secondary coil.
The secondary coil has twice as many turns as the primary
coil. The output voltage is twice as large as the input voltage.
Step-Down Transformer A step-down transformer decreases
voltage so that the output voltage is less than the input voltage.
The secondary coil then has fewer turns than the primary coil.
In the figure, the input voltage of 240 volts in the primary coil is
changed to an output voltage of 120 volts in the secondary coil.
The secondary coil has half as many turns as the primary coil.
Therefore, the output voltage is one-half of the input voltage.
6.
Determine What is
the difference between a
step-up transformer and a
step-down transformer?
252
What path does an alternating current follow?

Power plants usually produce alternating current because the
voltage can be increased or decreased with transformers. As the
electrical energy leaves the power plant, a step-up transformer
increases the voltage. This electrical energy is carried along
power lines. When the electrical energy leaves the power lines to
enter a building, a step-down transformer decreases the voltage.
Even though the voltage is changed, the amount of electrical
energy is not changed.
60 volts
AC in
After You Read

Mini Glossary
alternating current (AC): electrical current that changes its
generator: a device that uses electromagnetic induction to
direction twice during each rotation of a coil

direct current (DC): electrical current that flows in only one
direction through a wire
electromagnetic induction: a changing magnetic field
producing an electric current in a wire
change mechanical energy into electrical energy

transformer: a device that increases or decreases the voltage
of an alternating current
turbine: a large wheel that rotates when it is pushed by
water, wind, or steam
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Choose one of the words and
write what it means in your own words.
2. Complete the chart below to organize information about electric current.

Electric Current
Direct
How it flows
Alternating
What produces it
How it flows
What produces it
3. Think about what you have learned in this section. Look at the parts you marked with
sticky notes. How did these notes help you learn?

and projects to help you learn more about producing electric current.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
253
Electromagnetic
Radiation
15
chapter
What are electromagnetic waves?

Before You Read
What Youll Learn
how electromagnetic
waves are formed
how electric
charges produce
electromagnetic waves
properties of
Light is transmitted by electromagnetic waves. Without light,

you would not be able to see. On the lines below, write three
things you could not do without light.
Read to Learn
Study Coach
Summarize As you read,

summarize the key information
under each heading in one or
two sentences.
Waves in Space
No matter where you are, you are surrounded by
electromagnetic waves. You cant see them or feel them. But
some of these waves are passing through your body right
now. Electromagnetic waves make it possible for you to see.
They make your skin feel warm. You use electromagnetic
waves when you watch TV, talk on a cordless phone, or make
popcorn in a microwave oven.
How do sound and water waves move?

Waves are produced when something vibrates. They transmit
energy from one place to another. Both sound waves and water
waves move through matter. Water waves move through water,
a liquid. Sound waves move through matter that is solid, liquid,
or gas. Sound waves and water waves travel because energy is
transferred from one particle to another particle.
How are electromagnetic waves made?

1.
Apply What vibrates when

transfer energy?
254
Electromagnetic waves do not need matter to transfer

energy. Electromagnetic waves are made by vibrating
electric charges and can travel through space where there is
no matter. Electromagnetic waves do not transfer energy from
particle to particle. Instead, they travel by transferring energy
between vibrating electric and magnetic fields.
CHAPTER 15 Electromagnetic Radiation
1
section
Electric and Magnetic Fields

What happens if you move a magnet close to a metal paper
clip? The paper clip moves toward the magnet and sticks to it.
The magnet moves the paper clip without touching it because
every magnet is surrounded by a magnetic field. There is a
magnetic field around magnets even if the space around the
magnets contains no matter.
Electric charges are surrounded by electric fields in the same
way. An electric field surrounds an electric charge even if the
space around the charge has no matter. An electric field allows
electric charges to exert forces on each other even when they
are far apart.
2.
Draw Conclusions
How could you test an
object to see if it has a
magnetic field?
How do moving charges create magnetic fields?

An electric charge is surrounded by an electric field. Electric
charges also can be surrounded by magnetic fields. An electric
current in a wire is the flow of electrons in one direction. The
movement of these electrons creates a magnetic field around
the wire as shown in the figure. So, any moving electric charge
is surrounded by an electric field and a magnetic field.
Picture This
3.
Label the electrons

moving through the wire.
What is the flow of
electrons in one direction in
a wire called?
Magnetic
Magneticfield
fieldlines
lines
What happens when electric and magnetic

fields change?
A changing magnetic field creates a changing electric field.
One example of this relationship can be seen in a transformer.
A transformer transfers electric energy from one circuit to
another circuit. In the main coil of a transformer, changing
electric current produces a changing magnetic field. This
changing magnetic field then creates a changing electric field
in another coil. This electric field produces an electric current
in the coil. The reverse is also true. A changing electric field
creates a changing magnetic field.
Reading Essentials
255
Making Electromagnetic Waves
4.
Identify What is
produced when an
electric charge vibrates?
Waves are made when something vibrates. Electromagnetic

waves are made when an electric charge vibrates. When an
electric charge vibrates, the electric field around it changes.
Remember, a changing electric field creates a changing
magnetic field. Then the changing magnetic field creates a
changing electric field. How do the changing fields become
a wave? Look at the figure below. This process of changing
electric and magnetic fields continues. The magnetic and
electric fields create each other again and again.
An electromagnetic wave travels in all directions. The figure
shows a wave traveling in only one direction. The electric and
magnetic fields vibrate at right angles to the direction the
wave travels. Remember, in a transverse wave, the matter in
the medium moves at a right angle to the direction the wave
travels. So, an electromagnetic wave is a transverse wave.
Wavelen
gth
Electron
Electric field
Picture This
5.
Wavelen
gth
Trace Use a highlighter to

trace the magnetic field.
Use a pencil to trace the
electric field.
Direction
of travel
Electromagnetic Wave
Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

All matter contains charged particles that are always
moving. Therefore, all objects emit electromagnetic waves.
The wavelengths of the waves become shorter as the
temperature of the material increases. As an electromagnetic
wave moves, its electric and magnetic fields meet objects.
These vibrating fields can exert forces on charged particles
and magnetic materials. The forces make the charged particles
and magnetic materials move. For example, electromagnetic
waves from the Sun cause the electrons in your skin to vibrate
and gain energy. The energy carried by an electromagnetic
wave is radiant energy. Radiant energy makes a fire feel
warm. Radiant energy also allows you to see.
256
Magnetic field
What is the speed of electromagnetic waves?

All electromagnetic waves travel at 300,000 km/s in space.
Light is an electromagnetic wave. So, the speed of
electromagnetic waves in space is usually called the speed of
light. The speed of light is natures speed limit. Nothing in the
universe can travel faster than the speed of light. The speed of
electromagnetic waves through matter depends on what
material the waves travel through. Electromagnetic waves
usually travel slowest in solids and fastest in gases. The table
shows the speed of visible light in some materials.
Applying Math
Speed of Visible Light
6.
Material
Vacuum
Air
Speed (km/s)
300,000
slightly less
than 300,000
Water
226,000
Glass
200,000
Diamond
124,000
Calculate Use the table

at left. The average distance
from the Sun to Earth is
about 150,000,000 km.
About how long does it
take light from the Sun to
reach Earth? Round your
answer to the nearest
minute.
What are the wavelength and frequency of an

electromagnetic wave?
Electromagnetic waves can be described by their wavelengths
and frequencies. Look at the figure on the previous page. The
wavelength is the distance from the top of one wave to the top
of the next wave.
The frequency of any wave is the number of wavelengths
that pass a point in 1 s. The frequency of an electromagnetic
wave is the same as the frequency of the vibrating charge that
makes the wave. This frequency is the number of vibrations
of the charge in one second. As the frequency of an
electromagnetic wave increases, the wavelength becomes
smaller.
Waves and Particles

The difference between a wave and a particle might seem
obvious. A wave is a disturbance that carries energy. A particle
is a piece of matter. But the difference is really not so clear.
Reading Essentials
257
Can a wave be a particle?

A Find Main Ideas Make
two quarter-sheets of paper

into note cards to organize
information about waves
and particles.
Waves as
Particles:
Particles as
Waves:
In 1887, a scientist named Heinrich Hertz discovered that

when light is shined on a metal, electrons are ejected from the
metal. Hertz found that whether or not electrons were ejected
depended on the frequency of the light and not the
amplitude. This result seemed mysterious because the energy
carried by a wave depends on its amplitude and not on its
frequency. Years later, Albert Einstein explained Hertzs
discovery. Electromagnetic waves can behave as a particle,
called a photon, whose energy depends on the frequency of
the waves.
Can a particle be a wave?
7.
Describe Look at the

second part of the figure
showing electrons being
sprayed at two slits.
Describe the pattern
that they form.
Paint particles sprayed at two slits

coat only the area behind the slits.
Electrons fired at two slits form an

interference pattern, similar to
patterns made by waves.
An interference pattern is formed by waves when they pass

through two slits and interfere with each other. The pattern is
like the one made by water waves in the diagram below. The
experiment with two slits shows that electrons can behave
like waves. In fact, all particles, not only electrons, can behave
like waves.
Water waves make an interference pattern

after they pass through two slits.
258
Picture This
The discovery that electromagnetic waves could behave as a

particle led to other questions. Scientists wondered whether
matter could behave as a wave.
Look at the figure below. The first part shows paint particles
being sprayed at two narrow openings, or slits. The paint
particles cover only the area behind the slits.
The second part shows a beam of electrons being sprayed at
two slits. You might expect the electrons to strike only the area
behind the slits. But scientists found that electrons form an
interference pattern.
After You Read

Mini Glossary
electromagnetic waves: waves made by vibrating electric
photon: an electromagnetic wave that behaves like a particle
charges that can travel through space where there is no

matter
and whose energy depends on the frequency of the waves

radiant energy: the energy carried by an electromagnetic
wave
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Choose one term and use it
in a sentence that shows your understanding of the term.
2. Write a fact about electromagnetic waves on the lines under each heading.
Electromagnetic Waves
How they are formed
Kind of wave
Sometimes behave as
3. As you read this section, you summarized the important information under each heading.
How did that strategy help you learn the material in this section?

and projects to help you learn more about electromagnetic waves.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
259
15 Electromagnetic Radiation
chapter
The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Before You Read
What Youll Learn
the different kinds of

the properties of
how electromagnetic
waves are used
Radio waves, microwaves, and X rays are examples of

electromagnetic waves. On the lines below, write a
sentence about how you or someone you know has used
electromagnetic waves.
Read to Learn
Identify Definitions As
you read this section, highlight
each vocabulary term and
its definition.
A Range of Frequencies
Electromagnetic waves have a wide range of frequencies.
Some vibrate once a second. Others vibrate trillions of
times a second. The whole range of electromagnetic wave
frequencies is called the electromagnetic spectrum. The
electromagnetic spectrum is shown below.
Different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum interact
with matter in different ways. Because of this, the parts of the
spectrum have different names. Visible light, the range of
electromagnetic waves that humans can see, is a small part of
the whole electromagnetic spectrum. But a number of devices
have been created to detect the other frequencies. For
example, the antenna of a radio detects radio waves.
Radio
waves
Picture This
1.
Infrared
waves
Microwaves
Visible light
Identify Which
have the lowest frequency?
INCREASING FREQUENCY
260
Gamma
rays
Ultraviolet
waves
X rays
2
section
Radio Waves
Even though you cant see them, radio waves are moving
everywhere. Radio waves are low-frequency electromagnetic
waves with wavelengths longer than about 1 mm. Radio
stations make use of these waves. Microphones are used to
change sound waves from voices and music into radio waves.
The radio waves carry signals that can be picked up by radios.
Radios then change the signals back into sound waves. You
cannot hear actual radio waves. Remember, you hear sounds
when compressions and rarefactions from a sound wave reach
your ears. A radio wave does not produce compressions and
rarefactions. It needs to be turned into a sound wave by a
radio before you can hear it.
AB Find Main Ideas Make

a layered book Foldable using
four sheets of paper to describe
each part of the electromagnetic
spectrum. Write spectrum
on the first tab and label the
other tabs.
What are microwaves?

Microwaves are radio waves with wavelengths less than
30 cm. They have a higher frequency and shorter wavelength
than the waves used by radios. Microwaves with wavelengths
between about 20 cm and 1 cm are used for communication.
Cell phones and satellites use microwaves of this wavelength.
How do microwave ovens work?

In microwave ovens, microwaves interact with water
molecules in food. The figure shows how microwave ovens
work. Each water molecule is positively charged on one side
and negatively charged on the other side. There is a vibrating
electric field inside a microwave oven. It causes the water
molecules in food to rotate billions of times a second. The
rotation causes friction. Friction creates thermal energy.
Thermal energy made by the interactions between the water
molecules heats food.
Normally water molecules
are randomly arranged.
The microwaves cause the water

molecules to spin rapidly.
Picture This
2.
Analyze a Diagram
Look at the figure. List
two differences between
the left part and right part
of the figure.
Water
molecules
Electromagnetic
wave
Reading Essentials
261
How does radar work?

Radar stands for RAdio Detecting And Ranging. Radar
is used to find the position and speed of objects. Radio
waves are sent toward an object. The waves bounce off
the object and return. The time this takes gives the objects
position. Radar can show the position of airplanes, boats,
and cars. It also can measure the speed of moving vehicles.
3.
Describe What does

radar show?
What is magnetic resonance imaging?

Researchers developed a technique called magnetic
resonance imaging, or MRI, in the 1980s. MRI uses radio
waves to help diagnose illnesses. The patient lies inside a large
tube surrounded by a strong magnet, a radio-wave emitter,
and a radio-wave detector.
Protons in the hydrogen atoms in bones and soft tissue act
like magnets. They line up with the strong magnetic field of
the MRI. Energy from radio waves makes some of the protons
flip. When the protons flip, they release energy. Different
tissues release different amounts of energy. A radio receiver
detects the released energy and makes a map of the bodys
tissues. A picture of the inside of the patients body is made.
When you stand in front of a fireplace, you feel warmth from

the fire. Why do you feel heat? The warmth is thermal energy
transmitted by infrared waves. Infrared waves are
electromagnetic waves with wavelengths between about one
millimeter and about 750 billionths of a meter.
You use infrared waves every day. A remote control sends out
infrared waves to a television. A computer uses infrared waves
to read CD-ROMs. In fact, every object gives off infrared
waves. Hotter objects give off more infrared waves than cooler
objects. Infrared detectors can make pictures of objects from
the infrared waves they give off, or emit. Infrared sensors on
satellites can identify where plants are growing in a region.
Applying Math
4.
Write Decimals You

can write 10 billionths as a
decimal by moving the
decimal point in 1.0 ten
places to the left. Write
10 billionths as a decimal.
262
Visible Light
Visible light is the range of electromagnetic waves that
people can see. Visible light has wavelengths of about
750 billionths to 400 billionths of a meter. The
electromagnetic waves you can see have different wavelengths.
You see the different wavelengths as different colors. Blue light
has the shortest wavelength. Red light has a longest wavelength. The light looks white if all the colors are present.
Infrared Waves
Ultraviolet Waves
Ultraviolet waves are electromagnetic waves with
wavelengths from about 400 billionths to 10 billionths of a
meter. Ultraviolet, or UV, waves have enough energy to enter
skin cells. Being exposed to too many UV rays can cause skin
damage and cancer. Sunlight contains ultraviolet waves.
Most of the ultraviolet radiation that reaches Earths surface
is longer-wavelength rays. They are called UVA rays. Shorterwavelength rays are called UVB rays. UVB rays are the rays
that cause sunburn. Both UVA and UVB rays can damage the
skin and cause skin cancer.
Can UV radiation be useful?
5.
Describe How can

ultraviolet waves harm you?
6.
Think Critically What
Some UV rays are useful. A few minutes of UVs from the

Sun each day helps your body make vitamin D. Vitamin D is
needed for healthy bones and teeth.
UVs are used to sterilize objects such as medical supplies
and hospital equipment. When ultraviolet light enters a cell,
it damages protein and DNA molecules. This can kill some
single-celled organisms such as bacteria.
Ultraviolet waves make some materials light up, or fluoresce.
Fluorescent materials absorb ultraviolet waves. Then they emit
the energy as visible light. Police detectives sometimes use
fluorescent powder to find fingerprints when solving crimes.
What is the ozone layer?

The ozone layer is an area in Earths upper atmosphere. It is
about 20 km to 50 km above Earths surface. Ozone is a
molecule made up of three oxygen atoms. The ozone layer is
necessary to life on Earth because it absorbs most of the Suns
harmful ultraviolet waves. Over the past few decades, the
amount of ozone in the ozone layer has decreased.
What chemicals harm the ozone layer?

Ozone has decreased because of the presence of certain
chemicals in Earths atmosphere. The chemicals are called
chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs. CFCs are used in air
conditioners, refrigerators, and cleaning fluids. CFC
molecules react with ozone molecules. One chlorine atom
from a CFC molecule can break apart thousands of ozone
molecules. Many countries are using fewer CFCs and other
chemicals that destroy ozone.
If too much ozone is destroyed, the ozone layer will be
damaged or lost altogether. Without the ozone layer,
everything on the surface of Earth would become exposed to
a much higher level of damaging ultraviolet waves.
could happen to humans if

the ozone layer were
destroyed?
Reading Essentials
263
X Rays and Gamma Rays

Infer Why might MRIs
cause less harm to the
body than X rays?
X rays and gamma rays are the electromagnetic waves

with the shortest wavelengths. They also have the highest
frequencies. Both X rays and gamma rays are high-energy
electromagnetic waves. X rays have wavelengths between
10 billionths and 10 trillionths of a meter. They have enough
energy to go through skin and muscle. Doctors and dentists
use low levels of X rays to take pictures of internal organs,
bones, and teeth. High levels of X rays are dangerous and can
cause cancer. X rays are projected only at very specific areas of
the body. Lead aprons or shielding are used to protect other
areas from exposure. X rays cannot travel through lead.
X Ray of Bone
8.
Identify Which
statement is not true.
(Circle your answer.)
a. Gamma rays are lowfrequency waves.
b. X rays are high-energy
waves.
c. Gamma rays are used
to treat diseases.
264
Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves with wavelengths

shorter than 10 trillionths of a meter. They are the highestenergy electromagnetic waves. They can travel through
several centimeters of lead. Gamma rays are produced in the
nuclei of atoms. Both X rays and gamma rays are used in
radiation therapy. Radiation therapy is used to kill diseased
cells in the human body. X rays and gamma rays can kill both
healthy and diseased cells. Doctors carefully control the
amount of X-ray or gamma-ray radiation the diseased area
receives. This reduces the damage to healthy cells.
7.
After You Read

Mini Glossary
gamma rays: electromagnetic waves with wavelengths
ultraviolet waves: electromagnetic waves that have
shorter than 10 trillionths of a meter

infrared waves: electromagnetic waves with wavelengths
between about 1 mm and about 750 billionths of a meter
microwaves: radio waves with wavelengths of less than
30 cm
radio waves: low-frequency electromagnetic waves with
wavelengths longer than about 1 mm
wavelengths from about 400 billionths to 10 billionths of

a meter
visible light: the range of electromagnetic waves that people
can see
X rays: electromagnetic waves with a wavelength of between
10 billionths of a meter and 10 trillionths of a meter
1. Draw a line to match the name of each ray in the first column with its wavelength in the
second column.
Column 1
Visible light
X ray
Microwave
Gamma ray
Radio wave
Ultraviolet wave
Infrared wave
Column 2
less than 30 cm
400 billionths to 10 billionths of a meter
longer than 1 mm
1 mm to 750 billionths of a meter
10 billionths to 10 trillionths of a meter
10 billionths to 400 billionths of a meter
shorter than 10 trillionths of a meter
2. Write the names of the waves listed in question 2 in the electromagnetic spectrum pyramid.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
INCREASING FREQUENCY

projects to help you learn more about the electromagnetic spectrum.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
265
15 Electromagnetic Radiation
chapter
Radio Communication
Before You Read
What Youll Learn
how radio waves transmit

information
amplitude modulation
and frequency
modulation
about radio wave
communication
You learned that all electromagnetic waves have frequencies.

Every radio station broadcasts at a certain frequency. What is
the frequency of your favorite radio station? What do you
think this number means?
Read to Learn
Study Coach
Create a Quiz After you

have read this section, create a
quiz based on what you have
learned. After you have written
the quiz questions, be sure to
answer them.
Radio Transmission
When you listen to the radio, you hear music and words
that were created far away. Radio stations need to send
sounds over great distances. They do this by changing sound
waves to electromagnetic waves. Your radio then changes the
electromagnetic waves back to sound waves again.
How does a radio receive different stations?
C Summarize Fold one

sheet of paper into sixths to
summarize the information in this
section on radio communication.
Radio Communication
Radio
Television
Telephones
Satellites
GPS
266
Each radio station broadcasts at a certain frequency. The

tuning knob on a radio lets you choose the frequency, or
station, you want to listen to. The frequency of the
electromagnetic wave that a radio station uses is the carrier
wave.
At the radio station, music and voices make air molecules
vibrate. This vibration creates sound waves. Microphones
convert the sound waves to a changing electric current. The
changing electric current is an electronic signal. The signal
contains the words and music that the station is broadcasting.
The signal is added to the stations carrier wave. The carrier
wave has been changed, so it is a modified carrier wave.
The modified carrier wave vibrates electrons in the stations
antenna. These vibrating electrons create a radio wave.
The radio wave travels out in all directions at the speed of
light. The radio wave makes electrons in your radios
antenna vibrate.
3
section
Electric Current These vibrating electrons produce a

changing electric current. The current contains the carrier
wave and the signal. If your radio is tuned to the stations
frequency, the radio removes the carrier wave from the
electronic signal. The signal then makes the radios speakers
vibrate and creates sound waves. The sound waves travel to
your ears. Your brain interprets the sound waves as music
and words.
What is AM radio?
The figure below shows the two ways the carrier wave can
be modified. The first way is amplitude modulation, or AM.
AM radio stations broadcast information by changing the
amplitude of the carrier wave. Look at the wave labeled
amplitude modulation. Notice that the amplitude changes,
but the frequency does not. The original sound is changed
into an electrical signal that changes the amplitude of the
carrier wave. You tune an AM radio to the frequency of
the carrier wave. AM frequencies range from 540,000 Hz to
1,600,000 Hz. AM radio stations give their frequencies in
kilohertz. A station that gives its frequency as 810 AM
means that it is broadcasting at a frequency of 810,000 Hz.
Applying Math
1.
Use Decimals Suppose

a radio station broadcasts at
1250 AM. What is the
frequency of the station, in
hertz?
What is FM radio?
The second way a carrier wave can be modified is called
frequency modulation, or FM. FM radio stations broadcast
information by changing the frequency of the carrier wave.
Look at the wave labeled frequency modulation. Notice that the
frequency of the wave changes, but not the amplitude. The
strength of the FM waves is always the same. Because of this, FM
signals are usually clearer than AM signals. FM frequencies range
from 88 million to 108 million Hz. This is much higher than AM
frequencies. FM radio stations give their frequencies in megahertz. Mega- means million, so a station with a frequency of
89.9 FM is broadcasting at a frequency of 89,900,000 Hz.
Picture This
2.
Carrier wave
Signal
Amplitude modulation
Frequency modulation
Interpret a Scientific
Illustration Look at
the figure that shows
frequency modulation.
How does the wavelength
of the wave change as its
frequency increases?
Reading Essentials
267
Television
Television might seem like magic, but not if you know how
it works. Television and radio work in similar ways, using
radio waves. At a television station, sounds and images are
changed into electronic signals. The signals are broadcast by
carrier waves. Television sound is sent by FM radio waves.
Information about the color and brightness is sent at the
same time by AM signals.
3.
Identify What focuses

the electronic beams
inside a CRT?
Many television sets and computer monitors display images

on a cathode-ray tube, or CRT. A cathode-ray tube is a sealed
vacuum tube in which beams of electrons are produced. The
CRT in a color TV produces three electron beams. A magnetic
field focuses the three beams inside the CRT. They strike the
inside of the screen. The screen is covered with rectangular
spots. There are more than 100,000 of these spots on a
television screen.
There are three types of spots. One type glows red when
electrons hit it. Another type glows green. The third type
glows blue. The spots are grouped together. There is a red
spot, a green spot, and a blue spot in each group. The three
electron beams of the cathode-ray tube move back and forth
across the screen. One beam controls the brightness of the
red spots. The other two beams control the brightness of the
blue spot and the green spot. The information in the signal
from the TV station controls how bright each spot is. The
three spots together can form any color. You see a full-color
image on the television.
Telephones
4.
Think Critically What

would happen if you drove
into an area where there was
no cell phone tower while
you were talking on a cell
phone?
268
Just 20 years ago, you never would have seen someone

walking down the street talking on a telephone. Today, cell
phones are seen everywhere. When you talk into a telephone,
you create sound waves. A microphone turns the sound waves
into an electrical signal. In cell phones, this current is used to
create radio waves. The radio waves are transmitted to and
from a microwave tower. A cell phone uses one radio signal for
sending data to a tower. It uses another signal for receiving data
from the tower. At the receiving end, the radio wave is turned
back into an electric signal. A speaker in the earpiece changes
the electric signal into a sound wave.
Cell phone towers are many kilometers apart. Each tower
covers an area called a cell. If you move from one cell to another
cell, a control station moves your signal to the new cell.
What is a cathode-ray tube?
How do cordless telephones work?

Cell phones and cordless telephones are transceivers.
A transceiver is a device that transmits one radio signal and
receives another radio signal from a base unit. You can talk
and listen at the same time using a transceiver because the
two signals are at different frequencies.
Cordless telephones, like the one in the figure below, work
much like cell phones. With a cordless phone, you must be close
to the base unit. Many kinds of cordless phones use the same
frequency. Sometimes, when someone nearby is using a cordless
telephone, you can hear the conversation on your phone. Many
cordless phones have a channel button. You can use the channel
button to switch your call to another frequency.
5.
Explain Why do cordless

phones use two different
frequencies?
Cordless
phone
Radio
signals
Base unit
Picture This
6.
Identify What do the

circles in the figure
represent?
How do pagers work?

Pagers are another way to send signals. A pager is a small
radio receiver. Each pager has its own phone number. A caller
can dial the pager number and leave a message at a central
terminal. The caller enters a call-back number using a
telephone keypad or by entering a text message from a
computer. At the terminal, the message is changed into an
electronic signal. The signal is transmitted by radio waves.
Many kinds of pagers use the same transmission
frequencies. Each pager in the area receives all the messages
that are transmitted in its frequency. However, each pager has
a special identification number. The identification number is
sent along with each message. A pager only picks up messages
with its identification number. Newer kinds of pagers can
send messages as well as receive them.
Reading Essentials
269
Communications Satellites
Radio waves cannot be sent through Earth. Instead, radio
signals are sent to satellites. The satellites can communicate
with other satellites or with stations on the ground.
Thousands of satellites have been launched and orbit Earth.
Many of these satellites are used for communication. A radio or
television station sends a high-frequency microwave signal to
the satellite. The satellite amplifies the signal and sends it back
to a different place on Earth. The satellite avoids interference by
using a different frequency to receive and to send messages.
What is a satellite telephone system?
7.
Explain Why is there

sometimes a delay when
talking on a satellite phone?
If you have a mobile telephone, you can make a phone call

from the middle of the ocean using a satellite telephone
system. A mobile telephone transmits radio waves directly to
a satellite. The satellite sends the signal to a ground station.
Then the call is passed on to the regular telephone network.
Satellites work well for one-way transmissions. But two-way
communications can be difficult. There can be a delay
between the sender and the receiver because of the time used
to travel to and from the satellite.
You sometimes see satellite-reception dishes attached to
houses. These dishes are receivers for television satellite signals.
Satellite television is sometimes used instead of systems that
send signals close to the ground. Television satellites use shorter
microwaves rather than the longer-wavelength radio waves
used for normal television broadcasts. Microwaves travel more
easily through the atmosphere.
The Global Positioning System
8.
Apply Some cars have

GPS systems installed in
them. When might a GPS
system be helpful?
270
People sometimes get lost while hiking. If they are carrying

a Global Positioning System receiver, this is much less likely to
happen. The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a system of
satellites, ground monitoring stations, and portable receivers
that determine a persons or objects exact location on Earth.
The system consists of 24 satellites. To determine the location
of an object, a GPS receiver measures the time it takes for
radio waves to travel from four satellites to the receiver. It
gives information around the world 24 hours a day. GPS
satellites are operated by the U.S. Department of Defense, but
the microwaves they send out can be used by anyone. GPS
receivers are used in airplanes, ships, cars, and even by hikers.
Why are satellites used for television signals?
After You Read

Mini Glossary
carrier wave: the frequency of the electromagnetic wave
Global Positioning System (GPS): a system of satellites,
that a radio station uses

cathode-ray tube: a sealed vacuum tube in which beams of
electrons are produced
ground monitoring stations, and portable receivers that

determines your exact location on Earth
transceiver: a device that transmits one radio signal and
receives another radio signal from a base unit
1. Read the vocabulary terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. In the space below,
write the name of a device that uses a cathode-ray tube.
2. Complete the list to organize the information from the section about radio transmission.
1.
Sounds make air molecules vibrate and create sound waves.
2.
3.
4.
The carrier wave vibrates electrons in stations antenna and creates a radio wave.
5.
6.
7.
The vibrating electrons produce a changing electric current.
8.
9.
10.
The sound waves travel to your ears and your brain interprets them as music
and voices.

and projects to help you learn more about radio communication.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
271
chapter
16
Energy Sources
1
section
Fossil Fuels
What Youll Learn
what fossil fuels are

and how they formed
how fossil fuels are used
Locate Information
Underline every heading in the
section that asks a question.
Then, highlight the answers to
those questions as you find
them.
Before You Read

Write what you think the energy source is for the heating
system, water heater, and stove in your home.
Read to Learn
Using Energy
Energy is used in many ways. Furnaces use thermal energy
to heat buildings and stoves use it to cook food. Air
conditioners use electrical energy to move thermal energy
outdoors. Vehicles use mechanical energy to move people and
materials.
Remember, the law of conservation of energy says that
energy cannot be created or destroyed. Energy can only
transform, or change, from one form to another. When you
use energy, you change it to another form. For example, the
chemical energy in fuel changes to thermal energy in stoves.
The thermal energy heats the food you cook.
Some energy changes are not useful. For example, about
10 percent of the electrical energy that flows through power
lines changes to thermal energy in the lines. This thermal
energy is the result of friction between the flowing electrons
and the atoms in the wire.
A Describe Make the

following Foldable to help
describe fossil fuels and how
they are converted to energy.
Describe
fossil
fuels.
Explain how
they are
converted into
energy.
272
CHAPTER 16 Energy Sources
How is energy used in the United States?

The United States uses more energy than any other country.
Look at the figure at the top of the next page. The first circle
graph shows energy use in the United States. Energy is used in
homes for heating and cooling, running appliances, lighting
buildings, and heating water. Energy used for transportation
powers cars, trucks, and airplanes. Businesses use energy to
heat, cool, and light stores and offices. Factories and farms
use energy to make products and grow crops.
How is energy used?
Energy Usage
Residential
20%
Industrial
37%
Sources of Energy
Applying Math
Biomass and others 3%

Hydroelectric 4%
Petroleum
39%
1.
Interpret a Graph
What percentage of energy
used in the United States is
used by businesses and
industries together?
Nuclear
8%
Coal
23%
Business
16%
Natural gas
23%
Transportation
27%
The second circle graph shows the main sources of the

energy used in the United States. Almost 85 percent of the
energy used comes from burning petroleum, natural gas, and
coal. Nuclear power plants provide about eight percent
of the energy used in the United States.
Making Fossil Fuels

A car might use several gallons of gasoline, or fuel, in one
hour of freeway driving. Did you know that it takes millions
of years to make fuels like oil, natural gas, and coal? These
fuels are called fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are formed from the
decayed remains of ancient plants and animals.
Petroleum, or oil, and natural gas form when matter made
up of dead plants and animals piles up on the ocean floor.
The matter is buried slowly under layers of sediment. Chemical
reactions caused by heat and great pressure change the matter
into oil and natural gas. The oil and gas may bubble up to
the surface or be trapped beneath a layer of rock. Coal is
formed from dead plants in ancient swamps in much the
same way.
Why are fossil fuels concentrated

energy sources?
Fossil fuels are energy sources. They store chemical energy
in the bonds between the atoms. When a fossil fuel burns, a
chemical reaction takes place. The carbon and hydrogen
atoms in the fossil fuel combine with oxygen in the air to
form carbon dioxide and water. Heat and light are produced
when chemical potential energy is converted in the chemical
reaction. Chemical bonds in fossil fuels are the source of the
potential energy.
2.
Explain What is
necessary to change
matter into fossil fuels?
Reading Essentials
273
The chemical potential energy in fossil fuels is more

concentrated than in other fuels. For example, burning 1 kg of
coal releases two to three times as much energy as burning 1 kg
of wood. The figure shows the amount of energy that is
produced by burning 1 g of different fossil fuels.
Applying Math
36,000
24,000
Coal
48,000
Gasoline
12,000
Wood
much more energy is

released by burning 1 g of
gasoline than 1 g of wood?
Natural gas
Compare About how

Energy content per gram (joules)
3.
Energy Content of Fuels
Type of Fuel
Petroleum is a liquid fuel formed by decayed organisms. It is

a mixture of thousands of chemical compounds. Most of these
compounds are hydrocarbons, which means their molecules
contain only carbon atoms and hydrogen atoms. Petroleum,
or crude oil, is pumped from wells deep in Earths crust.
Millions of gallons of petroleum are pumped every day.
4.
Identify What two types

of atoms do petroleum
molecules contain?
274
How are hydrocarbons separated?

Petroleum is a mixture of many different hydrocarbon
compounds. Some are thick and heavy, like asphalt. Others
are very light, like gasoline. Heavy hydrocarbon compounds
have large molecules with many carbon and hydrogen atoms.
Light hydrocarbon compounds have small molecules with few
carbon and hydrogen atoms.
Petroleum compounds must be separated or refined in a
process called fractional distillation. At a refinery, crude oil is
heated in the bottom of a tall, slender tank. The compounds
boil and turn to vapor. Hydrocarbons with the lowest boiling
points rise to the top of the tank. Those with high boiling points
remain liquid and are drained from the bottom of the tower.
Most of the hydrocarbons that are separated at a refinery end
up as fuels such as gasoline, jet fuel, diesel fuel, and heating oil.
The rest are used as ingredients in other chemical products.
Petroleum
What are other uses for petroleum?

Not all of the products we get from petroleum are turned
into fuels. In the United States, about 15 percent of petroleumbased substances are used for other products. Plastics and
synthetic fabrics are made from the hydrocarbons found in
petroleum. Lubricants, such as grease and motor oil, and the
asphalt used in roads also are made from petroleum.
5.
Identify List three

products that are made
from petroleum.
6.
Use Percentages
Natural Gas
Natural gas and petroleum are formed by the same chemical
processes. However, natural gas is a gas and petroleum is a liquid.
Underground, natural gas is usually found above petroleum
deposits. Natural gas is made up mostly of the hydrocarbon,
methane, CH4. It also contains other hydrocarbon gases such as
propane, C3H8 and butane, C4H10. Natural gas provides energy
for cooking, heating, and manufacturing. About one-fourth of
the energy used in the United States comes from natural gas.
Natural gas contains more energy per kilogram than petroleum
or coal. It also burns more cleanly than other fossil fuels and
produces fewer pollutants.
Coal
Coal is a solid fossil fuel. It is found in underground mines.
From 1900 to 1950, coal provided more than half of the energy
that was used in the United States. Now, almost two-thirds
of the energy used comes from petroleum and natural gas.
Only about one-fourth comes from coal. About 90 percent of
all the coal that is used in the United States is burned by power
plants to generate electricity.
Where does coal come from?

Coal deposits, the places where coal can be found, were
once ancient swamps. Over thousands of years, plants that
lived in the swamps died. Coal formed from the dead plants.
The amount of coal worldwide is estimated to be 20 to 40
times greater than the supply of petroleum.
Coal is a solid mixture of hydrocarbons and other chemicals,
such as sulfur compounds. Because of the chemical compounds
coal contains, burning it often produces more pollutants than
burning petroleum or natural gas. The sulfur compounds in
coal, when burned, produce sulfur dioxide. Sulfur dioxide is a
major cause of acid rain.
About what percent of all

the coal that is used in the
United States is used to
produce electricity?
Reading Essentials
275
How Electricity Is Generated

Water
tank
Water
Steam
Generator
Water
Transformer
Turbine
Intake pipe
Fuel
Power lines
Steam
Cooling
water
Picture This
7.
Observe Circle the part

of the figure that shows
where the electric current
is produced.
Generating Electricity
Burning fossil fuels produces almost 70 percent of the
electrical energy used in the United States. The chemical
energy contained in fossil fuels is converted or changed to
electrical energy in electric power stations. Follow the process
in the figure above. First, the fuel is burned and converted to
thermal energy. The thermal energy heats water and produces
steam under high pressure. Then the steam spins the blades of
a turbine. The turbine is connected to an electric generator.
The spinning turbine turns magnets inside the generator. This
produces electric current. Finally, the electric current is sent
to homes, schools, and businesses through power lines.
Applying Math
8.
Calculate What percent

of energy is converted to
thermal energy during fossil
fuel conversion?
When fossil fuels are burned, not all the chemical energy in
the fuel changes into electrical energy. Some of the energy is
converted into thermal energy. Efficiency is the percentage of
the total energy that is usable. You can find the overall
efficiency of a power plant by multiplying the efficiencies of
each stage of the process. In fossil fuel-burning powerplants,
the overall efficiency is only about 35 percent. Only about
35 percent of the chemical energy contained in fossil fuels is
delivered as electrical energy. The rest of the energy is
converted to thermal energy that is transferred to the
environment.
The Costs of Using Fossil Fuels

Fossil fuels are useful for making electricity. They also
provide power for transportation. But they have some
harmful side effects. Petroleum products and coal give off
smoke when they are burned. The smoke contains small
particles called particulates. The particulates can cause
breathing problems for some people.
276
Efficiency of Power Plants
What are the effects of burning fossil fuels?

Burning fossil fuels also releases carbon dioxide. The amount
of carbon dioxide in Earths atmosphere has increased greatly
over the past hundred years. The increase is due to burning
fossil fuels. An increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
could cause Earths surface temperature increase.
What are the problems with using coal?
9.
List two harmful side

effects of using fossil fuels.
There is more coal than any other fossil fuel. However,

burning coal releases more pollutants than oil or natural gas.
Many power plants that burn coal remove some pollutants
before they are released into the air. Mining coal also can be
dangerous. Some miners suffer from lung diseases that are
caused by breathing coal dust for long periods of time.
Nonrenewable Resources
Fossil fuels are nonrenewable resources. Nonrenewable
resources are resources that cannot be replaced by natural
processes as quickly as they are used. Fossil fuel reserves are
decreasing. Reserves are the amounts of fossil fuels remaining
in the ground. At the same time, the population and industrial
needs for fuel are increasing. The graph below shows that over
the next 50 years, oil production might decrease from more
than 25 billion barrels to about 5 billion barrels per year.
Picture This
Oil production (billions of barrels)
Global Oil Production
10.
30
Reading Graphs In
what year was global oil
production the highest?
25
20
15
10
5
0
1930
1950
1970
1990 2010
Year
2030
2050
Conserving Fossil Fuels

Since reserves of fossil fuels are decreasing, the price of
fossil fuels is increasing. The need for energy keeps increasing
because the population of the world is increasing. One way to
meet energy needs and to reduce the use of fossil fuels is to
get energy from other sources.
Reading Essentials
277
After You Read

Mini Glossary
fossil fuel: fuels that are formed from the decayed remains of
ancient plants and animals
nonrenewable resource: resources that cannot be

replaced by natural processes as quickly as they are used
petroleum: a liquid fuel formed by decayed organisms
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Explain why fossil fuels are
called nonrenewable resources.
2. Complete the graphic organizer below to organize the information you learned in this
section about fossil fuels.
Comes From
Mainly Used For
Effects of Burning
Petroleum
Coal
3. Think about what you have learned. How did underlining the questions and their answers
help you as you read the section?
End of
Section
278

and projects to help you learn more about fossil fuels.
Natural Gas
chapter
16
Energy Sources
2
section
Nuclear Energy
Before You Read

What do you know about nuclear energy? Write all the
information you know about nuclear energy on the lines below.
Read to Learn
Using Nuclear Energy

Electric power plants that do not burn fossil fuels have been
developed. Some of these are nuclear power plants. Since fossil
fuels are not burned, nuclear power plants do not cause
pollution or release carbon dioxide. Nuclear power plants
convert nuclear energy to electrical energy through a process
called nuclear fission. Nuclear fission is the process of breaking
apart the nucleus of an atom. This releases energy. In the
process, an extremely small amount of matter is converted into
a huge amount of energy. Today almost 20 percent of the
electricity produced in the United States comes from nuclear
power plants. Nuclear power plants produce about eight percent
of all the energy used in the United States. In 2003, there were
65 nuclear power plants in the United States. These plants
contained 104 nuclear reactors.
What Youll Learn
how a nuclear reactor

works
advantages and
disadvantages of
nuclear energy
Study Coach
Make Flash Cards For

each heading in this section,
think of a question your teacher
might ask on a test. Write the
question on one side of a flash
card. Then write the answer on
the other side. Quiz yourself
until you know the answers.
Nuclear Reactors
A nuclear reactor uses the energy from controlled nuclear
reactions to generate electricity. Nuclear reactors can have
different designs, but they all have the same major parts.
Nuclear reactors contain a fuel that can undergo nuclear
fission. They also have control rods that can speed up or slow
down the nuclear reactions. Nuclear reactors have a cooling
system that keeps the reactor from being damaged by the heat
that is produced. The actual fission of the atoms of the fuel
happens in a small part of the reactor known as the core.
Reading Essentials
279
What is nuclear fuel?

The fuel for a nuclear reactor must be an element whose
nucleus can undergo fission, or split. One element that is used is
uranium. Uranium dioxide is the fuel that is used most often in
nuclear reactors. One isotope of uranium, called U-235, has a
nucleus that can split. However, only about 0.7 percent of
naturally occurring uranium is the U-235 isotope. Uranium
must be enriched to increase the amount of U-235. Uranium
used as nuclear fuel is enriched so that it contains three to five
percent U-235.
Applying Math
1.
Calculate Suppose
that over a period of time,
100 kg of nuclear fuel is
converted to energy in a
nuclear power plant. How
many kilograms of coal
would have to be burned
to release the same amount
of energy? Write your
answer in both numerals
and words.
What is in the reactor core?

The reactor core contains small, enriched uranium dioxide
pellets that are sealed inside metal fuel rods. The pellets look
like pencil erasers. They are placed end to end in a tube. The
tubes are bundled into what are called fuel rods. Then they
are covered with a metal alloy. A typical reactor core contains
about 100,000 kg of uranium in hundreds of fuel rods. For
every kilogram of uranium that undergoes fission in the core,
1 g of matter is converted into energy. The energy released by
this 1 g of matter is equal to the energy released by burning
more than 3 million kg of coal.
The figure shows a uranium nuclear fission reaction. When
a neutron hits the nucleus of a U-235 atom, the nucleus splits
into two smaller nuclei. Two or three neutrons are released at
the same time. The smaller nuclei are called fission products.
The neutrons from the first reaction hit other U-235 nuclei.
Every uranium nucleus that splits apart releases neutrons that
cause other uranium atoms to split apart. This process is called
a nuclear chain reaction.
Smaller nucleus
Neutron
Picture This
2.
Identify Circle the

fission products.
Energy
Neutron
Energy
U-235
Nucleus
Neutron
Smaller nucleus
280
How does nuclear fission happen?
What happens when a nucleus splits?

The number of nuclei that split in a nuclear chain reaction
can more than double at each step of the reaction. So, a huge
number of nuclei can be split after only a small number of
reactions. Nuclear chain reactions take place in less than a
second. If nuclear chain reactions arent controlled, the chain
reaction could create an explosion.
B Summarize Use a sheet

of notebook paper to make the
following Foldable and summarize
what you have learned about the
process of nuclear fission.
Nuclear Fission
How is the chain reaction controlled?

To control a nuclear chain reaction, some of the neutrons
that are released when U-235 splits apart must be stopped from
hitting other U-235 nuclei. Control rods containing boron or
cadmium metals are used to absorb some of the neutrons from
the reactions. The rods are inserted into the reactor core.
Moving the control rods deeper into the reactor makes them
absorb more neutrons. This slows down the chain reaction.
Eventually, only one of the neutrons released in the fission of
each of the U-235 nuclei strikes another U-235 nucleus. When
this happens, energy is released at a constant rate.
Nuclear Power Plants

Nuclear fission reactors produce electricity in almost the
same way as other power plants. Thermal energy from the
reactor is used to boil water and produce steam. The figure
below shows a nuclear reactor. Cool water, or coolant, is
pumped through the reactor. The coolant absorbs heat from
the core and then is pumped to a heat exchanger in the boiler.
The thermal energy is transferred from the coolant and boils
water to make steam. This steam then drives a turbine. The
turbine rotates an electric generator.
The overall efficiency of nuclear power plants is similar to the
efficiency of fossil fuel power plants.
Containment shell
High-pressure steam
Picture This
3.
Control rod
Turbine
Generator
Low-pressure steam
Boiler
Condenser

circle where the coolant
absorbs heat, put a box
around where the heat is
exchanged, circle the
turbine, and put a box
around the generator.
Pump
Pump
Reactor core
Pump
Cooling
water
Reading Essentials
281
The Risks of Nuclear Power

Nuclear power plants dont use fossil fuels. They dont
release pollutants into the atmosphere. They dont produce
carbon dioxide. These are all advantages over fossil fuel power
plants. However, there are disadvantages to producing energy
from nuclear fission. The mining of uranium can damage the
environment. Also, water that is used as a coolant in the
reactor core must be cooled before being released into streams
and rivers. If the water is not cooled properly, its excess heat
could harm fish and other animals and plants in the water.
What happens when radiation is released?
Explain What can happen

if a person is exposed to too
much radiation?
The Disposal of Nuclear Waste

The U-235 in nuclear fuel is used up after about three years.
The used rods contain radioactive fission products and the
remaining uranium. Nuclear waste is any radioactive
by-product that is created when radioactive materials are used.
What happens to nuclear waste?
5.
Draw Conclusions
What would you say is the
main risk from nuclear
power plants and nuclear
fuel?
282
There are two kinds of nuclear waste. One is low-level and

the other is high-level.
Low-Level Waste Low-level nuclear wastes contain a small
amount of radioactive material. They usually do not contain
radioactive materials that have long half-lives. A half-life is
how long it takes for half of the material to decay. Products of
some medical and industrial processes are low-level wastes.
These include items of clothing used in handling radioactive
materials. Air filters from nuclear power plants and discarded
smoke detectors are also low-level wastes. Low-level nuclear
wastes are usually sealed in containers and buried deep in the
ground. When dilute enough, low-level waste sometimes is
released into the air or water.
4.
A serious risk of nuclear power is the escape of harmful

radiation from power plants. If released, radiation could damage
living organisms. To prevent accidents, nuclear reactors and
plants have many safeguard systems, strict safety precautions,
and highly trained workers. Yet, accidents have happened.
A reactor overheated in 1986 in Chernobyl, Ukraine. The
building was partially destroyed, and radioactive materials
escaped. As a result, 28 people died of radiation sickness. Up to
260,000 people may have been exposed to radiation that was
carried by winds. Power plants in the United States are built to
prevent accidents such as Chernobyl. However, many people
worry that an accident like this could happen again.
High-Level Waste High-level nuclear waste contains larger

amounts of radioactive material. High-level waste is made
by nuclear power plants and nuclear weapons programs.
Some of this material has long half-lives and will remain
radioactive for tens of thousands of years. High-level waste
is usually stored in deep pools of water or disposed of in
extremely strong and long-lasting containers.
Nuclear Fusion
A different type of nuclear reaction, thermonuclear fusion,
is the source of the Suns energy. In fusion, two very small
nuclei collide and stick, or fuse, together to form a larger
nuclei. In the fusion reaction shown in the figure below, two
isotopes of hydrogen come together to form a helium
nucleus. This reaction makes even more energy than fission.
A small amount of mass is converted into energy. Fusion is
the most concentrated energy source known.
H-3 nucleus
He-4 nucleus
Picture This
6.
Determine In the first

figure, circle the four
particles that come
together to form the
He-4 nucleus.
7.
List one advantage
Energy
H-2 nucleus
Neutron
What are the advantages and disadvantages

of fusion?
Fusion has advantages and disadvantages. One advantage is
it uses hydrogen as fuel. Hydrogen is abundant on Earth.
Another advantage is that fusion reaction produces helium,
which is not radioactive. One disadvantage is that fusion can
take place only at extremely high temperatures. A great deal of
energy needs to be used to reach these temperatures. The
amount of energy used in this process can be more than the
energy produced in the reaction. Another problem is how to
contain a reaction that happens at such high temperatures.
of fusion.
Reading Essentials
283
After You Read

Mini Glossary
nuclear reactor: a system that uses the energy from
nuclear waste: any radioactive by-product that is created
controlled nuclear reactions to generate electricity
when radioactive materials are used
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Tell how nuclear reactors and
nuclear waste are connected.
2. Complete the outline to help you organize what you learned about nuclear energy.
Nuclear Energy
I.
How does nuclear fission happen?

A.
B. The nuclei split producing energy, and more neutrons.
C.
II. How does a reactor work?

A. Coolant absorbs heat from the core.
B.
III. What are advantages of using nuclear energy?
A.
B. Doesnt cause air pollution or release carbon dioxide.
IV. What are disadvantages of using nuclear energy?
A.
B. Harmful radiation could escape.
3. How could you use the flash cards you made to study for a test?
End of
Section
284

games, and projects to help you learn more about nuclear decay.
C. Steam drives a turbine that turns a generator.
chapter
16
Energy Sources
3
section
Renewable Energy Sources
Before You Read

Have you ever heard the term alternative? An alternative is a
choice or option that is different from the usual one. Write
the name of an alternative energy source on the line below.
What Youll Learn
why alternate energy

sources are needed
alternate methods for
generating electricity
Read to Learn
Identify Main Points
Energy Options
The demand for energy keeps increasing, but supplies of fossil

fuels are decreasing. Nuclear reactors produce nuclear waste that
has to be disposed of safely. To solve these problems, other
sources of energy are being developed. A renewable resource is
an energy source that is replaced almost as quickly as it is used.
Some alternative energy sources are renewable resources.
Highlight each kind of alternative

energy source as it is discussed in
this section. Circle the main
points about each energy source.
Energy from the Sun

You can feel energy from the Sun if you step outside on a
clear day. The amount of solar energy that falls on the United
States in one day is more than the total amount of energy used
in the United States in one year. The Sun is expected to produce
energy for several billion more years. Because of this, solar
energy will not run out. It is considered a renewable resource.
What are solar cells?

Many objects, such as solar-powered calculators, use solar
energy for power. They use a photovoltaic cell that converts
radiant energy from the Sun directly into electrical energy.
Photovoltaic cells are also called solar cells.
What are solar cells made of?
C Compare and

onesheet Foldable out of
notebook paper. Compare and
contrast information about
alternative energy sources. Label
the columns on the right
Advantages and Disadvantages.
Alternative
Energy
Sources
Solar cells are made of two layers of semiconductor materials.

The top layer has many electrons, but the bottom layer does not.
The semiconductors are sandwiched between two layers of
conducting metal.
Reading Essentials
285
How do solar cells make electricity?

Remember, a flow of electrons is an electric current. In a
solar cell, energy from sunlight knocks electrons away from
their atoms in the top semiconductor. These electrons flow
through the top metal layer, then through a circuit to the
bottom metal layer, and then to the bottom semiconductor.
An electric current is produced. Only about seven percent to
11 percent of the radiant energy from the Sun that strikes a
solar cell is converted to electrial energy.
How is solar energy used?
Applying Math
1.
Use Statistics How

many megawatts of
electricity would be needed
for a city of three million
people?
It is cheaper to make electricity from fossil fuels than with

solar cells. But in some areas, where it is too expensive to run
power lines, solar cells are a good source of electrical power.
Another way to generate electricity from solar energy is in a
solar concentrating power plant. In a solar concentrating power
plant, mirrors focus sunlight onto a receiver. Heat from the
sunlight boils water to produce steam. The steam turns a
turbine, making electricity. The worlds largest concentrating
solar power plant is in the Mojave Desert in California. The plant
generates over 350 megawatts of power. This is enough electrical
power to meet the needs of about 500,000 people.
Water behind a dam has gravitational potential energy.

When water is released from a dam, its potential energy is
changed to kinetic energy because the water is in motion.
The kinetic energy of water flowing from a dam can be used
to spin a turbine and generate electricity. The figure shows
how a dam makes electricity.
Power lines
Picture This
2.
Reservoir
Dam
Draw Conclusions
What moves the turbine in
hydroelectric power plants?
Generator
Turbine
286
Energy from Water
What is hydroelectricity?
Electricity produced from the energy of moving water is
called hydroelectricity. A dam that produces hydroelectricity
is a hydroelectric dam. About 8 percent of the electrical energy
used in the United States is produced by hydroelectric power
plants. Not all of the kinetic energy of flowing water is
changed to electrical energy in a hydroelectric dam. Some of
the energy is lost to friction, and some water escapes without
moving the turbine. But, because no heat or steam is needed
to spin the turbine, hydroelectric dams are almost twice as
efficient as fossil fuels or nuclear power plants.
What are advantages and disadvantages

of hydroelectricity?
3.
The lakes formed by dams can provide water for drinking

and irrigation. These lakes also may be used for boating and
swimming. After a hydroelectric dam is paid for, the cost of
the electricity it produces is relatively cheap.
However, artificial dams can disturb the balance of natural
ecosystems. For example, dams can prevent fish from moving
up rivers to lay their eggs. Also, the lakes formed by dams
destroy land habitats when the land is submerged. Some
rivers that would make great sources for hydroelectric power
are often too far from cities that need the power.
Explain Why are

hydroelectric dams
almost twice as efficient
as fossil fuels or nuclear
power plants?
Energy from the Tides

Gravity from the Sun and Moon causes bulges in Earths
oceans that move westward as Earth rotates. The movement
of the bulges causes the height of the ocean to rise and fall
continually. These rises and falls are ocean tides that can
generate hydroelectric power. As the tide comes in, the
moving water spins a turbine in a hydroelectric dam. The
water then is trapped behind the dam. As the tide lowers, the
water behind the dam flows back out to the ocean. This spins
the turbines again and generates more electrical power.
Hydroelectricity from tides causes almost no pollution. It is
about as efficient as hydroelectricity from dams. However,
there arent many places on Earth where tides are great
enough for generating hydroelectricity. There is only one
power plant in North America that produces electricity from
tides. It is in Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia in Canada.
4.
Identify What causes

tides?
Reading Essentials
287
Harnessing the Wind

5.
Think Critically Which

do you think would work
best near your community,
a hydroelectric dam or a
windmill farm? Explain.
Windmills have been used for centuries to pump water.

Now, windmills are made to generate electricity from winds
energy. A windmill has a propeller that is turned by the wind.
The propeller then spins a generator. Windmills often are
placed together in large groups called windmill farms in areas
that are regularly windy. Some windmill farms contain several
hundred windmills.
Because the wind is never constant, electricity from windmills
is not always reliable. Windmills are also only 20 percent
efficient. Researchers are trying to increase this efficiency. Wind
energy has some disadvantages. Windmills change the landscape
and they make noise. They can also confuse migrating birds.
However, windmills do not use nonrenewable natural resources
and they do not pollute the atmosphere or water.
Energy from Inside Earth

The interior of Earth is hot from the decay of radioactive
elements. This heat is called geothermal heat. Geothermal
heat causes the rock beneath Earths crust to soften and melt.
This hot molten rock is called magma. The thermal energy
that is contained in hot magma is called geothermal energy.
In some places, Earths crust has cracks or thin spots that
allow magma to rise near the surface. Active volcanoes are
places where magma escapes from Earths crust. In other
areas, magma heats water underground forming hot springs
and geysers, such as the Old Faithful in Yellowstone National
Park. In some areas, water heated by geothermal energy is
pumped to houses to provide heat.
How does a geothermal power plant

generate electricity?
6.
Infer Where must

geothermal power plants
be located?
288
Geothermal energy also can be used to make electricity. A

geothermal power plant is shown in the figure on the next page.
Where magma is close to the surface, the surrounding rocks are
also hot. Water is pumped into the hot rocks through a well. The
hot rocks boil the water to produce steam. The steam then
returns to the surface. It rotates the turbines that spin generators.
Geothermal power plants generate electricity without using
fossil fuels. The also create very little pollution. But, their
efficiency is only about 16 percent. Also, there arent many
places where magma is close enough to Earths surface to use
the geothermal energy.
Where does magma escape from Earth?
Geothermal Power Plant

Cooling tower / Condenser
Electricity
Generator Turbine
Pump
Picture This
7.
Highlight Use a
highlighter to follow the
path of the water and
steam in the geothermal
power plant. Be sure to
start at the pump.
8.
Draw a Conclusion
Steam
Fractures in rock
Magma
Alternative Fuels
The use of fossil fuels could be reduced if cars used other
energy sources. Cars have been developed that use electrical
energy supplied by batteries. Hybrid cars use both electric
motors and gasoline engines. Hydrogen gas is another possible
alternative fuel. Hydrogen may one day replace gasoline as a fuel
for automobiles. Burning hydrogen instead of gasoline is better
for the enviroment. It produces only water vapor when it burns
and creates no pollution.
What are biomass fuels?

Could any other materials be used to heat water and
produce electricity like fossil fuels and nuclear fission?
Biomass can be burned to convert stored chemical energy to
thermal energy. Biomass is renewable organic matter, such as
wood, sugarcane fibers, rice hulls, and animal manure.
Burning biomass for energy is probably the oldest use of
natural resources to meet human energy needs.
Why might burning

biomass as a source of
energy be harmful to the
environment?
Reading Essentials
289
After You Read

Mini Glossary
biomass: renewable organic matter, such as wood and plant
fibers
geothermal energy: thermal energy contained in hot

magma
photovoltaic cell: a device that converts radiant energy

from the Sun into electrical energy
renewable resource: an energy source that is replaced
almost as quickly as it is used
hydroelectricity: electricity produced from the energy of

moving water
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Is hydroelectricity a
renewable resource? Why or why not?
2. Complete the chart below to summarize what you know about these alternative
energy sources.
290
Solar
Advantage:
Hydroelectricity
Advantage:
Tidal
Advantage:
Wind
Advantage:
Disadvantage:
Disadvantage:
Disadvantage:
Disadvantage:
Energy Sources
3. Complete the figure below with either the action or type of energy in each step of
producing hydroelectricity.
Action
Energy
Water rests
behind dam.
Kinetic
energy
Turbine
spins.
Electric
energy
4. You identified main points as you read this section. Would you recommend this strategy
to a friend who is reading this chapter? Why or why not?

projects to help you learn more about renewable energy sources.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
291
Weather
and
Climate
17
chapter
Earths Atmosphere
What Youll Learn
what the atmosphere is

composed of
how the atmosphere
is heated
about Earths water
cycle
Study Coach
Highlight As you read,

highlight key ideas and words
in each paragraph.
Before You Read

When you are outside and you want to check the weather,
you probably look up at the sky. What are you looking for?
What clues does Earths atmosphere give about the weather?
Read to Learn
Atmospheric Composition
You probably never think about the air you breathe. Your
body uses only the oxygen in the air. But, oxygen is only one
part of air. Earths atmosphere is a mixture of gases. It consists
of about 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, and smaller
amounts of argon and water vapor. Trace gases make up a
very small part of the atmosphere. Trace gases include carbon
dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone.
What do biological processes affect?
A Summarize
Make a
two-tab Foldable like the one
shown to summarize how
Earths varied surface heats the
atmosphere.
temperature change
land
292
water
CHAPTER 17 Weather and Climate
Respiration in the cells of organisms produces trace gases,

such as water vapor and carbon dioxide. These gases are
released into the air. During photosynthesis, certain organisms
take carbon dioxide out of the air and release oxygen into it.
Organisms produce nearly all of the atmospheric oxygen.
Microorganisms in swamps and soil release nitrogen and
methane. Microorganisms in the digestive tracts of animals,
such as termites and cows, also release methane.
How did Earths atmosphere form?

Earths early atmosphere contained mostly hydrogen and
helium. These gases were lost and were replaced by volcanic
gases, such as carbon dioxide and water vapor. Photosynthetic
organisms in the oceans released oxygen into the atmosphere.
Over time, the oxygen built up.
1
section
Ozone Layer Intense radiation from the Sun changed some

of the oxygen into ozone. The ozone accumulated in the
upper atmosphere. The ozone layer protected Earth from
some of the Suns harmful ultraviolet rays. This allowed
photosynthetic organisms to grow on land, so more oxygen
was released into the atmosphere.
It took many millions of years for Earths atmosphere to
reach its current state. There is a delicate balance between
processes that produce gases and processes that destroy them.
However, humans may be upsetting this balance.
Atmospheric Structure
Earths atmosphere extends more than 1,000 km above Earths
surface as shown in the figure below. Most of the atmosphere
lies within 30 km of the surface in a region called the
troposphere. The troposphere is the layer of the atmosphere in
which most of the weather takes place. In the troposphere the
temperatures normally decrease with height.
Sometimes, the temperature increases with height. A
temperature inversion is an event that occurs near the
ground when air temperature increases with height. When
this happens, the air is very stable. The air resists the rising
motion that is needed to form clouds or to scatter pollution.
1.
Explain In which layer of

the atmosphere does most
of the weather take place?
The stratosphere is the layer above the trophosphere. It is

extremely dry and rich in ozone. In this layer, the temperature
increases with height. This creates a permanent inversion.
The inversion begins at a place called the trophopause. It acts
like a lid that keeps the trophosphere from rising into the
stratosphere. The upper layers of the atmosphere are so thin
that they do not take part in the weather.
Temperature Change with Height
200
Picture This
2.
Height (km)
What is the stratosphere?
100
75
50
25
0
120 60
60 120 180 300 400

Temperature (C)
600
Identify Use one color of

highlighter to mark the part
of the atmosphere where
most of the weather occurs.
Use another color to mark
the part that is very dry and
rich in ozone.
800
Reading Essentials
293
Heating the Atmosphere

The Suns energy heats Earths atmosphere. High above
Earth in the stratosphere, solar radiation is intense. The solar
radiation splits oxygen molecules into single atoms. These
oxygen atoms then recombine to form ozone. Ozone absorbs
nearly all the Suns ultraviolet (UV) rays. This absorption
by ozone is why temperature increases with height in the
stratosphere.
The rest of the solar rays pass through the atmosphere to
Earths surface. Earth absorbs some solar radiation and
reflects some back to the atmosphere. The heated surface
of Earth gives off long-wave infrared radiation. Long
wavelengths are absorbed by trace gases, especially carbon
dioxide and water vapor. The greenhouse effect is the
absorbing of long-wavelength radiation by trace gases and
the re-emitting of infrared radiation back to Earths surface.
The greenhouse effect keeps Earth warm by absorbing heat
and trapping it near the surface.
greenhouse effect?
What causes heating?

The atmospheres most abundant gases are nitrogen and
oxygen. They absorb little radiation and so do not add much
heat to atmosphere. On the other hand, water vapor and
carbon dioxide are strong absorbers of radiation. Although
they make up very little of the atmosphere, they heat the
atmosphere the most.
Earths surface also heats the atmosphere through
conduction, convection, and latent heat. Latent heat is the
energy released or absorbed during the phase changes of
water, such as evaporating water or melting snow. Latent heat
energy is released into the atmosphere when water vapor
condenses as clouds.
A Varied Surface
4.
Determine What
surface materials reflect
the most solar radiation
out into space?
294
Because Earths surface is extremely varied, it heats the

atmosphere unevenly. Snow, ice, water, plant cover, and bare
soil reflect different amounts of solar radiation back to space.
They heat at different rates when they absorb solar radiation.
For example, dry land absorbs heat rapidly and emits much
radiation to the atmosphere. In contrast, water heats slowly
and stores heat longer. This uneven surface heating causes
pressure differences and wind.
3.
Water in the Atmosphere

Uneven heating has another effect. It creates air currents
that carry water vapor aloft and form clouds. Air generally
rises over warm surfaces and sinks over cold surfaces. Many
birds and hang gliders soar on these warm rising air currents
called thermals.
As air rises, it expands and cools. To form clouds, moist air
must rise high enough to cool to its dew point. At this
temperature, air is saturated and water vapor condenses to
form cloud droplets. Small particles in the air, called
condensation nuclei, trigger this process. Sometimes there are
a lot of these nuclei in the air, such as dust or air pollution.
When there are a lot of nuclei present, they can cause
condensation even when the air is not saturated. This is how
smog forms.
5.
Explain Smog can form

when the air over a city is
polluted. What are some
types of air pollution that
might cause smog to form?
How are clouds formed?

The formation of clouds is the first step in the process of
precipitation. Precipitation is the term for moisture that falls
from clouds as rain, hail, or snow. Different types of clouds
are shown in the figure below. Two main types of clouds
bring precipitation. These are the puffy cumulus type and the
flat, long stratus type.
Cumulus clouds form from rising air parcels. Cumulus
clouds may produce brief rain showers. Stratus clouds form
mainly when layers of air rise gently. Stratus clouds produce
drizzle or a long, steady rain. Many in-between types of
clouds may form depending on how stable the air is and how
high the clouds are in the atmosphere.
Picture This
6.
Circle the cloud type

that forms highest in the
atmosphere. What is it
called?
Cumulus
Stratus
Cirrus
Thunder Clouds You have probably seen many types of

clouds, including the cumulonimbus, or thunder clouds.
Cumulonimbus clouds form in unstable air and usually
bring heavy rain or thunderstorms.
Reading Essentials
295
How do raindrops form?

Water droplets in clouds are usually so small that they are
kept in the air by air currents. At times, they evaporate before
they reach Earth. For precipitation to occur, the droplets must
grow large. Droplets that grow when they collide and combine
is called warm rain. Faster growth occurs when water droplets
combine with ice crystals high in the atmosphere. This
process is called cold rain.
Explain How do water
droplets in clouds become
large enough to fall as rain?
Global Water Cycle

The global water cycle, shown below, includes the processes
of precipitation, runoff of water from the land, storage of
groundwater, and evaporation. Plants play an important part
in the water cycle. They affect how much water the soil
absorbs and how much water runs off the land. Plants also
return water to the air. They do this through the processes of
transpiration and evaporation from their leaves.
People affect the water cycle in many ways. Humans pump
groundwater for drinking or irrigation. They cut down
forests and plant fields of crops. They drain swamps, pave
land, build cities, and turn deserts into golf courses. Many of
these activities have reduced water quality and water
resources. Careful planning is needed to preserve Earths
water resources.
Transpiration
Picture This
8.
Circle the part of the

water cycle in which
water is returned to
Earths surface.
Precipitation
Runoff
Groundwater
Storage
296
Evaporation
7.
After You Read

Mini Glossary
greenhouse effect: the absorbing of long-wavelength
temperature inversion: an event that occurs near the
radiation by trace gases and re-emitting of infrared

radiation back to Earths surface
latent heat: the energy used to evaporate water or melt snow
ground when temperatures increase with height

troposphere: the layer of the atmosphere where most of the
weather takes place
1. Review the vocabulary terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Use at least one
term to write a sentence describing how heat is kept near Earths surface.
2. Label the water cycle diagram below.
Transpiration
[COMP: pick up diagram of water cycle from page 6; retain arrows but leave out labels,
but put WOL near rainfall from cloud (precipitation), near upward arrow
(evaporation) and downward arrow (flow into groundwater storage)
Precipitation
Evaporation
The art in the SE has no labels please clarify. --Glencoe

Runoff
PSG to Render
Groundwater
Storage
3. You highlighted key ideas and terms as you read this section. How did this help you
understand the information you read?

projects to help you learn more about Earths atmosphere.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
297
Weather
and
Climate
17
chapter
Weather
What Youll Learn
what causes Earths

wind and pressure
systems
how weather patterns
form
about important
weather systems and
storms
Study Coach
Two-Column Notes
As you read this section, write
important words and concepts
in the left column. Write details
or other information about each
word or concept next to it in the
right column.
B Define Make a six-tab
Foldable to record the meanings

of the terms that explain
weather. Include pressure belts,
wind belts, low pressure cells,
high pressure cells, air masses,
and severe weather.
298
Before You Read

Have you ever noticed that a storm was on the way? Describe
the things that tell you a storm is coming.
Read to Learn
Atmospheric Pressure
Air has pressure. Air pressure comes from gas molecules
moving and colliding with each other and with any surfaces
they touch. Atmospheric pressure is equal to one kilogram
per square centimeter.
The number of air molecules decreases as altitude
increases, so air pressure always decreases with altitude. This
is why the air is said to be thinner in the upper atmosphere.
The number of air molecules, including oxygen, decreases as
the pressure decreases. This is why jet aircraft cabins are
pressurized and why climbers can get mountain sickness at
altitudes above 3,000 m.
What are global wind and pressure systems?

Weather patterns result from the complex interaction of
wind and pressure around the globe. Major pressure belts give
rise to Earths major wind belts. The most important of these
are the westerlies and the trade winds. Westerlies are winds
that blow from the west in the middle latitudes. The trade
winds blow from east to west in the tropics.
Global wind patterns are caused by unequal heating between
the equator and poles and by Earths rotation. Warm air rising
over the equator and sinking over the poles produces general
north-south wind circulation. Earths rotation produces an
east-west deflection of this general circulation.
2
section
What are jet streams?

Some strong winds are part of the larger patterns of wind
and pressure. Jet streams are fast, powerful winds that control
many weather processes, such as storm development. In the
United States, the most important jet stream is the polar front
jet stream. It occurs about 12 km above the surface, is part of
the westerlies and can move faster than 500 km/hr. Major
storm tracks follow this jet stream as it moves north and
south seasonally.
High and Low Pressure Systems
1.
Explain What are jet

streams and what do they
control?
The United States is most strongly affected by three,

large-scale weather systems. They are the subpolar lows, the
westerlies, and the subtropical highs. Subtopical highs are
relatively stable belts of high pressure near latitudes of 30. In
contrast, polar lows and the westerlies tend to move around
as smaller cells of high and low pressure develop. Lows often
develop from a wave in the polar front jet and move eastward
with the jet stream.
Specific weather patterns are related to high and low
pressure cells because of the way air flows around these cells.
In the northern hemisphere, winds blow counterclockwise
around lows and clockwise around highs, as shown in the
figure below. In the southern hemisphere, the directions
reverse. Lows are associated with rainfall and storms, and
highs are associated with calm winds and clear skies.
Picture This
2.
Label the direction of the

wind on each pressure cell
in the figure. Use clockwise
and counterclockwise.
What is the Coriolus Effect?

Airflow around low or high pressure areas results from the
net effect of forces acting on the air. First, a pressure gradient
pulls air toward low pressure. Then an apparent force, called
the Coriolus effect, deflects the air to the right in the northern
hemisphere. When these forces are balanced, air flows at right
angles to lines of equal pressure. Near the surface, friction
slows the air. It turns it slightly toward low pressure centers
and slightly away from high pressure centers. This makes air
rise in the center of lows and sink in the center of highs.
Reading Essentials
299
Air Masses and Weather Fronts

Weather around low-pressure cells is produced by the
interaction of air masses. Air masses are large units of air
containing about the same amount of moisture and having
about the same temperature. Air masses form when air
remains stationary for a time, as in areas of high pressure. Air
masses can be polar or tropical and continental or maritime.
Continental air masses form over land and are usually dry,
but may be very hot or very cold. Maritime air masses are
moist because they form over the ocean. Maritime air masses
that affect the United States come from the Atlantic or Pacific
oceans or from the Gulf of Mexico.
Explain What are air
masses?
What are weather fronts?

Air masses interact in zones called weather fronts which
are associated with low-pressure systems. Warm and cold
fronts produce different types of precipitation. In a warm
front, warm air rises gently above cold air. It forms layered
stratus clouds or fog. Fog is a cloud with its base on the
ground. Most layered clouds produce only drizzle or steady
rain. In a cold front, cold air pushes warm air upward in a
random and chaotic way. Cumulus clouds form that often
produce thunderstorms. The figure below shows interactions
between fronts.
Warm air
Cold air
Warm air
Picture This
4.
Describe What is the
Cool air
Cold air
Warm air
Cold air
difference between the

location of the air in a cold
front and the location of air
in a warm front?
Severe Weather
The continental United States experiences severe weather
because of the extreme temperatures of warm and cold air
masses and moisture available from tropical oceans. Unstable
conditions lead to severe thunderstorms, hurricanes,
tornadoes, and violent wind storms called downbursts.
300
3.
Thunderstorms Thunderstorms are produced by

cumulonimbus clouds, which have ice crystals near the top.
Sometimes these ice crystals grow into hail as they sink and
rise through moving air currents. Hailstones can grow to the
size of softballs and cause a lot of damage to crops and
structures.
Downdrafts and Squalls The force of falling precipitation
during a thunderstorm may pull cold air from high in the
cloud down with it. That is why the air often feels cool after
a thunderstorm. The sinking cold air is called a downdraft.
When a downdraft hits the surface with strong force, it
spreads out in a series of windy gusts called squalls. In dry
regions, squalls produce dust storms.
5.
Describe What kind

of clouds produce
thunderstorms and hail?
6.
Apply Where do the

hurricanes that hit the
eastern United States
normally begin?
Downbursts Downdrafts can produce even more severe

types of weather. Downbursts, often called wind shear, occur
when cold air hits the ground and bursts outward like the
spokes of a wheel. Downbursts are dangerous for aircraft
during take-off and landing. Today, there are automatic
warning systems to warn pilots if there are signs of
downbursts near an airport.
Tornadoes and Hurricanes Tornadoes and hurricanes are
two different types of violent wind storms. Tornadoes are
intense, brief, and localized mid-latitude storms. Tornadoes are
produced in cumulonimbus clouds. In the United States, most
tornadoes occur when dry air from the deserts of Mexico and
the southwest overrides warm, moist air from the Gulf of
Mexico. This happens often in the Midwest and South.
A twisting, funnel-shaped tornado can move over land at
speeds up to 50 km/h. It can create a path that is 150 m wide and
10 km long. The intense, spinning winds of a tornado may reach
speeds of 400 km/h. There is a low-pressure area at the center of
a tornado. That extreme low pressure can do a lot of damage.
Hurricanes form over warm ocean water, cover huge areas,
and last for days. Hurricanes that affect the United States
form as tropical depressions over the warm waters of the
southern Atlantic off the coast of Africa. When the winds
exceed 118 km/h, the storm is called a hurricane. A typical
hurricane consists of vast cloud bands that spiral out of a
clear center, or eye. Scientists often fly into the eye of a
hurricane to study the storm. In the western Pacific, these
types of storms are called typhoons.
Reading Essentials
301
After You Read

Mini Glossary
jet stream: fast, powerful winds that control many weather
weather front: zone in which air masses most often meet a
processes, such as storm development

subtropical high: relatively stable belts of high pressure near
latitudes of 30
low-pressure system
westerlies: winds that blow from the west in the middle
latitudes
1. Review the vocabulary terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Use one or two
terms to describe wind patterns over the United States.
2. Complete the table below by writing a description of how each type of severe weather
occurs.
Severe Weather
Cause
thunderstorm
tornado
wind shear/downburst
3. You used two-column notes as you read this section. How did this help you understand
the information in the text?

games, and projects to help you learn more about the weather.
302
End of
Section
hurricane
Weather
and
Climate
17
chapter
3
section
Climate
Before You Read

Have you ever seen photographs or movies of a tropical rain
forest? What type of climate does a tropical rain forest seem
to have? How does it differ from the climate in your area?
Read to Learn
Climate is the long-term weather conditions in an area.
Climate includes precipitation, temperature, wind, moisture,
and other factors. Climate also describes the annual variations
of these factors and their extremes.
what determines
climate
how other factors
determine climate
about the different
climate systems
how climates are
distributed around the
United States
Study Coach
Sticky-Note Discussion
As you read, use sticky-notes to
mark those passages that you
have a question about or that
you think are particularly
interesting. After you finish this
section, discuss your questions
or comments with the class.
What is the climate system?

It is best to think about climate as part of a whole Earth
system. There are five parts, or spheres, to this system. One
part is the atmosphere, or the air around us. The second part
is the biosphere. The biosphere is all the living things on
Earth, including plants, animals, and humans.
The third part, the hydrosphere, includes liquid water in
the oceans, lakes, and rivers, as well as groundwater. The
fourth part, the cryosphere, is frozen water in snow, ice, and
glaciers. The lithosphere is the fifth part. It includes the solid
Earth with its soil, rocks, and mantle.
C Identify Make a four-tab
Foldable to organize the major

ideas about climate.
geography
latitude
climate
Earth
system
Interacting Spheres Gases, water, energy, and particles are

exchanged among these spheres. Each sphere affects all the
others. For example, a volcano erupts and sends gases and
particles from the lithosphere into the atmosphere. The
atmosphere provides and controls the amount of water in
the hydroshpere and cryosphere.
definition
Climate and Weather
What Youll Learn
Reading Essentials
303
What causes climate?

Latitude is the main factor that determines a places
climate. The amount of solar radiation an area receives and its
usual air circulation depend on the latitude. Other factors that
affect climate are location near high mountains, location on
the east or west sides of a continent, and distance from a large
body of water.
Why does temperature vary?

The amount of solar radiation hitting Earth and surface
temperature vary greatly from the equator to the poles. In
winter, the farther a place is from the equator, the greater the
angle at which sunlight hits it. Therefore, temperatures decrease
rapidly with increasing latitude. At high latitudes, snow and
ice cover reflect most sunlight back into space, lowering the
temperature still further. In summer temperature decrease is
less pronounced as sunlight hits these regions at a higher
angle, and periods of daylight are longer. The temperature
patterns in the United States are shown in the figure below.
1.
Analyze During which

season, summer or winter,
do U.S. temperatures differ
the most?
WINTER
SUMMER
40s
10s
[NEW ART: 830-re-04:
U.S. seasonal temperature
50s map, January
60s
and
July; SET after 2nd paragraph]
40s
20s
70s
30s
50s
60s
90s
PSG to Render
80s
90s
How do ocean and land influence climate?
2.
Identify What is a
maritime climate?
304
Oceans and ocean currents affect climate. Continental

climates occur in areas of land with little direct ocean
influence. Continental climates undergo great changes
between summer and winter temperatures. A maritime
climate is a climate that is strongly influenced by an ocean.
Maritime climates are generally mild. They have relatively
small changes in temperature.
Peoria, Illinois and San Francisco, California have the same
latitude. San Francisco is on the Pacific Ocean. Its maritime
climate is mild. The change between the summer and winter
temperatures is 8C. Peoria is in the Midwest and has a
continental climate. It has an average summer to winter
temperature change of 30C.
Picture This
Why does precipitation vary by climate?

Precipitation is determined by an areas wind and air
pressure patterns. Humid climates in the tropics and at
mid-latitudes are associated with low pressure. In the region
around the equator, rainfall is abundant because the trade
winds from the northern and southern hemispheres meet
there. Lots of water evaporates from the ocean and rises to
form clouds. High pressure occurs in dry, or arid, climates.
Dry climates occur mainly in the subtropics on the eastern
sides of tropical high-pressure zones. Areas between these
extremes have seasons that alternate between wet and dry.
Location In addition to this general pattern, precipitation is
affected by an areas location on a continent. In the United
States, the west coast lies east of a subtropical high. This
high pressure creates the dry climates of California and the
Southwest. The east coast lies west of a subtropical high.
Southerly winds carry in warm, unstable air from the Gulf
of Mexico. The moist air increases precipitation.
3.
Explain Why do San

Francisco and Boston have
different climates?
Winds Prevailing winds also affect precipitation. Because

westerlies prevail in the middle latitudes, the maritime
influence is stronger on the west coast than the east coast.
This is why San Francisco has a maritime climate and
Boston has a continental climate.
Mountains The Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada
mountains influence the climate of the west. These
mountains block the weather systems moving in from the
west and alter patterns of precipitation. A lee rain shadow
is a relatively arid area that forms on the opposite side of a
mountain range when the wind blows perpendicular to one
side of the mountain range. This effect is shown in the
figure below. The Great Plains lie in the lee shadow of the
Rocky Mountains and are relatively dry.
Picture This
4.
Mark and Draw Mark

the side of the diagram that
is the west. Draw an arrow
that shows the direction of
the westerlies.
Reading Essentials
305
How does water influence climate?

Coasts and lakeshores affect climate in several ways. In the
winter, areas of heavy snow, called snowbelts, form around
the Great Lakes. As cold continental air from the north passes
over the warmer lake water, it picks up heat and moisture. As
the air moves back over colder land, heavy snows result.
A sea breeze (or lake breeze) blows from the water to the
land in the afternoon, when the land in warmer than the
water. As warm air rises over the land, cool dense air from the
sea blows toward land. The reverse happens at night when the
land is cooler than the water. A land breeze blows from the
land toward the water.
5.
Identify What direction

do the sea breezes blow in
the afternoon? What
direction do they blow in
the evening?
What are small-scale climate variations?

Many small-scale variations in climate occur within the
larger climate patterns. Regional climate variations occur
over a fairly wide area. Local climate variations include
changes in climate caused by cities. Cities create a condition
called the heat island effect. Buildings and roads heat more
quickly than bare soil, and pollution from cars and industry
tends to hold heat in the city. Air rises over a heat island,
pulling in air from the surrounding countryside. On some
calm, clear nights, San Fransisco can be as much as 8oC
warmer than the rural areas near it.
Scientists have classified climates into three basic types.

There are the boreal, or cold, climates of most polar regions
and high altitude areas. The arid and semi-arid desert
climates have little rainfall. Last is the temperate, subtropical,
and tropical climates. Climate types are related to the types of
plants that grow in them.
180 160 140 120 100
80
60
40
20
80
70
Picture This
6.
60
Mark Circle the

climate zone where
you live.
50
40
30
306
Cold
Arid
tundra
Cold
Dry winter
boreal
evergreen forest
Warm
Arid
desert
Warm
Semi-arid
grassland
Wet winter
Dry summer
Mediterranean
forest
Wet summer
Dry winter
temperate
woodland
Warm
Wet
subtropical
deciduous forest
Warm
Wet
tropical
deciduous forest
Types of Climates
After You Read

Mini Glossary
biosphere: all the living things on Earth, including plants and
animals
continental climate: a climate with little direct ocean

influence
maritime climate: a climate that is strongly influenced by

the ocean
sea breeze: winds that blow toward the land from a body of
water in the afternoon
lee rain shadow: a relatively arid area on the opposite side of

a mountain range that occurs when the wind blows
straight toward the other side of the mountain range
1. Review the vocabulary terms and their meanings in the Mini Glossary. Write a
sentence or two describing one type of climate and what influences it.
2. Describe at least one way that each of Earths spheres affects the global climate.
Sphere
How it Influences Climate
biosphere
lithosphere
cryosphere
hydrosphere
atmosphere
3. You used sticky-notes to mark those places in the text that you found interesting
or that you had questions about. How did using sticky-notes help you understand the
information in this section?

games, and projects to help you learn more about climate.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
307
Weather
and
Climate
17
chapter
Earths Changing Climates
What Youll Learn
how climates change

with the seasons
the cause of climate
change
how human actions
influence climate
how El Nio affects
weather
Study Coach
Authentic Questions
You may have questions about
what you read. Write down any
questions you have about what
you read in this section.
Before You Read

Does the weather change during different parts of the year
in the climate that you live in? Describe your areas seasonal
changes during the year.
Read to Learn
Seasonal Changes
When summer begins, the hemisphere that is tilted toward
the Sun experiences summer. In the mid-latitudes, seasonal
changes are stronger because of the temperature contrast
between the land and the sea. Oceans are generally warmer
than the land in winter, but cooler than the land in summer.
Long-term Changes
D Compare and
Contrast Make a two-tab

Foldable to compare the causes
and effects of climate change.
308
Climate
changes
Climate
changes
Cause
Effect
The cycles known as the ice ages are examples of how

Earths climate changes over long periods of time. The peak
of the last ice age was about 18,000 years ago. At that time,
glaciers covered much of the middle and high latitude areas
as you can see in the figure on the next page. Deserts spread
into the tropics and the rainforests almost vanished.
About 5,000 years ago, most of the glaciers ice had melted,
rainforests returned, and grasslands spread into low latitude
deserts. World climate reached its current pattern about 3,000
years ago. Since then, large changes have occurred. In the
Medieval period, parts of the northern hemisphere were
warmer and much of the North Atlantic was free of ice. The
Vikings sailed to Greenland and established colonies. A few
centuries later, a cooler period, called the Little Ice Age,
occurred.
4
section
Picture This
&,% %
&)
&%%
3
Medieval climatic
2
Holocene
optimum
1
maximum
0
1
2
Little Ice
3
Younger- Age
4
Dryas
5
18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0
Thousands of years
1.
+%
Temperature change (C)
Temperature Changes for

Last 18,000 Years
AVjgZci^YZ
>XZH]ZZi
Identify What country

on the map was completely
covered by a glacier during
the last Ice Age? Use a
highlighter to mark it on
the map.
(%
<gZZcaVcY
>XZH]ZZi
:ahbdgZ"7V[[^c
<aVX^Zg8dbeaZm
%
%
-%%b
'%%`b
What causes climate change?
Many factors influence climate and act on different time

scales. Mountain building and the movement of continents
take millions of years. Ocean currents, temperatures, and
snow and ice cover may change over years or decades. The
world climate is the result of all the factors that influence it
on all timescales.
Solar Radiation Changes in the amount of solar radiation
falling on Earth are an important factor in climate. Changes
may occur over hundreds or thousands of years. Changes
related to Earths orbit, rotation, and tilt on its axis affect
the seasons and how solar radiation hits Earth. Sunspots,
too, can affect the amount of solar radiation reaching Earth.
Sunspots affect Earths climate in historical periods of time.
Volcanoes Volcanoes affect Earths climate on historical
time scales. A volcanic explosion spews out large amounts
of dust that may block some of the sunlight for years. Dust
from the eruption of Mt. Tambora in Indonesia in 1815
blocked the sunlight significantly. It caused 1816 to be called
the Year Without a Summer.
The Human Factor

Human activities have influenced Earths atmosphere
and climate. These activities include burning fossil fuels,
manufacturing, cutting down forests, draining wetlands, and
farming the land. Human activities change the way Earths
surface is heated and alter Earths water cycle and carbon
cycle. They increase dust and air pollution.
2.
Apply What is one

activity you do that might
be increasing gobal
temperatures?
Reading Essentials
309
How do humans affect the carbon cycle?

3.
Explain How does

cutting down forests affect
how much carbon dioxide
there is in the atmosphere?
Changes in the carbon cycle, shown in the figure below, are

particularly important to living things. Carbon is the basis of
life because all living things contain carbon. Carbon is
exchanged among the ocean, land, and atmosphere.
The carbon cycle is affected when forests are cut down
and vegetation is destroyed. Trees and other plants take
carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere during the process of
photosynthesis. When trees are cut down or plants are
destroyed, more carbon dioxide stays in the air. Also, the
processes of decaying wood and burning wood add carbon
dioxide to the atmosphere.
CO2
CO2
O2
O2
C
CO2
O2
O2 CO2
Decomposition
releases carbon
Phytoplankton
O2
Photosynthesis
People
CH4
Shallow water where

light penetrates
C
Deposits of shells/debris
containing carbon
Ocean
nts
ime
Sed
ine
Mar
tary Rock
Sedimen
Ocean floor sediments get

covered up and become
Sedimentary rock
Igne
ks
Roc
ous
CH4
Land
Agriculture - uses
CO2 and produces O2
but also a source of CH4
Livestock
(produce methane - CH4)
Magma
Todays atmosphere contains about 380 ppm (parts per

million) of carbon dioxide. This is 21 percent more than the
atmosphere had in 1957, as you can see in the figure below.
Todays carbon dioxide level is far higher than it was at the
beginning of the 19th century, when levels were stable at
280 ppm. Scientists think that most of this change has been
caused by human activities.
Human activities have also increased the levels of other
trace gases. Methane in the atmosphere has increased by more
than 100 percent and nitrous oxide by about 10 percent. All of
these gases heat the atmosphere.
Picture This
4.
Draw At the rate carbon

dioxide is increasing in the
atmosphere, what will the
graph look like for the year
2005? Draw in the graph to
show the level of carbon
dioxide to the year 2005.
310
How are the trace gases changing?
What is global warming?

Global warming is the heating of the atmosphere through
increasing amounts of greenhouse gases. It is a fact that global
temperatures have increased by about 1C during the last
century. This may seem like a small amount. However, the
whole global temperature increase since the last Ice Age is only
about 6C. Our understanding of global warming is incomplete.
Evidence suggests that the increasing amounts of trace gases in
the atmosphere are warming Earths climate.
Applying Math
5.
Normally, it takes about

50,000 years for global
temperatures to rise 6C
after an ice age. Based on
the rate at which global
temperatures are rising
today, how long will it take
for world temperatures to
rise 6C?
What is the ozone hole?
Draw Conclusions
In the 1970s, scientists began to worry that something

was harming the ozone layer. They thought that synthetic
chemicals were destroying the ozone layer high in the
atmosphere. Coolants in refrigerators and air conditioners
and the exhaust from jet planes contain chemicals that
destroy ozone. With less ozone to absorb it, more ultraviolet
(UV) would reach Earths surface. Because UV radiation
breaks down DNA, less protection from solar UV radiation
could affect the quality of life on Earth.
In 1985, scientists found a hole in the ozone layer above
Antarctica. Studies of the air in the hole in the ozone layer
showed that the hole was mostly caused by human activities.
These findings led to a worldwide agreement. Nations agreed
to stop making and using ozone-destroying cooling chemicals.
This agreement will help, but it will take a long time to repair
the damage to the ozone layer.
Applying Math
6.
Total Ozone (Dobson Units)

150
325
Calculate The amount

of ozone over Antarctica
decreased 80 percent
from 1979 to 2003. If the
decrease was the same each
year, estimate the percent
decrease per year to the
nearest whole percent.
500
Reading Essentials
311
How do humans affect the land surface?

Humans change the surface of the land by draining
wetlands, plowing fields, and building roads and cities.
Studies show that these activities might affect local or
regional climate. There is real debate about this, but it is true
that the climate of cities is different from the climate of the
countryside. The effects on larger areas are not known.
7.
Explain Why must

people be cautious about
changes they make on
Earths surface?
Expanding Deserts Many people are concerned about

expanding deserts. Many factors contribute to the destruction
of once-usable land and their change in to deserts. Studies
once showed that the Sahara was moving south and might
cause terrible droughts. We now know that there is little
truth to this idea. However, humans cannot yet accurately
determine how they are changing Earths surface and predict
the effects. So, it is important to be cautious.
El Nio means the boy in Spanish. It became the name of

the appearance, around Christmas, of a warm ocean current
along the coast of Peru, in South America. El Nio is a global
climate event that involves the atmosphere and the oceans. It
occurs when the trade winds that blow in the western Pacific
weaken. The trade winds normally blow warm surface water
westward and cold, nutrient-rich water rises to replace it.
When the trade winds weaken, the pattern breaks down and
the flow of warm water is reversed. Warm, nutrient-poor
water stays at the surface. Fewer fish and other marine life can
live in the nutrient-poor waters.
How weather patterns changed?

8.
Compare and
Contrast Describe how
El Nio and La Nia are
different.
312
El Nino strongly changes global weather patterns. It

produces flooding in California and drought in India and
Australia. In the United States, it produces warm, dry weather
in the Upper Midwest and Great Lakes, but unusually wet
weather in Florida.
The opposite of El Nio is La Nina. La Nia occurs when
trade winds in the Pacific are unusually strong and equatorial
ocean temperatures are colder than normal. La Nia can cause
drought in the southern United States and excess rainfall in
the Northwest.
El Nio and La Nia
After You Read

Mini Glossary
global warming: the heating of the atmosphere through
La Nia: a change in climate when trade winds in the Pacific
increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases

El Nio: a global climate event that involves the atmosphere
and the oceans
are unusually strong and equatorial ocean temperatures

are colder than normal
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write one sentence about
how human activity is affecting climate.
2. Complete the Venn diagram to compare El Nio and La Nia.
El Nio
Both
the same
La Nia
3. You wrote down authentic questions as you read this section. How did this help you
understand the information in this section?

and projects to help you learn more about Earths changing climates.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
313
Classification
of
Matter
18
chapter
1
section
Composition of Matter
What Youll Learn
what substances and

mixtures are
how to identify
elements and
compounds
solutions, colloids, and
suspensions
Before You Read

Matter is all around you. You breathe matter, sit on it, and
drink it every day. What words would you use to describe
different kinds of matter?
Read to Learn
Underline Look for
Pure Substances
Have you ever seen a print that looked like a real painting?
Did you have to touch it to find out? The smooth or rough
surface told you whether it was a painting or a print. Each
material has its own properties. The properties of materials
can be used to classify them into categories.
Each material is made of a pure substance or of a mix of
substances. A substance is a type of matter that is always
made of the same material or materials. A substance can be
either an element or a compound. Some substances you
might recognize are helium, aluminum, water, and salt.
What are elements?
1.
Explain Why is graphite

considered an element?
314
CHAPTER 18 Classification of Matter
All substances are made of atoms. A substance is an element

if all the atoms in the substance are the same. The graphite in
your pencil is an element. The copper coating on most pennies
is an element, too. In graphite, all atoms are carbon atoms. In
copper, all atoms are copper atoms. The metal under the
copper coating of a penny is another element, zinc. There are
about 90 elements found on Earth. More than 20 other
elements have been made in laboratories. Most of the 20
human-made elements are unstable. They exist for only a short
time in laboratories. You may recognize the elements that are
shown in the figure on the next page.
different descriptions of matter

as you read each paragraph.
Underline these descriptions.
Read the underlined descriptions
again after youve finished
reading the section.
Atoms in Elements
Picture This
2.
Mercury
Copper
Determine What are

the elements in each object
shown in the figure?
Oxygen
2004
What are compounds?

A compound is a pure substance in which two or more
elements are combined in a fixed proportion. A common
compound is water. Water is made up of the elements
hydrogen and oxygen. Each individual particle of water
contains two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. A
molecule is the smallest particle of a compound. Chalk is
another compound. It contains calcium, carbon, and oxygen.
Each particle of chalk contains one calcium atom, one carbon
atom, and three oxygen atoms.
Do compounds look like their elements?

Can you imagine putting a silvery metal and a greenishyellow poisonous gas on your food? Table salt is a compound
made from elements that fits this description. Another name
for table salt is sodium chloride. This common compound is
made up of sodium, a silvery metal, and chlorine, a greenishyellow poisonous gas. Many compounds look different from
the elements in them.
What are molecules?

A particle that consists of two or more atoms bonded
together is a molecule. As an example, oxygen in the air is a
molecule made of two atoms of oxygen. A molecule is the
basic unit of a molecular compound. Molecules are all around
you. The simple sugars that you eat and the proteins in your
body are molecules. The wool and cotton fibers in the clothes
you wear all are molecules. They are formed from atoms that
are bonded together.
3.
Infer Could a molecule

contain only one atom?
Explain your answer.
Mixtures
Is pizza one of your favorite foods? Do you like soft drinks? If
so, you like two foods that are mixtures. A mixture is a material
made up of two or more substances that can be separated
physically. There are many different kinds of mixtures.
Reading Essentials
315
What are heterogeneous mixtures?
A Classify Make the

classify heterogeneous and
homogeneous mixtures,
colloids, and suspensions.
Heterogeneous Homogeneous
Mixture
Mixture
Colloid
Suspension
Recognizing Heterogeneous Mixtures You may be

wearing a heterogeneous mixture. Some fabrics are labeled
as permanent-press. These fabrics resist wrinkles. Permanentpress fabric contains fibers of two materials. The materials
are polyester and cotton. The amounts of polyester and
cotton can change from one piece of fabric to another. Look
at the labels on some of your clothes. Do they contain
different amounts of polyester and cotton?
You probably cannot tell that permanent-press fabric is a
heterogeneous mixture by looking at it. It looks like it is made
up of only one material. However, you might be able to see the
mixture with a microscope. Under a microscope, the polyester
fibers probably would look different from the cotton fibers.
Many substances around you are heterogeneous mixtures.
Some have materials that are easy to see, such as those in
pizza. Others have materials that are not easy to tell apart,
such as the fibers in permanent-press fabrics. In fact, some
parts of heterogeneous mixtures can be mixtures themselves.
The cheese in pizza is a mixture, but you cannot see the
materials. Cheese contains many compounds, such as milk,
proteins, butterfat, and food coloring.
What are homogeneous mixtures?
4.
Define What kind of

mixture contains two or
more substances blended
evenly throughout?
316
Soft drinks are mixtures. They contain water, sugar,

flavorings, coloring, and carbon-dioxide gas.
Soft drinks in sealed bottles are homogeneous mixtures.
A homogeneous (hoh muh JEE nee us) mixture contains two
or more substances blended evenly throughout. You cannot
see the different substances in a homogeneous mixture.
When a soft drink is poured into a glass, the carbondioxide gas forms bubbles. You then can see that the gas is
separate from the other ingredients. When this happens, the
soda becomes a heterogeneous mixture. However, after the
carbon dioxide has bubbled out, the drink is flat. It is a
homogeneous mixture of water, sugar, coloring, and flavoring.
Mixtures are different from compounds in several ways. One

difference is that mixtures do not always contain the same
proportions of the substances that make them up. For example,
a pizza chef might put more cheese on one pizza than on
another. In a pizza, you can see the different ingredients. A
heterogeneous (he tuh ruh JEE nee us) mixture is one which
different materials can be identified easily. Granite, concrete,
and pizza are some heterogeneous mixtures.
What is a solution?
Vinegar is another homogeneous mixture. It looks clear, but
it contains particles of acetic acid mixed with water.
Homogenous mixtures, such as bottled soft drinks and
vinegar, are called solutions. A solution is a homogeneous
mixture of particles so small that they cannot be seen with a
microscope and will never settle to the bottom of their
container. Solutions stay evenly mixed. The diagram below
shows the difference between substances and mixtures.
Matter
Has mass and takes
up space
Substance
Composition definite
Compound
Two or more kinds
of atoms
Element
One kind of atom
Mixture
Composition variable
Picture This
5.
Identify In the diagram,

highlight the words that
explain the difference
between a substance
and a mixture.
6.
Give an Example Name

a colloid that you can see
through.
Heterogeneous
Unevenly mixed
Homogeneous
Evenly mixed; a solution
What are colloids?

Milk is an example of a mixture called a colloid. A colloid
(KAH loyd) is a type of mixture with particles that are larger
than those in solutions but not heavy enough to settle to the
bottom of their container. Remember how a pizza was still a
pizza even if the proportion of its ingredients were changed?
Milk is similar to a pizza in that way. Milk contains water, fat,
and proteins, but like any mixture, these substances can be in
different proportions. What makes milk a colloid is that these
ingredients form large particles, but they are not heavy
enough to settle.
Paint is an example of a liquid colloid. Gases and solids can
also be colloids. For example, fog and smoke are colloids. Fog
is made up of liquid water particles suspended in air. Smoke
contains solids suspended in air.
Do colloids and solutions look the same?

One way to tell the difference between a colloid and a solution
is by how each looks. Fog looks white because its particles are
large enough to scatter light. Sometimes it is not easy to tell that
a liquid is a colloid. For example, some shampoos and gelatins
are colloids called gels that look almost clear.
Reading Essentials
317
How do you identify colloids?

You can tell if a liquid is a colloid by shining a beam of light
through it. You cannot see a light beam as it passes through a
solution. But you easily can see a light beam in a colloid because
its large particles scatter light. Small particles in solutions do not
scatter light. Have you ever noticed how at night the fog scatters
the light from a cars headlights? The Tyndall effect is
the scattering of light by particles in a colloid.
7.
Define What is the
What are suspensions?
scattering of light by
particles in a colloid?
Some mixtures are neither solutions nor colloids. One

example is muddy pond water. If pond water stands long
enough, some mud particles will fall to the bottom. The water
becomes clearer. Pond water is a suspension. A suspension is
a heterogeneous mixture containing a liquid in which you can
see particles settle. Look at the table below to compare the
properties of different types of mixtures.
A river is an example of how a suspension settles. Rivers
move quickly when they go through narrow channels. They
pick up soil and debris as they go. The soil and debris is
suspended in the water. As long as the water in the river
moves fast enough, the suspended soil does not settle. When
the river slows, the particles fall out of the suspension and
settle on the bottom of the river. This also happens when a
river flows into a large body of water, such as an ocean. After
many years, a delta forms made up of mud and debris.
Comparing Solutions, Colloids, and Suspensions
Applying Math
8.
Comparison Which
type of mixture has the
largest particles? Explain
how you know.
318
Description
Solutions
Colloids
Suspensions
Settle upon
standing?
no
no
yes
Separate using
filter paper?
no
no
yes
Particle size
0.11 nm
1100 nm
>100 nm
Scatter light?
no
yes
yes
Where do suspensions occur in nature?
After You Read

Mini Glossary
colloid: a type of mixture with particles that are larger than
solution: a homogeneous mixture of particles so small that
those in solutions, but not heavy enough to settle to the

bottom of their container
compound: a substance with two or more elements that are
combined in the same proportion
element: a substance in which all the atoms are the same
heterogeneous mixture: a mixture in which different
materials can be identified easily
homogeneous mixture: a mixture that contains two or
more substances blended evenly throughout
they cannot be seen with a microscope and that will never

settle to the bottom of their container
substance: a type of matter that is always made of the same
material or materials
suspension: a heterogeneous mixture containing a liquid in
which you can see particles settle
Tyndall effect: the scattering of light by particles in a colloid
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. The oxygen that you breathe
is made up of tiny particles that are actually two atoms of oxygen bonded together. Would
you say that oxygen is an element or a compound? Explain.
2. Fill in the blanks with an example of each type of matter.
Matter
Substance
Mixture
Wood
Compound
Heterogeneous
Granite
Element
Homogeneous

and projects to help you learn more about composition of matter.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
319
Classification
of
Matter
18
chapter
Properties of Matter
What Youll Learn
to identify substances
using physical properties
differences between
physical and
chemical changes
how to identify
chemical changes
the law of conservation
of mass
Study Coach
Make Flash Cards For each

heading in this section, make a
flash card. The flash card should
contain the main point of the
paragraphs below the heading.
When you finish the section,
review the flash cards.
B Compare and

Foldables to help you
understand how physical and
chemical properties are
different, and how physical and
chemical changes are different.
320
Physical
Properties
Chemical
Properties
Physical
Changes
Chemical
Changes
Before You Read

When you see someone, how do you identify that person as
a friend or a stranger? How do you identify a friend on the
phone? What are some things about people that help you
recognize them? On the lines below, list some things you use
to identify people.
Read to Learn
Physical Properties
You can stretch a rubber band, but you cant stretch a piece
of string very much. You can bend a piece of wire, but you
cant bend a matchstick easily. The rubber band and the wire
change shape, but the substances that they are made of do not
change.
The ability to stretch or bend is a physical property. A
physical property is a feature or characteristic that describes
an object or substance. Some examples of physical properties
are color, shape, size, density, melting point, and boiling point.
How do physical properties describe appearance?

How would you describe a tennis ball? You could describe
some of its physical properties, such as shape and color. You
could say it is a solid, not a liquid or a gas. For example, you
might describe a tennis ball as a brightly colored, hollow
sphere. You could also measure some physical properties of
the ball. You could measure its diameter with a ruler. You
could measure its mass with a balance. You could measure
how high it would bounce.
To describe a soft drink in a cup, you could start by saying
it is a brown liquid. You could measure the volume and the
temperature of the soft drink. Each of these characteristics is
a physical property of that soft drink.
2
section
How do physical properties describe behavior?

Some physical properties describe the behavior of a
material or substance. You recall that a magnet attracts objects
that contain iron, such as a safety pin. Attraction to a magnet
is a physical property of iron. Every substance has physical
properties that make it useful for certain tasks.
Some metals, such as copper, are useful because they bend
easily and can be pulled into wires. Other metals, such as gold,
are useful because they easily can be pounded into sheets as
thin as 0.1 micrometers. This property of gold makes it useful
for decorating picture frames and other things. Flattened gold
is called gold leaf.
Think again about the soft drink. If you knock over the
cup, the drink will spill. If you knock over a jar of honey,
however, it does not flow as quickly. The ability to flow is a
physical property of liquids.
1.
How are physical properties used to

separate materials?
Explain Why does honey

flow more slowly than
water?
You can use the physical properties of size and hardness to

separate some substances. Removing the seeds from a
watermelon is easy. The seeds are small and hard, and the flesh
of the large watermelon is soft and juicy.
Using Magnetism The dish in the figure below contains
sand mixed with iron filings. You probably would not be
able to sift out the iron filings. They are about the same size
as the sand particles. However, if you pass a magnet through
the mixture, it will attract only the iron filings. A magnet
does not attract sand. This is an example using the physical
property of magnetism to separate substances in a mixture.
Magnet
Picture This
2.
Sand
Iron Fillings
Observe Why would it

be difficult to sift the iron
filings from the sand?
Physical Changes
When you break a stick of chewing gum, you change its size
and shape. You do not change the identity of the materials that
make up the gum. A physical change does not change identity.
Reading Essentials
321
Why does the identity not change?
3.
Define What effect does

an energy change have on
the identity of a substance?
When a substance freezes, boils, evaporates, or condenses, it

undergoes a physical change. A physical change is a change in
size, shape, or state of matter. Heat might be added or removed
during a physical change. Changes in energy do not change the
identity of the substance being heated or cooled. All substances
have distinct properties that are constant, or never change. The
properties of density, specific heat, boiling point, and melting
point are constant for substances. These properties can be used
to identify unknown substances in a mixture.
Iron is a substance that changes states when it absorbs or
releases energy. At high temperatures, iron melts. However,
iron has the same physical properties that identify it as iron,
whether it is in the liquid or solid state.
Distillation is the process of separating substances in a
mixture by evaporating a liquid and condensing its vapor. A
laboratory distillation process is shown below.
To distill a liquid, it is heated until it vaporizes. Then, the
vapors are cooled until they condense. All solid material is left
behind. Distillation is used to make drinking water out of salt
water.
Liquids with different boiling points can be separated by
distilling. The mixture is heated slowly until it begins to boil.
Vapors of the liquid with the lowest boiling point form first.
They are condensed and collected. As temperature increases the
second liquid boils. Its vapors are condensed and collected.
Distillation is used often in industry. Natural oils such as mint
are distilled.
Thermometer
Cooling
water out
Condenser
Picture This
4.
Observe Where would

you expect to find the solid
material left behind in the
distillation process?
Distilling
flask with
impure liquid
Cooling
water in
Pure liquid
322
What is distillation?
Chemical Properties and Changes

A chemical property is a characteristic of a substance that
indicates whether it can undergo a change that results in a new
substance. A warning on a can of liquid paint thinner or lighter
fluid states that the liquid is flammable (FLA muh buhl). If a
substance is flammable, it can burn. When a substance burns, it
produces new substances during a chemical change. Therefore,
whether or not a substance is flammable is a chemical property.
Knowing which substances are flammable helps you to use
them safely.
Another chemical property is how compounds react to light.
Some medicines are kept in dark bottles because the
compounds will change chemically in light.
5.
Infer How can knowing a

chemical property such as
flammability help you to
use a product safely?
Detecting Chemical Change

Your senses tell you when a chemical change has happened.
Leave a pot of chili cooking on the stove too long and you will
smell it burning. The smell tells you a new substance formed.
How does the identity of a substance change?

You smell a rotten egg or see rust on a bike. These are signs
that chemical changes have taken place. A chemical change is
a change of one substance to another. When you drop antacid
tablets in a glass of water, they foam up. After a thunderstorm,
the air smells different. These are signs that new substances
have been produced. Heat, light, and sound are often signs of a
rapid energy release and of a chemical change.
The only proof that a chemical change has taken place is
that a new substance is formed. For example, when hydrogen
and oxygen combine in a rocket engine, they use chemical
changes to produce heat, light, and sound. But there are no
such clues when iron combines with oxygen to form rust.
Rust forms slowly. The only clue that iron has changed to a
new substance is the presence of rust. Burning and rusting are
chemical changes because new substances are formed.
How can a chemical change be used to

separate substances?
You can separate substances using a chemical change. One
example is cleaning silver. Silver chemically reacts with sulfur
compounds in the air to form silver sulfide, or tarnish. A
different chemical reaction changes the tarnish back to silver
using warm water, baking soda, and aluminum foil.
6.
Explain What is the only

proof that a chemical
change has taken place?
Reading Essentials
323
WeatheringChemical or Physical Change?

The forces of nature continuously shape Earths surface.
Rocks split, rivers carve deep canyons, sand dunes shift, and
interesting formations develop in caves. These changes are
known as weathering. Weathering changes are both physical
and chemical changes.
What is physical weathering?

7.
Apply How are shifting

sand dunes an example of
physical weathering?
As a stream cuts through rock to form a canyon, small

particles of rock are carried downstream. The large rocks
and the particles of rock have the same properties. The
particles are not changed, so this weathering is physical.
What is chemical weathering?

Limestone is made up mostly of a chemical called calcium
carbonate. Calcium carbonate does not dissolve easily in water.
But if the water is even slightly acidic, calcium carbonate reacts.
A new substance, calcium hydrogen carbonate, is formed. This
substance dissolves in water. This change in limestone is a
chemical change. The calcium carbonate changes to calcium
hydrogen carbonate in the chemical reaction. Rainwater can
dissolve limestone because of this reaction. This chemical
change leads to weathering. Chemical changes like this one
create caves and the rock formations that are found in them.
8.
Explain what the law of

conservation of mass
means.
324
Wood is combustible, which means it can burn. As you have

learned, this is a chemical property of wood. Think about a log
burning in a fireplace. After you burn a piece of wood, there is
nothing left but a small pile of ashes. During the fire, the wood
gives off heat, light, and smoke. These changes in the wood are
all signs of a chemical reaction.
Where did all the matter in the log go as it burned? At first,
you might think that matter was lost as the log burned, since
the pile of ashes is so small. The ashes have a smaller mass
than the wood you started with. But imagine that you could
collect all the smoke and gases that escaped from the log while
it burned. If you added this all up, you would find that no
mass was actually lost.
Mass is not lost during burning. In the same way, mass is
not gained or lost in any chemical change. In other words,
matter is not created or destroyed in a chemical change. The
law of conservation of mass states that the mass of all the
substances before a chemical change equals the mass of
substances present after the change.
The Conservation of Mass
After You Read

Mini Glossary
chemical change: change of one substance to another
chemical property: characteristic of a substance that
indicates whether it can undergo a certain chemical change
distillation: the process of separating substances in a mixture
by evaporating a liquid and condensing its vapor
law of conservation of mass: the mass of all substances

that are present before a chemical change equals the mass
of all the substances that remain after the change
physical change: a change in size, shape, or state of matter
physical property: a feature or characteristic that describes
an object or substance
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. What is the main difference
between a physical change and a chemical change?
2. Complete the table below by giving an example of the property or change.

Physical property
Example:
Chemical property
Example:
Physical change
Example:
Chemical change
Example:
Separation using
physical change
Example:
Separation using
chemical change
Example:
3. Imagine explaining physical and chemical changes to a group of elementary school students.
Describe some items around your house to use as examples of physical and chemical changes.

and projects to help you learn more about properties of matter.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
325
19
Properties of Atoms and the Periodic Table
1
section
Structure of the Atom
What Youll Learn
the names and symbols

of common elements
what subatomic
particles and quarks are
how to describe
the atom
how electrons are
arranged in an atom
Study Coach

this section, write a quiz
question for each paragraph.
After you finish reading the
section, answer your quiz
questions.
A Organize
Information Make the

following Foldable to help
organize information about
scientific shorthand, atomic
components, and quarks.
Scientific
Shorthand
326
Atomic
Components
Quarks
Before You Read

You use symbols to make it easier to write certain things,
such as $25.08 instead of twenty-five dollars and eight cents.
On the following lines, write some symbols you may use to
make writing easier.
Read to Learn
Scientific Shorthand
Do you have a nickname? Do you use abbreviations for
long words or the names of states? Scientists also do this. In
fact, scientists have developed their own shorthand, a way to
shorten long, complicated names.
C, Al, Ne, and Ag are all chemical symbols for different
elements. A chemical symbol is shorthand for the name of an
element. Chemical symbols make writing names of elements
easier. Chemical symbols are either one capital letter or a
capital letter plus one or two lowercase letters. The table shows
the chemical symbols for some elements. For some elements,
the symbol is the first letter of the elements name. For example,
C is for carbon. For other elements, the symbol is the first
letter plus another letter from its name. Calcium is Ca.
Symbols of Some Elements
Element Symbol
Element Symbol
Element Symbol
Aluminum Al
Gold
Nitrogen
Calicum
Ca
Hydrogen H
Oxygen
Carbon
Iron
Fe
Potassium K
Chlorine
Cl
Mercury
Hg
Sodium
CHAPTER 19 Properties of Atoms and the Periodic Table
Au
Na
chapter
How have elements been named?

Elements have been named in many different ways. Elements
have been named to honor scientists, for places, or for the
elements properties. Other elements have been named using
rules made by an international committee.
No matter what the origin of the names, scientists worldwide
use the same system of element names and chemical symbols. It
is easier for people to use a set of standard symbols than to write
the names of the elements. People everywhere know that H
means hydrogen, O means oxygen, and H2O means dihydrogen
oxide, or water.
1.
Atomic Components
An element is matter that is made up of one type of atom. An
atom is the smallest piece of matter that still has the properties
of the element. For example, the element silver is made up of
only silver atoms. The element hydrogen is made up of only
hydrogen atoms.
The figure below shows the structure of the atom. Atoms
are made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons are
particles with an electrical charge of 1. Neutrons are
particles with no electrical charge. Electrons are particles with
an electrical charge of 1.
The nucleus is the small, positively charged center of the
atom. It is made up of protons and neutrons. The nucleus is
surrounded by a cloud containing electrons. Atoms of different
elements differ in the number of protons they contain. Atoms of
different elements have different numbers of protons. For
example, all atoms with 47 protons are silver atoms. All atoms
with one proton are hydrogon atoms.
Quarks
Electron
cloud
Neutron
(No charge)
Identify What is
the symbol for
dihydrogen oxide?
Picture This
2.
Label Write a plus sign

on each proton shown in
the nucleus.
Quarks
Nucleus
Atom
Proton
(1 charge)
Reading Essentials
327
Quarks: Even Smaller Particles

Are protons, neutrons, and electrons the smallest particles
that exist? Scientists hypothesize that electrons are not made
up of smaller particles. If this is true, electrons are one of the
most basic types of particles. But protons and neutrons are
made up of smaller particles called quarks. So far, scientists
have discovered six different quarks. Scientists theorize that
protons are made up of three quarks. The quarks in a proton
are held together with a force called the strong nuclear force.
Neutrons are made up of another arrangement of three
quarks. Scientists are still studying protons and neutrons to
better understand them.
3.
Compare Which is
smaller, a proton or a
quark?
How do scientists find quarks?

To study quarks, scientists accelerate, or speed up, charged
particles until they are moving extremely fast. Then they force
the particles to collide withor smash intoprotons. The
collision causes the protons to break apart. The Fermi National
Accelerator Laboratory in Illinois has a machine that can
accelerate particles fast enough to smash protons. This machine,
called a Tevatron, is in a circular tunnel. The tunnel is 6.4 km
in circumference. Electric and magnetic fields in the Tevatron
are used to accelerate and smash particles.
4.
Describe How do
scientists study the
makeup of protons?
Scientists use different kinds of collection devices to detect the

new particles that are made when particles collide. Just as traffic
investigators can tell what happened at an accident by looking at
tire tracks and other clues, scientists gather information about
the particles to find out what happened when they collided. One
way to do this is by using a device called a bubble chamber. A
bubble chamber is filled with liquid. The particles leave tracks of
bubbles as they pass through the liquidlike tire tracks.
Scientists examine the bubble tracks to determine what
happened when the particles collided.
Why was it hard to find the sixth quark?

Finding evidence that quarks existed was not easy. Scientists
found five quarks and hypothesized that a sixth quark existed.
But it took a team of nearly 450 scientists from around the
world several years to find the sixth quark. The tracks of the
sixth quark were hard to detect. They were hard to detect
because there was evidence of the sixth quark in only about
one-billionth of a percent of proton collisions. The sixth
quark is called the top quark.
328
How do scientists study quarks?
ModelsTools for Scientists

Scientists use models to represent things that are difficult
to picture in the mind. Scaled-down models let you visualize
something that is too large to see. Models of buildings, the
solar system, and airplanes are scaled-down models. Scaled-up
models are used to represent things that are too small to see.
Scientists have developed scaled-up models to help them study
the atom.
For a model of the atom to be useful, it must accurately
represent everything we know about matter and how the
atom behaves. As they learn more about atoms, scientists
must change their models to include the new information.
5.
How has the atomic model changed?
Explain Why do
scientists use scaled-up
models to study the atom?
People have not always known that matter is made up

of atoms. Around 400 B.C., a Greek philosopher named
Democritus came up with the idea that atoms make up all
substances. In the 1800s, an English scientist named John
Dalton was able to prove that atoms existed.
Dalton Model Daltons model of the atom was a solid sphere,

as shown in the figure below. Daltons model helped scientists
explain why chemical reactions occur. Scientists then could use
chemical symbols and equations to describe these reactions.
Daltons Model
Thomson Model In 1904, English physicist Joseph John

Thomson decided from his experiments that atoms contained
small, negatively charged particles. He thought these electrons
were spread out evenly throughout a positively charged sphere.
His model, shown in the figure below, looks like a ball of
chocolate chip cookie dough.
Ball of
positive
charge
Negatively charged
electron
Picture This
6.
Identify What part of

an atom is represented
by the chocolate chips
in Thomsons model?
Thomsons Model
Reading Essentials
329
Rutherford Model In 1911, another British physicist, Ernest

Rutherford, thought that almost all the mass of an atom and
all its positive charge were concentrated in the nucleus of an
atom. He also thought the nucleus of an atom was surrounded
by electrons, as shown in the figure below.
Positively
charged
nucleus
Empty space containing
electrons
Rutherfords Model
Bohr Model In 1913, a Danish physicist named Neils Bohr

hypothesized that electrons travel in fixed orbits around the
nucleus of the atom, as the figure below shows. One of Bohrs
students, James Chadwick, found that the nucleus contained
positive protons and neutral neutrons.
Nucleus of
protons
and
neutrons
Bohrs Model
Picture This
7.
Compare and
Contrast
How are Daltons model
(see figure on previous
page) and electron cloud
models of the atom similar?
How are they different?
Similar: ________________
The model of the atom has changed over time. By 1926,

scientists had developed the electron cloud model of the atom
in use today. An electron cloud is the area around the nucleus
of an atom where its electrons are most likely found. The
electron cloud is 100,000 times larger than the diameter of the
nucleus. However, each electron in the cloud is much smaller
than a single proton.
Electrons move so fast in the electron cloud and have so little
mass that it is impossible to know where the electrons are. It is
best to describe their location as somewhere in the cloud. The
figure below shows what an electron cloud might look like.
Electron
cloud
Different: ______________
Nucleus
Electron Cloud Model
330
What is the electron cloud model?
After You Read

Mini Glossary
atom: the smallest piece of matter that still has the properties
of the element
electron: particle with an electrical charge of 1
electron cloud: the area around the nucleus of an atom
where its electrons are most likely found
neutron: particle with no charge

nucleus: the small, positively charged center of the atom
proton: particle with an electrical charge of 1
quark: smaller particle that makes up protons and neutrons
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence naming the
parts that make up an atom.
2. Below is a model of an atom. Label and describe each part of the atom. If any particles are
made up of even smaller particles, list these also.
3. As you read this section, you created a quiz question for each paragraph. Did answering
these quiz questions after you read the section help you learn the material? Why or why not?

and projects to help you learn more about the structure of atoms.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
331
chapter
19
2
section
Masses of Atoms
What Youll Learn

the atomic mass and
the mass number of
an atom
how to identify
components of isotopes
how to interpret the
average atomic mass
of an element
Before You Read

Which metric unit do you use to measure the amount of gas
that a cars gas tank holds? Which metric unit would you use
to measure the distance to the next town? Explain why you
would use these units and not smaller units.
Read to Learn
Highlight As you read the
Atomic Mass
Neutrons and protons are much more massive than electrons.
Since the nucleus contains the neutrons and protons, it contains
most of the mass of an atom. The mass of a proton is about
the same as the mass of a neutronabout 1.6726 1024 g, as
shown in the table. The mass of a proton or a neutron is about
1,836 times greater than the mass of an electron. The mass of an
electron is so small that it is not even considered when finding
the mass of an atom.
Subatomic
Particle Masses
Particle
Proton
1.6726 1024
Comparing Decimals
Neutron
1.6749 1024
Which has a larger mass, a

proton or a neutron?
Electron
9.1093 1028
Picture This
1.
Mass (g)
332
text under each heading,

highlight the main ideas. After
you finish reading the section,
review the highlighted main
ideas to help you learn the
important topics of the section.
What is the atomic mass unit?

What unit would you use to estimate the height of your
school building? Kilometers would be difficult to use. You
probably would use a more appropriate unit, such as meters.
Just as the kilometer is not the right unit for measuring the
height of a building, scientists found that the gram was not
the right unit for measuring the mass of an atom.
A useful unit gives numbers that are easy to work with. The
unit used for measuring atomic particles is called the atomic
mass unit (amu). The mass of a proton or neutron is almost
equal to 1 amu. This is not a coincidence. The amu was defined
that way. The amu is one-twelfth the mass of a carbon atom. A
carbon atom contains six protons and six neutrons, or twelve
particles. Since most of the mass of an atom is in the nucleus,
each proton and neutron has a mass nearly equal to 1 amu.
A Find the Main Idea

help take notes on the main
ideas from this section.
Atomic
Number
Mass
Number
Isotope
Average
Atomic Mass
How do protons identify elements?

Remember that atoms of different elements have different
numbers of protons. In fact, the number of protons tells you
what type of atom you have and vice versa. For example,
every carbon atom has six protons. Also, every atom with six
protons is carbon.
The atomic number of an element is the number of
protons in an atom of the element. Since carbon has six
protons, the atomic number of carbon is 6. If you are given
any one of the following for an elementits name, number
of protons, or atomic numberyou can find the other two.
What is the mass number?

The mass number of an atom is the sum of the number of
protons and the number of neutrons in the nucleus of the
atom. The table below shows this.
Picture This
2.
Complete the table by

finding the mass numbers
for oxygen, sodium, and
copper.
Mass Numbers of Some Atoms
age
Mass*
amu
amu
amu
amu
amu
The
Reading Essentials
333
How is the number of neutrons found?

If you know the mass number and atomic number of an
atom, you can find the number of neutrons it contains.
number of neutrons mass number atomic number
Atoms of the same element with different numbers of
neutrons can have different properties. For example, carbon with
a mass number of 12 is called carbon-12. Carbon-14, with a
mass number of 14 is radioactive. Carbon-12 is not radioactive.
Isotopes
Applying Math
3.
Apply The element

uranium has a mass number
of 238, and an atomic
number of 92. How many
neutrons does an atom of
uranium have?
Not all atoms of an element have the same number of

neutrons. Atoms of the same element that have different
numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. For example, boron
atoms can have mass numbers of 10 or 11. To find the number of
neutrons in an isotope, you can use the formula above. Look at
the table on the previous page. Notice that boron has an atomic
number of five. That means it has five protons. Substitute these
numbers into the formula to get 11 5 6 and 10 5 5. So,
boron isotopes have either five or six neutrons.
Atoms can be used to find the age of bones and rocks that are
millions of years old. Radioactive isotopes release nuclear
particles and energy as they decay into another element. The
time it takes for half of the radioactive isotopes in a piece of rock
or bone to change into another element is called its half life.
Scientists use half lives of radioactive isotopes to measure time.
The table below lists the half-lives of some radioactive
elements. It also lists the elements that the radioactive elements
decay into. For example, it would take 5,715 years for half of the
carbon-14 atoms in a rock to change into atoms of nitrogen-14.
After another 5,715 years, half of the remaining carbon-14 atoms
will change, and so on. These radioactive clocks can be used to
measure different periods of time.
Half-Lives of Radioactive Isotope
Picture This
4.
Identify How many

years would it take half of
the atoms in uranium-238
to change into lead-206?
334
Radioactive Element Changes to This Element
Half-Life
uranium-238
lead-206
4,460 million years
potassium-40
argon-40, calcium-40
1,260 million years
rubidium-87
strontium-87
48,800 million years
carbon-14
nitrogen-14
5,715 years
How can isotopes be used to find age?
How do you identify isotopes?

The figure shows models of the two isotopes of boron.
Because the numbers of neutrons in the isotopes are different,
their mass numbers are different. To identify an isotope, use
the name of the element followed by the mass number of the
element. For example, the isotopes of boron are boron-10 and
boron-11, because boron isotopes have mass numbers of
either 10 or 11.
Boron-10
Picture This
5.
Draw and Label

Carbon-12 is an isotope
with six protons and six
neutrons. Draw a model of
carbon-12. Label the
protons and neutrons.
Boron-11
5 Electrons
5 Electrons

5 Protons
5 Neutrons
5 Protons
6 Neutrons
Nucleus

Nucleus
Most elements have more than one isotope. Because of this,

each element has an average atomic mass. The average
atomic mass of an element is the weighted-average mass of
the mixture of its isotopes. For example, four out of five
atoms of boron are boron-11. That means one out of five
atoms is boron-10. To find the average atomic mass of boron,
use the following equation:
4
1
(11 amu) (10 amu) 10.8 amu
5
5
Applying Math
6.
The average atomic mass of boron is 10.8 amu. Round the

average atomic mass to the nearest whole number to find the
most abundant isotope of an atom. For example, the average
atomic mass of boron, 10.8, rounds to 11. So, the most
abundant isotope of boron is boron-11.
Apply The element

magnesium has an average
atomic mass of 24.305.
What is the most abundant
isotope of magnesium?
Reading Essentials
335
After You Read

Mini Glossary
atomic number: a number equal to the number of protons
in an atom
average atomic mass: the weighted-average mass of the

mixture of isotopes of an element
isotopes: atoms of the same element that have different

numbers of neutrons
mass number: the sum of the number of protons and the
number of neutrons in an atom
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. How can you find the
number of protons and neutrons in an atom of an element from the atomic number
and the mass number?
2. Complete the Venn diagram by writing the given phrases in the correct area.
equals the
atomic number
Protons
Neutrons
Both
equals the
mass number
3. Tell how you could use a set of red and blue marbles to teach a friend about the atomic
number and mass number of an element.
End of
Section
336

and projects to help you learn more about the masses of atoms.
determines
which isotope
chapter
19
3
section
The Periodic Table
Before You Read
What Youll Learn
the composition of the

periodic table
how to get information
from the periodic table
what metal, nonmetal,
and metalloid mean
Many parts of our lives are affected by repeated patterns. For

example, a calendar shows the patterns of weeks. Name some
repeated patterns that you see happening all the time. How
could you keep track of a pattern?
Read to Learn
Organizing the Elements

When you look at the Moon, does it always appear the same?
Each month, the Moon grows larger until it is full, then grows
smaller until it seems to disappear. This type of change is called
periodic. The word periodic means repeated in a pattern.
The days of the week are periodic because they repeat every
seven days. Think of the calendar as a periodic table of days
and months.
Study Coach

Look for the main point of the
paragraph or paragraphs under
each heading in this section.
When you have found it, write it
down on a piece of paper. After
you read the section, look over
the main points again.
Who was Dmitri Mendeleev?

In the late 1800s, a Russian chemist named Dmitri Mendeleev
wanted to find a way to organize the elements. He organized the
elements known at the time into a table. He placed the elements
in the table in order of increasing atomic mass.
Mendeleev discovered a pattern in his table. The properties of
some lighter elements seemed to repeat in heavier elements.
Because this pattern repeated, the pattern was considered to be
periodic. Today, this arrangement is called the periodic table of
elements. In the periodic table, the elements are arranged by
increasing atomic number and by changes in physical and
chemical properties.
1.
Determine Who was

the first person to organize
the elements into a
periodic table?
Reading Essentials
337
How did Mendeleevs table predict properties?

Mendeleev left blank spaces in his table so that he could line
up the elements. He looked at the elements surrounding the
blank spaces. He predicted the properties and atomic masses
of unknown elements to fit in the blank spaces.
The table shows Mendeleevs predictions for the element
germanium. He called the element ekasilicon. His predictions
proved to be accurate. Scientists eventually found all of the
elements that were missing from Mendeleevs periodic table.
The properties of these missing elements turned out to be
extremely close to what Mendeleev predicted.
2.
Use Decimals Find the

difference between the
predicted density of
germanium and its
actual density.
Predicted Properties
of Ekasilicon (Es)
Actual Properties
of Germanium (Ge)
Existence Predicted: 1871
Actual Discovery: 1886
Atomic mass 72
Atomic mass 72.61
High melting point
Melting point 938C
Density 5.5 g/cm3
Density 5.323 g/cm3
Dark gray metal
Gray metal
Density of EsO2 4.7 g/cm3
Density of GeO2 4.23 g/cm3
How has the periodic table been improved?
3.
Observe How did

Moseley arrange the
periodic table?
338
Mendeleevs periodic table was very good for its time.

However, scientists eventually found some problems with it.
The elements on Mendeleevs table increased in atomic mass
from left to right. Look at the modern periodic table at the
back of this book. You will find examples, such as cobalt and
nickel, that decrease in mass from left to right. However, notice
that the atomic number always increases from left to right.
In 1913, the arrangement of the periodic table was changed.
Instead of being arranged by increasing atomic mass, it was
arranged by increasing atomic number. This change was due
to the work of an English scientist named Henry G. J. Moseley.
The new arrangement seemed to correct some of the problems
of the old table. The current periodic table uses Moseleys
arrangement and is shown in the back of this book.
Mendeleevs Predictions
Applying Math
The Atom and the Periodic Table

Objects are often sorted or classified according to the
properties they have in common. Elements on the periodic
table are grouped according to their chemical properties. The
vertical columns on the periodic table are called groups. The
groups are numbered one through 18. Sometimes they are
called families. Elements in each group have similar properties.
For example, in Group 11, copper, silver, and gold have similar
properties. Each is a shiny metal. Each is a good conductor of
electricity and heat. Why are the elements in a group similar?
Look at the structure of the atom to answer this question.
4.
Draw Conclusions
Neon is a gas. Do you think
neon is an element in
Group 11? Explain.
What is the structure of the electron cloud?

Where are the electrons located in an atom? How many are
there? In a neutral atom, the number of electrons is equal to the
number of protons. Carbon has an atomic number of 6, which
means it has six protons and six electrons. These electrons are
located in the electron cloud that surrounds the nucleus.
Scientists have found that electrons in the electron cloud
have different amounts of energy. Look at the figure. It shows
a model of the energy differences that scientists use. Electrons
fill the energy levels from the inner levels to the outer levels.
The inner levels are closer to the nucleus and the outer levels
are farther from the nucleus. Inner levels have less energy
than the outer levels. Imagine that the nucleus is like a floor.
Each energy level is a step up a flight of stairs above the floor.
Each stair step represents an increase in energy. The figure
shows the maximum number of electrons that will fit in each
energy level of an atom. Not all atoms will have all levels
filled. This depends on the number of electrons in an atom of
that element.
Picture This
5.
Apply The element

magnesium has 12
electrons. In how many
energy levels are the
electrons of magnesium?
Step 4 = energy level 4 32 electrons

Floor (nucleus)
Energy
Energy Levels
Reading Essentials
339
How are electrons arranged in energy levels?

Elements that are in the same group have the same number of
electrons in their outer energy levels. The number of electrons
in the outer energy level determines the chemical properties of
an element. It is important to understand the link between the
location on the periodic table, chemical properties, and the
structure of the atom.
Energy levels are named using the numbers 1 to 7. Electrons
fill the energy levels starting with the inner level. For example,
the element sulfur has 14 electrons. Two electrons will be in
energy level 1 and eight electrons will be in energy level 2.
The rest of the electrons will be in energy level 3.
Look again at the diagram on the previous page. Notice
that energy levels 3 and 4 have increasingly large numbers
of electrons. However, a stable outer energy level has eight
electrons. How is this possible? In elements that have three
or more energy levels, more electrons can be added to
inner energy levels as long as the outer level contains eight
electrons.
How are rows on the periodic table arranged?
Top Row The top row has hydrogen with one electron and
helium with two electrons. Both of these electrons are in
energy level 1. Energy level 1 is the outermost level in these
elements. So, hydrogen has one outer electron and helium
has two. Recall from the figure on the previous page that
energy level 1 can hold only two electrons. Therefore,
helium has a full outer energy level.
Picture This
6.
Identify What is
hydrogens outermost
energy level?
Hydrogen
1
Helium
2
He
340
Lithium
Beryllium
Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Neon
3
Li
4
Be
5
B
6
C
7
N
8
O
9
F
10
Ne
Sodium
Magnesium
Aluminum
Silicon
Phosphorus
Sulfur
Chlorine
Argon
11
Na
12
Mg
13
Al
14
Si
15
P
16
S
17
Cl
18
Ar
Remember that an atomic number found on the periodic

table is equal to the number of electrons in an atom. Look at
the partial periodic table below.
Second Row The second row of the periodic table begins

with lithium. Lithium has three electrons, two in energy level 1,
and one in energy level 2. Next is beryllium with two outer
electrons and boron with three outer electrons. The pattern
continues until you reach neon. Neon has eight outer electrons.
Look at the figure on the previous page. Energy level 2 can hold
eight electrons. So, neon has a full outer energy level. Notice
how a row in the table ends when an outer energy level is filled.
The third row of elements, electrons begin filling energy level 3.
The row ends with argon, which has a stable outer energy level.
What are electron dot diagrams?

Elements in the same group have the same number of
electrons in their outer energy levels. Outer electrons are used
to determine the chemical properties of an element.
American chemist G. N. Lewis invented the electron dot
diagram to show the outer electrons of an element. An
electron dot diagram is the symbol of an element with dots
representing the number of electrons in the outer energy level.
Diagrams for the elements sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) are
shown below. These diagrams show how electrons in the outer
energy level bond when elements combine to form compounds.
7.
Explain What properties

of elements are
determined by the outer
electrons?
How are elements in the same group similar?

Elements in Group 17 are called halogens. They all have
electron dot diagrams similar to chlorine, shown below. You
can see that chlorine has seven electrons in its outer energy
level. So do the other halogens. Because all elements in a group
have the same number of electrons in their outer levels, those
elements undergo chemical reactions in similar ways.
How do halogens form compounds?

All halogens can form compounds with elements in
Group 1. Group 1 elements, like sodium, all have one electron
in their outer energy levels. The figure shows an example of a
compound formed by a reaction between sodium and
chlorine. Sodium combines with chlorine to give each
element a complete outer energy level. The result is the
compound sodium chloride (NaCl), ordinary table salt.
Sodium
Chlorine
Na
Cl
Sodium Chloride
Na
Picture This
8.
Draw Conclusions
What happens to the one
electron in the outer
energy level of sodium
when it combines with
chlorine?
Not all elements form compounds with other elements.

Group 18 elements have completely filled outer energy levels.
This makes group 18 elements unreactive.
Reading Essentials
341
Regions on the Periodic Table

C Compare and
Contrast Use three quartersheets of paper to compare and

contrast metals, nonmetals, and
metalloids.
Metal:
Nonmetal:
Metalloid:
The periodic table has several regions with specific names.

The horizontal rows of elements are called periods. Recall
that the elements increase by one proton and one electron as
you go from left to right across a period. Also, each period
represents a higher electron energy level.
All of the elements in the white squares in the diagram are
metals. Iron, zinc, and copper are some examples of metals.
Most metals are solids at room temperature. They usually are
shiny. They can be drawn into wires and pounded into sheets.
They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
The elements on the right side of the diagram in dark gray
are classified as nonmetals. Oxygen, bromine, and carbon are
nonmetals. Most nonmetals are gases. The elements in this
region that are solids are brittle. Nonmetals are also poor
conductors of heat and electricity at room temperature. The
elements in light gray are metalloids, or semimetals. They
have some properties of metals and some properties of
nonmetals. Boron and silicon are examples of metalloids.
Metalloids
Picture This
Apply On which side of
the periodic table would
you look for an element
that definitely will not
conduct electricity?
Metals
Regions on the Periodic Table
Elements in the Universe

Scientists have found the same elements throughout the
universe. Many scientists hypothesize that hydrogen and
helium are the building blocks of other elements. Atoms join
within stars to form elements with atomic numbers greater
than those of hydrogen and helium. Exploding stars, called
supernovas, spread their mixture of elements throughout the
universe. Scientists have made new elements in laboratories.
These elements may have life spans less than one second.
342
9.
Nonmetals
After You Read

Mini Glossary
electron dot diagram: the symbol of an element with dots
representing the number of electrons in the outer energy
level
group: a vertical column of elements on the periodic table
period: a horizontal row of elements on the periodic table

periodic table: an arrangement of the elements by increasing
atomic number and by changes in physical and chemical
properties
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence using one of
the terms that shows that you understand the term.
2. Below is a blank periodic table of elements. On this table, label the different sections as
metals, metalloids, nonmetals, period, or group.
b.
a.
c.
d.
e.
3. Explain what is important about the rows and columns on the periodic table.

and projects to help you learn more about the periodic table.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
343
Earth
Materials
20
chapter
Minerals
What Youll Learn
the characteristics of
all minerals
to identify minerals by
physical properties
some conditions of
mineral formation
uses of minerals
Study Coach
List As you read this section,

write down any questions you
may have about each topic.
Show your list to your teacher or
share your questions with other
students.
1.
Infer Three-fourths of
Earths surface is covered
by water. Water is made
of hydrogen and oxygen.
Why do you think hydrogen
is not listed as a major
element in Earths crust?
Before You Read

Think about the foods you eat. How would you describe the
differences between two of your favorite foods? List three
ways the two foods are different.
Read to Learn
Common Elements
Recall the periodic table of the elements. Of the first 92
elements, 90 are found in Earth, but only a few combine to
make Earths crust materials. The table below lists these
important elements.
What is included in Earths crust?

The crust is the outermost layer of Earth and includes all
continental material and ocean bottom. The crust extends
down tens of kilometers beneath the continents. The crust is
much thinner where it makes up the ocean bottom and
material below.
What chemicals are most common?

In the crust, two elements outweigh all others. They are
oxygen and silicon.
344
CHAPTER 20 Earth Materials
1
section
Whats a mineral?
Atoms of different elements can join by bonding chemically
to form compounds. A mineral is a naturally occurring element
or compound that is inorganic, solid, and has a crystalline
structure. Each mineral has a set chemical composition. A
mineral may be a single element or a compound. For instance,
the element gold is a mineral with the chemical symbol Au. The
compound fluorite is a mineral that has the chemical formula
CaF2.
2.
Physical Properties
List three characteristics

of a mineral.
A mineral has a typical set of physical properties, but these

properties can change from sample to sample. For example,
some minerals come in several different colors. Chemical
impurities in the mineral cause the color differences. This is true
for the gem varieties of the mineral corundum, Al2O3. Ruby is
red corundum and sapphire is blue corundum. Take care when
you observe mineral properties, especially their color.
How are atoms arranged in minerals?

Some physical properties are controlled by the pattern of
atoms in the crystalline structure of a mineral. It is the orderly
pattern of atoms that makes the structure crystalline. The
arrangement of atoms and the bonds between them has an
effect on the way a mineral breaks, how hard it is, and the
shape of its crystals.
How do minerals break?

A smooth, flat surface is created when certain minerals
break. These breaks occur along planes that cut across
relatively weak chemical bonds. Cleavage is the physical
property of a mineral that allows it to break along flat planes.
When all cleavage planes in a mineral are parallel, the mineral
has one direction of cleavage. The mica family of minerals has
only one direction of cleavage. Other minerals may show two
or more different directions of cleavage. In those minerals, the
cleavage planes meet at angles. You can see examples of two
or more planes of cleavage in the figure below.
A Build Vocabulary
Make a six-tab Foldable and

label it like the one you see
add the definition of each new
vocabulary term.
Mineral
Cleavage
Fracture
Hardness
Streak
Magma
Reading Essentials
345
Uneven Breaks Some minerals do not split along welldefined flat surfaces. A fracture is an uneven break in a
mineral. Quartz is an example of a mineral that shows
fracture. This physical property is one way to identify quartz.
What is mineral hardness?

Chemical bonds that connect atoms in materials often have
different strengths. When you scratch a mineral with another
substance, you break bonds and leave a scratch on the mineral.
Hardness is the physical property that measures the resistance
of a mineral to scratching. You can use scratch tests to compare
the hardness of different materials using the Mohs scale.
The Mohs scale is shown below. When you perform a hardness
test by rubbing two materials together, the softer material
wears away.
3.
Interpret Data Which
Mohs Scale of Hardness
material is harder, calcite or

a copper penny? Explain
your answer.
1. Talc
6. K-feldspar
2. Gypsum (fingernail 2.2)
7. Quartz (streak plate 7.0)
3. Calcite (copper penny 3.3)
8. Topaz
4. Fluorite
9. Corundum
5. Apatite (glass plate 5.5)
10. Diamond
What are luster and streak?
4.
Define What term is

used to describe the color
of a mineral in powdered
form?
346
The way a mineral reflects light is the physical property

known as luster. There are two main kinds of luster: metallic
and nonmetallic. Luster gives clues to the composition of a
mineral. Minerals with metallic luster reflect light the way
shiny metal does. The chrome on a car or bicycle has a
metallic luster. Nonmetallic luster applies to minerals that
shine like glass or have an earthy or waxy appearance.
Streak is the color of a mineral in powdered form. The
streak of a mineral may be the same color as the mineral
sample. Some minerals show different colors or types of
luster. However, the streak powder color generally is the same
for all of the different forms of a mineral. This helps you
identify the mineral. A streak test is done by rubbing a
mineral on a white porcelain tile.
What is crystal shape?

The orderly internal arrangement of atoms in a mineral
often is shown by the external crystal shape of the mineral.
Picture This
Six Crystal Forms Mineral crystals in nature show many

unique shapes, but the internal atomic arrangement of each
can be sorted into one of six crystal systems. The type of
symmetry shown by a crystal determines the crystal system to
which a mineral belongs.
Mineral Formation
A mineral crystal grows as atoms are added to its surfaces,
edges, or corners. The types of atoms that are added depend
on the kinds of atoms that are in the crystals surroundings.
Growth is controlled by how fast the atoms can move and by
the temperature and pressure of the surroundings. Some
minerals form by precipitating from hot, water-rich fluids.
Others form by solidifying from melted rock or when water
that is rich in dissolved salts evaporates near Earths surface.
How do minerals form from hot water solutions?
Some minerals are produced from hot-water solutions that

are rich in dissolved mineral compounds. As hot water cools,
its atoms slow down and atoms of dissolved minerals form
chemical compounds. Minerals often form around the edges
of hot springs. When hot water passes through cracks in
cooler rock, minerals may form within the cracks. Minerals
line or fill the cracks. Sometimes minerals such as gold, silver,
and copper are formed in fractures.
5.
Explain how a mineral

crystal grows.
6.
How do minerals form from magma?

Magma is melted, or molten, rock material inside Earth. As
magma cools, the atoms slow down and start to arrange into
orderly structures. When the temperature of the magma is
well below the temperature at which certain minerals become
solid, crystals of those minerals may start to form.
How do minerals form from evaporation?

When water that is rich in dissolved minerals evaporates
slowly at Earths surface, minerals may form. Crystals form from
the dissolved mineral material. You may have seen mineral
deposits in a pan that was once filled with water.
melted rock material inside

Earth called?
Mineral Groups
About 3,800 minerals have been identified in nature. Some
minerals are so common that they are called the rock-forming
minerals. Recall that only a few elements are needed to make
up almost the entire crust of Earth. In the same way, a few
important groups of minerals make up most of Earths crust.
Reading Essentials
347
What are silicates? The silicate minerals are the largest

group of minerals in Earths crust. In this group, the
elements silicon and oxygen bond together. When silicon
and oxygen bond, a geometric shape called a tetrahedron is
formed. Some metal atoms may be attached to the oxygen
atoms of the silicates. The figure below shows silicate
structures.
Picture This
7.
Table 3 Silicate Minerals
Infer The root word tetra
Mineral
means four. The root word

hedron means face or side.
How many sides do you
think a tetrahedron has?
Olivine
Photos
Silicate Structure
O
Si
Single tetrahedron
Pyroxene group
(Augite)
Single chains
Amphibole group
(Hornblende)
Double chains
Biotite
Micas
Muscovite
Sheets
Feldspars
Potassium
feldspar
Plagioclase
Quartz
Three-dimensional
networks
Quartz and some feldspar group minerals are relatively low

in density and form at lower temperatures than other silicate
minerals. Together, these minerals make up most of Earths
continental crust.
Earths oceanic crust is denser than continental crust and
contains silicates whose tetrahedrons are not as linked.
Silicates such as the pyroxene, olivine, and certain feldspars
make up the main part of the oceanic crust.
Important Non-silicate groups Other important mineral
groups include the carbonates, oxides, halides, sulfides,
sulfates, and native metals. These groups are sources of
valuable ore minerals. To be called an ore, a mineral must
occur in large enough amounts to be profitably mined.
8.
Explain When is a
mineral accepted as an ore?
Mineral Uses
For centuries, people have relied on minerals. Civilizations
have advanced themselves by using their mineral wealth.
Think of the exploration and conflict that took place over
gold. Europeans spent huge amounts of money and risked
many lives to search for gold.
People use minerals either as raw materials to make things
or as direct objects of wealth.
348
What are the main minerals of Earths crust?
After You Read

Mini Glossary
cleavage: the physical property of a mineral that allows it
to break along flat planes
fracture: an uneven break in a mineral
hardness: the physical property that measures the resistance
of a mineral to scratching
magma: melted, or molten, rock inside Earth

mineral: a naturally occurring element or compound that is
inorganic, solid, and has a crystalline structure
streak: the color of a mineral in powdered form
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write two sentences that tell
how cleavage and fracture are similar and different.
2. Fill in the concept map with the physical properties of minerals. Add more rectangles
if needed.
Minerals
3. Review the questions you wrote as you read this section. Were you able to get answers to
your questions? How did your questions help you to understand the topics in this section?

games, and projects to help you learn more about minerals.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
349
Earth
Materials
20
chapter
Igneous Rock
What Youll Learn
the types of minerals

present in most rocks
how and where igneous
rocks form
how to classify igneous
rocks
Identify As you read each

paragraph, highlight the main
idea. Review what you have
highlighted after you finish
reading the section.
Before You Read

What do you think of when you hear the word rock? Describe
what a rock looks like and what you think it is made of.
Read to Learn
What is a rock?
A rock is a naturally formed, consolidated mixture
containing minerals, rock fragments, or volcanic glass. Most
rocks have crystals of minerals that may or may not be well
formed. The composition and texture of rocks are used to
identify them. Texture is a description that includes the size
and arrangement of the rocks components. The rock-making
process is a continuous cycle. Part of this cycle involves the
rock formed by magma inside Earth.
Intrusive Igneous Rock

Igneous rocks are formed from the molten rock material
called magma. Some igneous rocks form inside Earth. These
rocks are called intrusive igneous rocks because they form
within or push into regions of Earths crust.
B Compare
Make a
three-tab Foldable to record
information about igneous
rocks.
Igneous
350
What is the nature of magma?

As it passes through rock, magma might cause the partial
melting of the rock. Geologists have learned that minerals melt
at different temperatures. Some melt when they are exposed to
the thermal energy of magma. The contact between magma and
the surrounding rock can cause the rock to change, the magma
to become contaminated, or both.
2
section
Freezing Point Recall that liquid water freezes into ice at 0C

on Earths surface. In contrast, minerals freeze at very high
temperatures, from several hundred to more than 1,000C.
However, magma must be cooled below the temperature at
which a mineral turns solid for crystals to form.
What is intrusive igneous rock composed of?

As magma cools and crystals form, certain atoms are used
up. Hot magmas tend to crystallize olivine and pyroxene group
minerals and plagioclase feldspars first. These early-forming
minerals are dense and tend to settle at the bottom of the
magma chamber. Late-forming minerals are less dense, solidify
at lower temperatures, and float to the top of the magma
chamber. These relationships are shown in the figure below.
Temperature
Regimes
Potassium feldspar
+
Muscovite mica
+
Quartz
Pla
gio
cla
se f
Con
eld
spa
of c tinuo
r
rys us s
tall eri
iza es
tion
a
e mic
Biotit
Cooling magma
Calcium-rich
ibole
Amph
Peridotite
ene
eries
Pyrox
ous s n
ntinu
Disco ystallizatio
of cr
Low temperature
(last to crystallize)
Resulting
Intrusive Rock
Picture This
1.
e
Olivin
High temperature
(first to crystallize)
Bowens Reaction Series
Determine What does

the arrow at the left of the
diagram show?
Gabbro
Diorite
Sodium-rich
Granite
The composition of intrusive igneous rocks gives clues

about where in Earth they formed. Igneous rocks that have
lots of quartz generally are linked with continental crust.
Igneous rocks with little quartz generally are linked with deep
regions in continental crust or with oceanic crust. The
minerals that form depend on what atoms were in the
magma.
Intrusive Igneous Rock Texture Recall that texture
describes the size and arrangement of rock components.
Grain size is the size of the individual mineral crystals. In
intrusive igneous rocks, grain size tells how slowly or
quickly the magma cooled to form the rock. In magma
that cools slowly, over hundreds or thousands of years, the
atoms can migrate and form large crystals big enough to
see without a microscope. Rock with visible crystals is
called coarse-grained.
2. What is the term for rock

with crystals that are
visible?
Reading Essentials
351
How are intrusive igneous rocks classified?

There is a great range in the composition of intrusive
igneous rocks. Rocks that are rich in quartz and contain
potassium feldspar and plagioclase are called granite. Granite
has a low density and is one of the main components in
continental crust. Rocks with no quartz and with lots of
plagioclase feldspar and pyroxene are called gabbro. Diorite is
a coarse-grained rock in between granite and gabbro in
composition. Peridotite is denser than gabbro and consists
mostly of olivine and pyroxene. It probably makes up the
main part of Earths upper mantle. Compare the properties of
igneous rocks in the table below.
Picture This
3.
Infer Which rock listed

in the table would be the
last to form in the magma
chamber?
Name
Relative density
Relative grain size
Granite
Low density
Large
Diorite
Medium density
Coarse
Gabbro
High density
Large
Peridotite
Highest density
Large
Extrusive Igneous Rock

When magma reaches Earths surface, it is called lava.
Extrusive igneous rock is rock that cools from lava that has
erupted at Earths surface. These rocks may have the same
composition as intrusive igneous rocks, but they always have
a different texture. Rapid cooling of extrusive rocks causes
them to have small, microscopic grains, or no grains.
Volcanic glass is an extreme example because it cools
instantly in air or water.
What composes extrusive igneous rock?
4.

rock is formed from cooling
lava at Earths surface?
352
The composition of extrusive igneous rock is similar to

that of intrusive rock. Magma that is rich in silica, SiO2,
forms granite if it cools slowly or rhyolite if it cools quickly.
Gabbros fine-grained cousin is basalt. Basalt has high
density, and it is the dominant rock of the oceanic crust. The
fine-grained volcanic equivalent of the intrusive rock diorite
is the extrusive rock andesite. Each intrusive rock has an
extrusive counterpart. The table on the next page compares
some of the characteristics of extrusive igneous rocks.
Intrusive Igneous Rocks
Picture This
Extrusive Igneous Rocks
Name
Relative density
Relative grain size
Rhyolite
Low density
Fine
Andesite
Medium density
Fine
Basalt
High density
Fine
5.
Summarize What
property do gabbro and
basalt share?
6.

rock has such low density
that it can float in water?
What is the texture of extrusive igneous rock?

Rock acts as an insulator and allows magma to cool slowly.
When magma erupts into air or water, the loss of thermal
energy is much faster. When magma nears Earths surface, it
meets much cooler surroundings. Inside Earth, magma can
range in temperature from 650C to 1,200C. Even on a hot day,
the temperature of Earths surface is seldom hotter than 35C.
How does the rate of cooling affect magma?

Recall that the rapid cooling of magma produces small
crystals or no crystals. If magma starts to cool slowly below
the surface and then cools rapidly at the surface, the rock will
have large crystals among small crystals or glass. This kind of
extrusive rock is called volcanic porphyry. The term used to
describe the texture of this kind of rock is porphyritic. The
igneous rocks that are described as porphyritic rhyolite and
porphyritic basalt contain both large and small crystals.
Volcanic Eruptions Volcanic eruptions can produce many
kinds of rock textures and forms. Lava can be ejected into the
air as large, streamlined blobs called bombs. Lava can be in
the form of small droplets called lapilli. Volcanoes can expel
materials ranging in size from large blocks to ash.
What is the effect of gases on magma?

Some magma contains dissolved gases. The gases escape
from the lava at the surface because of low air pressure. As
they escape, the gases break apart or disrupt the lava flow into
ash flows. Also, lava that flows across the surface can have
many tiny holes. This kind of texture is called vesicular and
occurs near the top of the lava flow. The extrusive rock
pumice forms when lava cools quickly. Some pumice has such
low density because of its gas-bubble holes that it can float in
water.
Reading Essentials
353
After You Read

Mini Glossary
extrusive igneous rock: rock that cools from lava that has
rock: a naturally formed, consolidated mixture containing
erupted at Earths surface.

intrusive igneous rock: igneous rock that forms within or
pushes into Earths crust
minerals, rock fragments, or volcanic glass

texture: a description that includes the size and arrangement
of a rocks components
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Explain the similarities and
differences between extrusive and intrusive igneous rocks.
2. Fill in the missing information in the following table.

Relative Density
Granite
No
Diorite
Medium
Gabbro
High
Peridotite
Highest
Rhyolite
Low
Andesite
Basalt
Extrusive Igneous?
Intrusive Igneous?
Yes
No
Yes
No
High
3. You highlighted the main idea of each paragraph as you read this section. How did that
help you remember important information about igneous rocks?
End of
Section
354

and projects to help you learn more about igneous rocks.
Name of Rock
Earth
Materials
20
chapter
3
section
Sedimentary Rocks
Before You Read

Imagine that you buried a piece of clothing in the ground for
a month and then dug it up. Do you think it would look the
same after you dug it up as when you buried it? Explain why
or why not.
Read to Learn
Rocks From Surface Minerals
Recall that rock is a mixture of minerals. Some of the
minerals could be in bits and pieces of other rocks. Clasts are
small bits and pieces of other rocks in one rock.
What Youll Learn
how and where

sedimentary rocks form
how sedimentary rocks
give clues about Earths
history
how sedimentary rocks
are classified
Study Coach
Create a Quiz
As you read this section, try to
imagine the kinds of questions
the teacher might ask on a test.
Write those questions as you
think of them and look for the
answers as you read.
What is surface attack?

Rocks inside Earth are heated and squeezed and are
reasonably stable in those conditions. Rock on Earths surface
is attacked by the weather. Over a long time, this action
breaks rocks into smaller pieces and loosens them from their
original positions. Loose chunks of rock are attacked more
easily by water and air and can smash into each other. This
can happen in rivers and streams and other environments.
How are clasts transported and deposited?

The processes of mechanical weathering break down rocks
into smaller clasts. This makes it possible to erode or move
the clasts from their original positions.
When clasts are loose on Earths surface, they never fit
together perfectly. There is space between them. Porosity is
the empty space between particles. All sedimentary rock has
some porosity. It is in the porosity that all water, oil, and gas
are stored within Earth.
B Compare Use the threetab Foldable you created in

section 2 to record information
about sedimentary rocks.
Igneous
Sedimentary
Reading Essentials
355
What happens to buried clasts?

In time, clasts can become part of sedimentary rock. Clasts
are formed on the surface, but sedimentary rock is formed
below the surface. When clasts are buried by layers of
sediment above them, they can be smashed together with
such great force that they stick together. The force is pressure
caused by gravity pulling down on the sediments. This
process is called compaction.
Water moving between clasts carries dissolved minerals that
can act as cement. Common minerals that act as cement
include quartz, calcite, hematite, and clay. When minerals
slowly precipitate out of water and fill the spaces between
clasts, cementation occurs. Compaction and cementaion
work together to make sedimentary rock, as shown below.
Picture This
1.
Feldspar
Sediment layers above

Cement
Summarize Use the

figure to explain to another
student how sedimentary
rock forms.
Quartz
After deposition
Pore
space
Compaction
Cementation
Sedimentary rocks mostly made of clasts are called detrital

sedimentary rocks. Clasts occur in many sizes. From the
largest to the smallest, clasts include cobbles, pebbles, gravel,
sand, silt, and clay. Geologists give a specific meaning to each
size. The size names describe the dimensions of particles and
not their composition.
Is detrital sedimentary rock size important?
2.
Determine How do
geologists use particle
size when studying rock
formation?
356
The particle size is a clue about the kind of environment in

which a rock formed. A clast of gravel is larger and heavier
than a clast of sand. It takes more force, or energy, to move
gravel than to move sand. Moving air or water often cannot
lift the larger particles in a mix of clasts. Instead, they bounce
along Earths surface.
If you sample a muddy river, you may find pebbles or sand
on the bottom. When water flows quickly, the smaller clasts
are lifted first, followed by the larger ones.
Detrital Sedimentary Rock
What determines composition?

The composition of detrital sedimentary rock depends on
the sources of the rock materials that were eroded, transported,
and deposited. The sizes of the clasts depend upon the ability
of the carrier to move them.
Classification The general name of sedimentary rock is
determined by clast size. The composition of minerals varies
greatly, so adjectives are used to modify the general name of
the rock. The names of detrital sedimentary rocks are given in
the table below.
Clast Sizes and Rock Names
Clast Size
Rock Name
Gravel or larger
Conglomerate
Sand
Sandstone
Silt
Siltstone
Clay
Shale
3.
Use Tables Write the

name of the rock that is
made up of clay-sized
clasts.
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

Some sedimentary rock forms through the action of
chemicals in water. If the water has more dissolved material
than it can hold, some of the material form crystals that settle
out of the water. These crystals build up new rock in two ways.
Precipitation Sometimes water receives more dissolved
material than it can hold. Then the excess material start to
form tiny crystals that come out of the solution. This process
of forming crystals from a solution is called precipitation.
Chemical rocks also form when water dries up, or
evaporates. Rock salt and rock gypsum are common minerals
formed by evaporation.
4.
Explain What is the

process of precipitation?
Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks

Biochemical sedimentary rocks contain the remains of
living organisms. Most limestone is composed of the calcium
carbonate of marine organisms. The shells are held together
by calcite mud. Coal is a sedimentary rock that is made
almost entirely of carbon that remains after plants are
compressed underground.
Reading Essentials
357
After You Read

Mini Glossary
cementation: the process in which minerals slowly
precipitate out of water and fill the spaces between clasts
clasts: small bits and pieces of other rocks in a rock

porosity: empty space between particles
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Explain the relationship
between clasts and porosity.
2. Organize the following terms in the concept map about sedimentary rock: clasts,
deposition, cementation, compaction.
Sedimentary Rock
through the processes of
3. Think about the questions you created. How did writing these questions help you
understand and remember the information in this section? Would you recommend this
method of studying to others?
End of
Section
358

and projects to help you learn more about sedimentary rocks.
forms from
Earth
Materials
20
chapter
4
section
Metamorphic Rocks and the Rock Cycle
Before You Read

Think about how the land changes over time. Describe the
change, and explain what you think causes it.
Read to Learn
Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have been changed by
some combination of heat, pressure, and chemical activity. As
these forces act on existing rock, the rocks atoms rearrange
and sometimes form new minerals. The word metamorphic
comes from two stems meta, which means to change, and
morph which means form. Any igneous, sedimentary, or
metamorphic rock can be changed by the process of
metamorphism.
Metamorphic rocks form in conditions that are between
those of igneous and sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks are
formed from sediments at lower temperatures and pressures
than metamorphic rocks. On the other hand, igneous rocks
form at higher temperatures than metamorphic rocks. When
they form, igneous rocks first melt and then become solid.
Metamorphic changes occur while rock remains solid.
Metamorphic Rock Composition

Thermal energy pressure, and chemical activity are the
agents of metamorphism. Water and carbon dioxide are
common chemical agents that chemically react with rock.
Typically they are present in a fluid that may come from
molecular water and carbonate locked in the rock itself. The
fluid may also come from a nearby intrusion of magma.
What Youll Learn
the physical
conditions that cause
metamorphism
where metamorphism
occurs
how metamorphic
rocks are classified

underline the main idea in each
paragraph.
B Compare Use the

Foldable you made in section 2
to record information about
metamorphic rocks.
Igneous
Sedimentary
Metamorphic
Reading Essentials
359
How are minerals changed by metamorphism?

New minerals may form when water is removed from
some minerals by increasing temperatures and pressures.
Minerals with water in their crystals include the clays and
the micas. Clay minerals tend to change into micas as the
metamorphic conditions become stronger. Water can be
completely driven out of micas if the temperature and
pressure are high enough. In time the mineral garnet may
be produced by metamorphism.
Where does metamorphism occur?

You may wonder what causes metamorphic changes in
rocks. Possible causes include the regional movements of
Earths crust and upper mantle. These large-scale actions
produce great areas of changed rock called regional
metamorphism. On the other hand, rock may be changed on
a smaller scale by local contact of magma with existing rock.
You produce a kind of contact metamorphism when you put
food in a hot pan coated with oil, and the food quickly starts
to burn. There is one big difference between the two
processes. The chemical changes of cooking happen rapidly,
but metamorphic changes occur over thousands or millions
of years.
Metamorphic processes create many rock textures. Some

common rock textures provide clues about the conditions
that formed the rock. Foliated textures in metamorphic rocks
have lots of layers or bands. Nonfoliated metamorphic
textures are found in rocks with grains that are arranged more
randomly. Some nonfoliated rock textures are similar to
igneous rock textures in which grains are tightly joined
together.
1.
Explain What is the main

characteristic of foliated
rocks?
360
What are some common foliated rocks?

Mud rocks such as shale and siltstone are the most
common sedimentary rocks in Earths crust. These rocks
contain abundant clay minerals. When these mud rocks
undergo metamorphosis, the clay minerals change into
minerals in the mica group. When squeezed and heated,
layers of mica form flat layers that are typically at right
angles to the direction of the applied pressure. The mica
group minerals change in grain size with increasing degrees
of metamorphism.
Metamorphic Rock Textures
Degrees of Metamorphism One way to think about foliated

rocks is as a progression of increasing degrees of
metamorphism. The smallest grain sizes occur in slate, which
forms thin layers and has rock cleavage. If the metamorphic
conditions increase, the grains in slate grow and produce the
mineral phyllite. As grains grow larger, the result is a shiny
mass of mica sheets called schist (SHIHST). Finally, under the
strongest metamorphic conditions, a rock called gneiss (NICE)
is formed. Gneiss rock textures are often banded. The minerals
in gneiss are those that form at the end of the limit between
metamorphic and igneous conditions.
2.
Explain the relationship

between the degree of
metamorphism and grain
size in foliated rock.
3.

two main characteristics of
nonfoliated metamorphic
rock?
What are nonfoliated rocks?

Nonfoliated metamorphic rocks usually have a random
crystal orientation and uniform grain size. In that way they
are similar to intrusive igneous rocks. Typically, the grain
size increases as the intensity of metamorphism increases. If
you looked at a sample of limestone, you would find that
the grains are too small to be seen with the unaided eye.
When limestone is heated, it forms large crystals of calcite
that are visible to unaided eyes. The rock produced by this
change is marble. Marble is almost chemically identical to
limestone.
Metamorphic Rock Classification

Metamorphic rocks can be classified by their texture and
composition. The texture of a metamorphic rock is foliated or
nonfoliated. Geologists can use the chemical composition of a
rock to estimate the pressure, temperature, and chemical
activity that produced it. The original rock material, the
parent rock, and the conditions of metamorphism control the
resulting metamorphic rock.
How are rock changes studied?

When they study metamorphic rocks, geologists often work
backwards. They start with rock samples in the field of rocks
that are already formed. These samples formed from original
rock. Metamorphosis has changed the parent rock, but the
exact conditions that changed the rock are not known. Often,
scientists try to reproduce metamorphic changes in the
laboratory. Then they can infer what metamorphic processes
formed the rock sample they are studying.
Reading Essentials
361
The Rock Cycle
4.
Define What is the rock

cycle?
An illustration can make complex ideas seem simpler. The

rock cycle, shown in the figure below, illustrates the processes
discussed in this chapter. The rock cycle includes any
chemical and physical processes that continuously form and
change rocks. Notice that some processes happen at Earths
surface and some happen under the surface. Also note that
there are many different paths that can be taken by rock as it
changes within the cycle. Some changes take extremely long
periods of time, even millions of years. Other changes occur
quickly, as when a volcano erupts. However, there is no
beginning and no end to the rock cycle.
Igneous Rock
Weathering,
transportation,
and deposition
Sediment
Sedimentary Rock
Compaction and
cementation
Uplift,
erosion,
and
deposition
5.
Explain the path a rock

may take through the rock
cycle beginning with
igneous rock.
Lava
Cooling and
solidification
Heat and
pressure
Heat and
pressure
Magma
Melting
Metamorphic Rock
As rock material moves through the stages of the rock cycle,

all matter is conserved. Minerals from granite are found in
the sediments that were eroded from those igneous rocks.
The same minerals could be present in sedimentary rocks
that form later. Atoms that have been removed from rock
by weathering or metamorphic chemical changes are not
destroyed. They can end up as dissolved materials in
solutions. Mineral crystals may later precipitate from the
solutions. The atoms are never destroyed, but only rearranged
into new materials that are stable in present conditions.
362
Picture This
After You Read

Mini Glossary
foliated: textures of metamorphic rock that have of layers or
rock cycle: chemical and physical processes that continuously

form and change rocks
bands
1. Review the terms and definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence or two that
explains the importance of the rock cycle.
2. Write the letter of the definition next to the correct term.

igneous
A. rock produced by deposition
sedimentary
B. rock changed by heat and pressure
metamorphic
C. rock produced by magma
3. In this section, you identified the main idea from each paragraph. How did this help you
understand the text? Explain which method was most helpful to you.

and projects to help you learn more about metamorphic rocks.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
363
Earths
Changing
Surface
21
chapter
Weathering and Soil

Before You Read
What Youll Learn
how weathering
recycles Earths
materials
about mechanical and
chemical weathering
how different factors
affect soil formation
ways to control soil loss
Have you seen a deep hole at a construction site? What did

you notice about the layers of soil below the surface of the
ground?
Highlight As you read this

section, highlight any information that helps you understand
how soil is formed.
A Organize
Information Make a two-tab

Foldable using notebook paper.
Label the tabs and add
information as you read this section.
Mechanical
Weathering
Chemical
Weathering
364
Read to Learn
Weathering
In nature, matter is recycled. You learn about many
different cycles in nature involving living things and
different forms of matter. These cycles are all connected. To
understand nature, it is important to learn about the
processes that connect these cycles. Weathering is an example
of physical and chemical processes that involve the interaction
of air, water, and rock over time.
Natural materials become unstable and break down when
they are exposed to conditions on Earths surface. Weathering
is the process of physical or chemical breakdown of a material at
or near Earths surface. Factors that influence weathering
include agents, such as water or air, the type of material being
weathered, climate, and time. Weathering varies from region to
region because of different weathering conditions.
Where can you see everyday weathering?

Paint cracking or fading on a house and rust forming on a car
are examples of weathering. Roads can develop cracks and
potholes because of weathering. These types of weathering take
place at different rates depending on location and measures
taken to prevent weathering.
CHAPTER 21 Earths Changing Surface
1
section
Mechanical Weathering
You can think of mechanical weathering as turning big pieces
into little pieces. A force must be applied to the material for
this to take place. The force can come from impact, from
expansion or contraction of materials, or from living things.
The effect of these forces depends on the kind of material
being weathered, climate, and time. You may be unaware that
weathering is occurring because the changes occur slowly.
Over time, many small changes can result in large changes.
How can plants and water pry rocks apart?

Rocks naturally may have breaks, or fractures, in them.
Water can enter these fractures. As the water freezes, it
expands, forcing the cracks to become larger. Next time,
more water can enter the fractures. This process is called
frost wedging, a type of mechanical weathering. Frost wedging
can occur anywhere there is enough surface water and the
temperatures change from freezing to above freezing.
Plant roots can cause another type of mechanical
weathering. As roots grow, they increase in diameter. If roots
are growing in a crack in a rock, they exert forces on the rock
that widen cracks.
1.
Infer Why doesnt frost

wedging occur in areas
with warm winters?
When are rocks impact agents?

Rocks can act as impact agents. When large rocks hit other
rocks, they break into smaller pieces. This increases the
amount of surface area or exposed area of the rock.
The figure below shows how the surface area of a rock
increases as it is broken into pieces. When more of a rocks
surface is exposed, it is more likely to be attacked by chemical
agents.
0.5
Picture This
2.
Determine What are

some forces that could
have caused the increase
in surface area you see in
this diagram?
4 square
units
0.5
1 square
unit
Reading Essentials
365
Chemical Weathering
3.
Explain Why is
chemical weathering
necessary for soil?
The process of chemical weathering forms new compounds

and releases elements into the environment. Water and
oxygen are the main agents of chemical weathering. Naturally
occurring acids also cause chemical weathering. Elements
released by chemical weathering enrich the soil and nourish
plants. Without weathering of rocks there would be no soil to
support land plants, land ecosystems, and humans.
Where is matter from rock used?

Cycles of chemical weathering affect all surface
environments from land to sea. When limestone on land
undergoes chemical weathering, calcium ions (Ca2+) and
bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) are released. These ions travel in
streams to the ocean to become the raw materials for marine
ecosystems. Marine organisms use the dissolved ions to build
shells. Broken-down sea shells also return these ions to the
water.
4.
Identify Name the

mineral that forms when
iron is oxidized.
Rust is produced through oxidation reactions. Oxidation is a

common chemical weathering process. Iron that is present in
minerals is released through weathering and combines with
oxygen to form iron oxides. You have probably seen rust on
iron or steel objects that were exposed to air and water. The
mineral hematite is natural rust produced through oxidation
reactions. Hematite is mined to obtain iron for steel production.
Natural minerals tend to change to a more stable form at
Earths surface. Unstable iron released by weathering forms
stable hematite. Hematite stains rock a brownish-red color.
Other metals also form oxide minerals. Copper oxidizes to a
greenish color and silver oxidizes to form a black coating.
What is feldspar weathering?

Chemical weathering changes feldspar minerals into clay
minerals. Other minerals supply various materials for the soil
particles that anchor the roots of plants and for nutrients to
nourish plants.
Kaolinite and silica are two clay minerals formed by the
weathering of feldspars. Kaolinite helps hold water and
nutrients in soil. Silica often forms the quartz cement in
sedimentary rocks. Similar chemical weathering reactions
provide minerals necessary for supporting plant growth.
366
Can rocks rust?
Do rocks weather at the same rate?

Different rock formations tend to weather at different rates.
Factors that influence the rate of weathering include the types
of minerals, cementing agents, and defects, such as cracks in
rock. The rocks that are most resistant to weathering remain
in the landscape. They are the result of differential weathering
and erosion.
Erosion and deposition of sediment create different
landforms. Landforms contain clues to past events such as
floods, landslides, and beach erosion.
Soil
Soil is a mixture of weathered rock, organic matter, water,
and air that is capable of supporting plant life. Soil is
somewhat like human skin. It has many layers and is only a
thin covering on the surface. Material for soil can come from
bedrock beneath it or the from materials transported from
another place. The raw materials for soil continuously form
from weathered bedrock below and organic material from
above.
5.
Identify From where

does the material for soil
come?
What are soil horizons?

If you dig a deep hole, you can see layers in the soil. These
layers are called horizons. Each horizon has a different texture
and color. The figure below shows a sequence of soil horizons
that make up a soil profile. A soil profile does not always have
every horizon. Horizons depend on the makeup of the parent
bedrock, climate, the kind and amount of organisms on the
surface, and the shape of the land.
O-organic layer
A-top-soil
E-eluviation layer
B-subsoil
C-crumbled bedrock
Picture This
6.
R-bedrock
The figure above show a complete set of soil horizons.

Horizons O, A, E, and B together are called the true soil.
Horizons E and B together are called the subsoil. Horizon C is
partially weathered bedrock and R is unweathered bedrock.
Infer Use a highlighter to

mark two horizons where
you would expect the
fewest living organisms to
be found. What would
contribute to non-organic
material?
Reading Essentials
367
What are the different types of soil?

The United States Department of Agriculture has
recognized twelve basic types of soil. Soil is classified by
composition and physical properties. The type of material
from which the soil forms, precipitation, temperature range,
and vegetation, all affect the soil type that forms.
Where do soil materials come from?
7.
Apply Why did many

farming civilizations exist
near rivers?
Some soils form in the same place as the parent bedrock.

Other soils form from materials carried from distant sources.
Rivers and glaciers carry large amounts of soil materials from
their sources and make rich soils from their deposits. Rivers
that carry sediments can enrich soils by flooding. When a river
floods, the sediments are added to the soil in that area. For
example, the Nile Rivers flooding every year made the soil in
ancient Egypt rich for farming. Glaciers also carry sediments
that build the soil. During the last ice advance, glaciers in
North America carried materials that became very rich soils.
Soil Conservation
How are nutrients added to the soil?

One common way to deal with soil depletion is to use
fertilizers. Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are common
nutrients that are added to soil. Farmers also use crop
rotation. Different crops use different nutrients from the soil.
Some crops, such as legumes, actually return nutrients to the
soil. Allowing the land to rest, or lay fallow, gives the soil time
to restore some of its lost nutrients.
How can soil loss be prevented?

8.
Examine Name two

common causes of soil
erosion.
368
Most soil erosion occurs because the plants that covered the
soil have been removed or because the land is steep. Modern
farmers use contour plowing to reduce erosion. In contour
plowing, furrows go around the hill, not up and down the
slope. Crops may be planted on ridges and rainfall allowed to
collect in basins. Slowing the downhill flow of water helps
reduce erosion.
Plants and animals constantly remove elements from the

soil. This can be a serious problem in agricultural areas. If the
same crop is grown year after year in the same field, elements
are depleted. Natural forces can also deplete the soil. In rainy
areas, like rainforests, the soils tend to be depleted. Rainforests
recycle plant matter that returns elements to the soils.
After You Read

Mini Glossary
soil: a mixture of weathered rock, organic matter, water, and
air that is capable of supporting plant life
weathering: the process of physical or chemical breakdown

of a material at or near Earths surface
1. Review the terms in the Mini Glossary above. Explain the connection between soil and
weathering.
2. Use information in this section to complete this web of factors that contribute to soil
formation.
Chemical weathering
Mechanical weathering creates small pieces of rock
Profile of a specific soil type
water and rain
3. How did the information you highlighted help you learn about soil formation? Was this a
useful method to help you learn?

games, and projects to help you learn more about soil and
weathering.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
369
Earths
Changing
Surface
21
chapter
2
section
Shaping the Landscape

Before You Read
What Youll Learn
about agents of erosion

how erosion and
deposition create
landforms
Have you ever seen a landform that was shaped by the action
of wind or water? Describe the shape of the land, and tell how
you think it formed.
Read to Learn
Identify As you read this
B Build Vocabulary
Make a six-tab Foldable using

notebook paper like the one
shown below. Label the six parts
and add information about
shaping the landscape as you
read this section.
ent
Sedim
ring
e
Weath
Soil
Erosio
on
Depositi
Transport
370
Erosion, Transport, and Deposition

Mountains are huge landforms on Earths surface. They
may seem to be permanent, but they are continuously
changing. You have learned about forces like folding,
faulting, and volcanic activity. These forces from within
Earth shape the surface all the time. Gravity is a factor in all
change. Agents on Earths surface, such as air and water, play
a part as well. The shape of the land that you see is what is
left over after the actions of agents on the surface, forces
inside Earth, and gravity.
What processes change landforms?

Erosion is the removal of surface material through the
processes of weathering. Sediment transport is the
movement of eroded materials from one place to another by
water, wind, and/or glaciers. Eventually, water, wind, or
glaciers will drop the sediments. Deposition occurs when a
transporting agent leaves behind eroded material.
You can look at the characteristics of landforms to
determine how they formed. Water, air, and ice are some
different agents that create different kinds of landforms. The
sediments that are on the surface also can give clues about the
history of landforms. Surface sediments can be examined to
figure out how a landform was formed.
section, circle the names of

all the different landforms as
you read.
Running Water
Running water is an important agent for erosion. In steep
areas, water cuts deep into the sediment and rock. This
creates V-shaped valleys. Look at the figure below to see how
a river changes when the slope is less steep.
When the slope is not as steep, the water runs more slowly.
It exerts a sideways force that makes the river valley wider.
Floodplains form around the wide river. Eventually, a river
reaches the body of water or land surface that the river flows
into. This is the mouth of the river. Near the mouth, the river
may wind back and forth or meander.
Tributaries
Picture This
Mouth
1.
Identify Draw arrows

tracing the path of water
from two tributaries to the
major river.
What is a drainage basin?

In most river systems, small streams flow into larger and
larger streams. Tributaries are small streams that flow into
larger streams. River systems look like a tree. Small branches
connect to larger branches, which eventually connect to the
tree trunk. A well-known river system is the Mississippi
River.
The drainage basin is all the land area that gathers water
for a major river. It includes the drainage basins for all the
tributaries. The drainage basin for the Mississippi River
extends from the Appalachian Mountains westward to the
Rocky Mountains. These mountains are drainage divides.
Drainage divides are boundaries that separate different
drainage basins.
How do stream channels form?

Gravity causes surface water to flow downhill. As it flows,
the water erodes the surface, creating its own path or
following paths that are already there. Channels are the paths
water follows. When rivers cut down through sediment and
rock on a slope, they form V-shaped valleys. Steep canyons
can form when water cuts rapidly into sediment and rock.
2.
Define What is a
drainage basin?
Reading Essentials
371
Where do streams deposit sediments?

Sometimes, bars of sediment form in stream channels.
These bars look like thin islands. Bars form when the water
slows down. As water slows, it drops sediment. A river flows
most slowly on the inside bend of a channel, so bars usually
form there. They also can form in the middle of a channel if
there is a lot of sediment in the river water.
Rivers also deposit sediments as the water slows after a
flood. Floodplains form along the valley sides, where the river
deposits sediments. Floods can destroy property, but the
sediments left on floodplains improve the soil quality.
What are deltas?

At the mouth of a stream that empties into a body of water,
sediments are deposited. The fan-shaped sediment deposit is
called a delta. Channels of water called distributaries form in
the delta. They distribute water and mud into the body of
water they enter.
3.
Identify two types of

glaciers.
In some places, more snow falls in the winter than melts in

the summer. If this happens every year for hundreds of years,
a glacier can form. The thick mass of snow compacts and
changes to glacial ice.
Valley glaciers form at the top of river valleys, in the
mountains. They move down the slopes slowly. Continental
glaciers form on huge land areas. Ice moves outward in all
directions from where it builds up. The polar ice caps of
Greenland and Antarctica are continental glaciers.
Glaciers erode the land as they move. Valley glaciers move
downhill, and continental glaciers move outward because of
their weight. As the ice moves, it acts like a giant bulldozer.
The glacier scrapes, gouges, and plucks soil and surface rocks.
What erosional features do glaciers form?

Even after a glacier has retreated, you can tell it was there.
Glaciers leave different landforms as clues. The figure on the
next page shows some of these landforms. Glaciers leave
behind deep grooves, or striations. These striations can help
scientists learn which way the glacier was moving.
Continental glaciers created the Great Lakes and Finger Lakes
in New York.
Valley glaciers change V-shaped river valleys into U-shaped
valleys. They cut in a downward direction like streams, but
they also cut the sides of the stream.
372
Glaciers
Picture This
Horn
Horn
Artes
Cirque
Artes
Cirque
4.

of the different landforms
that glaciers create.
U-shaped Hanging Valleys

valley
Trunk glacier
Tributary glaciers
Land Shaping The force that a glacier exerts depends on the

mass of the glacier. Large trunk glaciers have more mass and
they erode the land more deeply. Tributary glaciers have less
mass and they do not cut into the land as deeply. Tributary
glaciers create tributary valleys that enter main valleys at
different levels. These side valleys are called hanging valleys.
Where glaciers divide, the areas between two streams are
eroded into sharp ridges called artes. The bowl-shaped
depressions where glaciers first start to form are called cirques.
Where do glaciers deposit sediments?

Continental and valley glaciers carry sediments along until
they melt. When they melt, they drop all the sediments they
are carrying. Till is the sediment carried by a glacier. Till
ranges in size from tiny clay particles to boulders as big as a
house. Moraines are ridges of till left at the edge of a glacier.
An end moraine forms at the front of the ice. Lateral
moraines form at the sides. If two valley glaciers join together,
their lateral moraines get sandwiched into a medial moraine.
A ground moraine forms under melting continental
glaciers.
Smaller particles of clay and gravel are carried by meltwater
from glaciers. They form layered deposits on outwash plains.
Glacial deposits in flat outwash plains often become fertile
soils that support plant growth.
5.
Define What is a
moraine?
Wind
Wind is not the most important agent of erosion in the
deserts. The running water that comes during occasional flash
floods erodes more of the land than the wind. Wind cannot
carry large sediments like water and ice can. Wind acts as a
sandblaster. Wind blows lighter sediments around and polishes landforms. In places with bare ground, wind can be an
important agent of erosion.
Reading Essentials
373
How does wind cause erosion?

6.
Explain Why wind

cannot move the large
kinds of sediment that
water and ice can.
When the wind removes smaller particles and leaves heavier

ones behind, the process is called deflation. Many deserts have a
rough, rocky texture because of deflation. The remaining surface
is called desert pavement. Blowouts, or deflation hollows, are
common land forms where wind is the chief agent of erosion.
Blowouts are shallow depressions where wind has scooped out
the surface material and left high places behind.
Where does wind deposit sediments?

As wind slows, it drops the sediments it is carrying. The
landforms that are created depend on the wind velocity and the
kinds of sediments being carried. The wind picks up fine silt
from glacial outwash plains or deserts and deposits it in thick
unlayered deposits called loess. You may have seen photos of
sand dunes in a desert. These form from wind-blown sand.
Wave Action
Waves can have a great deal of force when they strike land.
One cubic meter of water has a large mass. The force of
breaking waves is great and provides the energy to change
surface features.
Picture This
7.
When waves come to the shore at an angle, they change

direction or are refracted. They wash up at a slight angle to the
beach. The backwash moves back to the sea at right angles to the
shoreline. Waves churn up beach sediment, and the backwash
carries sediments back to the sea. Then the sediment is carried
back to the shore at an angle again. As this process continues,
sediment is carried along parallel to the shoreline in a current of
water. The figure below shows how this happens. A longshore
current is the movement of water parallel to the shoreline.
Explain How does the

water move in relation to
the shoreline in a longshore
current?
Shoreline
Sediment
transport
374
Longshore
current
How do currents form?
How do waves cause erosion?

Waves that carry sediments rub across other surfaces and
act like sandpaper. Waves make rocks on the beach smooth.
Cliffs on the coast are often eroded at their base. They may
even collapse into the sea. The material from the cliffs is
broken down in the water and carried away by the longhsore
current. The erosion on rocky coastlines creates many
different landforms.
8.
Predict Waves that

carry sediments act like
sandpaper. What would
you expect to happen in
time to a wooden dock
that was built in water on
a sandy beach?
Where do waves deposit sediments?

Longshore currents carry sediments parallel to the shore.
When the current slows, sediments are deposited and sand
ridges or bars are created. These deposits are like thin islands
of sand that run parallel to the shore. A sandbar that seals off
a bay from the ocean is called a baymouth bar. Spits are
sandbars that project into the water from the land and curve
back toward the land. Cape Cod is a well-known spit off the
coast of Massachusetts. During bad weather, water levels can
rise and create sand deposits called barrier islands that can
protect the mainland.
Mass Wasting
Mass wasting is erosion caused mainly by gravity. Water,
earthquakes, or human activity can trigger the process. Mass
wasting can occur on slopes that are very steep or have little
vegetation. It starts when support at the base of a slope is
removed and the material above moves downhill.
How does erosion by mass wasting occur?

Erosion by mass wasting depends on the kind of event and
the materials involved. Slumps are common in soil along
hillsides. Slumps make concave, upward scars where material
has broken away and moved downward. Stream channels can
undermine slopes causing erosion through slumps.
Landslides and rockslides also can produce distinct scars on
slopes. Mudflows move rapidly and are as dense and damaging
as fluid cement. They often occur after heavy rainfall or
snowmelt.
9.
Explain how you can tell

where a mass wasting event
has occured in an area.
How does mass wasting affect deposition?

Mass wasting events dump their material in disorganized
masses. This material replaces the undermined material at the
base of a land form. Eventually, so much material collects that
the slope becomes stable. Then, mass wasting stops.
Reading Essentials
375
After You Read

Mini Glossary
deposition: when a transporting agent leaves behind eroded
material
longshore current: the movement of water parallel to the

shoreline
drainage basin: all the land that gathers water for a major
river
sediment transport: the movement of eroded materials

from one place to another by water, wind, and/or glaciers
erosion: the removal of surface materials through the

processes of weathering
1. Review the vocabulary terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary above. Describe in
your own words how running water is an agent of erosion and sediment transport.
2. Complete the chart below to organize information about different forces that shape the
landscape.
How it
erodes
Wind
How it deposits
sediment
Landforms
it creates
Pick up small
sediments
Waves
Glaciers
Sandbars
Ice cuts into river
valleys or material
outward
Mass
waste
mudflow
3. As you read this section, you circled the names of all the different landforms you read
about. Did this help you to understand the process of land shaping? Why or why not.

games, and projects to help you learn more about how forces
shape the land.
376
End of
Section
Water
Earths
Changing
Surface
21
chapter
3
section
Groundwater
Before You Read

You have learned about the water cycle. Explain how water
from the sky travels to your faucet.
What Youll Learn
why groundwater is
important
how groundwater is
stored and obtained
some concerns about
groundwater use
Read to Learn
The Water Cycle
The oceans contain 97.2 percent of Earths water. Only

2.8 percent of Earths water is fresh water. But three-quarters
of that water is frozen in glaciers. Less than 1.0 percent of
Earths water is available for use.
Answer Questions As you

read this section, look for all of
the questions in bold type.
Underline the sentences that
help you answer each question.
What happens in the water cycle?

The water cycle, as shown below, replenishes freshwater
supplies constantly. Large amounts of freshwater enter the water
cycle by evaporation of seawater. A lesser amount enters the
water cycle through transpiration. Transpiration is the process
in which water enters the roots of plants and is released through
the leaves as water vapor. The energy to power the processes of
evaporation and transpiration comes from the Sun.
Picture This
1.
Describe how rain that

falls in the mountains
returns to the sea.
Reading Essentials
377
C Organize
Information Make a layered

Foldable using two sheets of
notebook paper. Label the tabs
and add information about
groundwater as you read this
section.
Infiltration Water vapor in the air forms clouds. Precipitation

falls from these clouds as rain or snow. Most precipitation
goes into the oceans, but some falls on land. On land, water
can evaporate, become runoff in streams, or filter into Earth.
Infiltration is the process by which water enters Earth to
become groundwater below the surface.
Groundwater
Picture This
2.

would happen to the water
table during a rainy season?
Use a highlighter to show
the level of the water table.
Infiltration
Unsaturated zone
Water Table
Saturated zone
Impermeable rock
378
Water moves into the ground through infiltration. Water

goes into the pores, or spaces, in rocks and sediment under
the surface. Water that is naturally stored underground is
called groundwater.
The region near the surface where groundwater can
infiltrate easily is called the unsaturated zone. Below this
zone, all of the spaces in the rock and sediment are filled with
water. This area is called the saturated zone. The water table
is the boundary between the saturated zone and the
unsaturated zone.
Several factors affect how easily water can infiltrate and
recharge groundwater. The slope of the land, the nature of the
surface material, and the type and amount of vegetation all
affect the process of infiltration.
How is water stored in the ground?

A material must be able to absorb water in order for
infiltration to occur. If material is not already saturated and
there is enough time for water to pass through the material,
then water can filter in. Sand and gravel are porous. If sand
and gravel are not already saturated, infiltration occurs
rapidly. Surfaces made of clay and impermeable materials
allow little infiltration.
Most of the rain and snow melt does not get stored. It either
evaporates or runs off. Plants use much of the water that
infiltrates before it can move deep into storage.
An aquifer is a rock unit that can transmit water through
its pore space. Sandstone and limestone are two rocks that
often make good aquifers. Rocks that stop or slow infiltration
are called aquitards. Shale and clay layers slow or stop the flow
of water.
3.
Compare an acquifer to
an aquitard.
What allows rocks to store groundwater?
Water infiltrates through the pore spaces, the open spaces in

sediments or rock. The total volume of the spaces is called the
porosity of the material. If water cannot flow easily in a
material, it may be because the porosity is low or because the
pores dont connect. If water cannot flow easily through a
material, that material has low permeability. Permeability is a
measure of how well a fluid can pass through a material. For
instance, a kitchen sponge is a permeable material.
Water Resources
Life depends on the availability of fresh water. Because of this,
supplies are monitored and attempts are made to preserve water
resources. People have a responsibility to protect freshwater, no
matter what is its source.
4.
Define the measure of

how well a fluid can pass
through a material.
How is groundwater obtained?

Sometimes the water table meets the surface, forming a
spring. In other areas, water comes from wells. Wells are holes
dug or drilled into Earth. When the hole reaches the water
table, water can be pumped to the surface.
As water is removed, the water table lowers. Pumping water
from a well causes the groundwater flow path to change. It
does not stay level, like the surface of a drink you sip through a
straw. As water is drawn from a well, the groundwater flows
downhill to the well. This creates a cone of depression around
the well. The cone of depression affects the amount of water
that other local wells can get from the water table. Wells in the
area may need to be drilled deeper to obtain water.
Reading Essentials
379
What causes natural water pressure?

There is a lot of natural pressure in some aquifers. If you
drill a well into one of these aquifers, water will be pushed up
into the well. This kind of well is called an artesian well.
Artesian wells form when an aquifer is sandwiched between
two aquitards. Gravity creates pressure that pushes water out
of an artesian well. Artesian wells are often free flowing at the
surface.
How does pollution affect groundwater

resources?
5.
Predict The dark spot in

the picture on the right
is an area where pollution
is seeping into the
groundwater. Draw the
path pollution will take as
the groundwater flows.
Pollution
Well
Wate
r tab
le
380
Picture This
Pollutants that are spilled or dumped on the ground enter

groundwater through infiltration as shown in the figure
below. Pollution from the air is washed from the air by
precipitation and also can enter ground water. Contamination
can be a result of natural events or human activity.
Particles of soil can filter larger contaminants and keep
them from moving deeper. Many pollutants, such as natural
pollutants can contaminate infiltrated water.
Polluted groundwater is not a useful or safe freshwater
source. Cleaning polluted groundwater can be difficult and
costly.
After You Read

Mini Glossary
aquifer: a rock unit that can transmit water through its pore
space
infiltration: the process by which water enters Earth to

become groundwater below the surface
permeability: a measure of how well a fluid can pass through

a material.
water table: the boundary between the saturated zone and
the unsaturated zone
1. Review the vocabulary terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary above. On the
lines below, write an explanation of the water table that someone could understand
without reading this section.
2. Complete the table below to compare and contrast aquifers and aquitards.
Aquifer
Aquitard
1.
1.
2.
2.
3. As you read this section, you underlined the answers to questions in the text. How did this
help you to understand or learn what you were reading?

games, and projects to help you learn more about groundwater.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
381
Earths
Changing
Surface
21
chapter
Geologic Time
Before You Read
What Youll Learn
about geologic eras,

periods, and epochs
how scientists define
geologic time periods
and use relative dating
how to find the exact
age of rocks and fossils
Suppose you find a photograph of yourself taken with some

family members or friends several years ago. How could you
figure out the age of that photo? Describe one method.
Read to Learn
Study Coach
Make a KWL chart

Divide a piece of paper into
three columns. Label the
columns K, W, and L.,"
In the left column, write
everything you know about
geologic time. In the middle
column, write what you want to
learn. As you read this section,
add the things you learn to the
L column.
1.
Define What is the

process of placing objects
or events in their proper
sequence in time?
382
Time
You probably think of time in terms of hours, days, and
years. These units of time were established a long time ago.
People created these units by observing the relationships
between Earth and the Sun, as well as other astronomical
events.
What are absolute and relative dating?

If someone asks your age, you can tell them the number of
years and months since you were born. You have to know your
starting point, your birthday. This is an exact point in time, so
it is an example of absolute dating. Absolute dating is the
process of assigning a precise numerical age to an organism,
object, or event. Technology enables scientists to make precise
findings about geologic time.
Relative dating is the process of placing objects or events
in their proper sequence in time. Events are shown in the
order they occurred, such as first, second, and third. You dont
have to know the exact date of any event, just how it relates to
other events. An example of relative dating is putting people
in order from oldest to youngest by their apparent ages. The
key to relative dating is that the order is controlled by logical
relationships. This may or may not involve using numbers.
4
section
What is uniformitarianism?
Uniformitarianism an idea which states that the laws of
nature operate today as they have in the past. The idea of
uniformitarianism allows scientists to use what they know
about rocks and nature today to understand events from the
past. Another way of stating the idea of uniformitarianism is
the present is the key to the past.
2.
Principles of Relative Dating

Suppose you were throwing papers into a wastebasket all
day. At the end of the day, you found you needed a paper
from the morning. Where would that paper be? You would
have to look at the bottom of the basket to find the paper.
The oldest papers put in the basket would be at the bottom.
Identify What idea is

represented by the
statement the present is
the key to the past?
What are the oldest rock layers?

In the same way, the oldest rocks are found at the bottom
of rock layers. The principle of superposition states that the
oldest rocks in an undisturbed sequence of rock layers are at
the bottom of the sequence. Look at the figure below. The
rock layers can be put in the correct relative order using the
principle of superposition.
H
G
Picture This
3.
Interpret Which rock

was formed first?
C
A
Intrusion B
Fault D
What rock layers start flat?

Sedimentary rock layers always start as horizontal layers.
Sedimentary layers are formed by the deposition of sediments.
If sedimentary layers are not horizontal, then they must have
been disturbed. They were horizontal when they formed. After
the rock had formed, some force moved the layers out of the
horizontal.
Reading Essentials
383
What can overlap tell about a rocks age?

Sometimes, a fault or intrusion of igneous rock will come
into an existing layer of rock. The principle of cross cutting
relationships states that any rock formation or fault is younger
than the rock it cuts through. Clearly, the older rock had to be
there for a fault or intrusion to form. Also, if a rock becomes
embedded in another rock, the rock that was embedded had to
exist first. These rock pieces are called inclusions.
What are unconformities?

Rock sequences are like a diary for Earth. If you keep a
diary, there may be days when you make no new entries. You
also might tear out some entries. Those actions would create
gaps in your entries. Similar gaps occur in rocks. There may
be times when no sediments are deposited. There may be
times when erosion carries away sediments or new rock
layers. Unconformities are gaps in the rock record during
which erosion occurred or deposition was absent.
Define What are fossils?
Fossils
Fossils are the remains or traces of organisms found in the
geologic rock record. They can be direct remains, like an actual
bone or shell. They can be casts that formed from molds
when part of an organism filled with sediments that changed
into rock. A fossil can even be a trace like a footprint.
What does correlation tell about fossils?

The process of matching rock units from different regions
is called correlation. Suppose the same fossils are found in
similar rock layers in different regions. If you know the age of
the fossils in one place, you can say that the same fossils in the
second place were formed about the same time. Scientists
have correlated fossil-bearing rock units around the world.
Some organisms lived for a very short time in a wide area
around the globe. Their fossils, called index fossils, are useful
for correlation. Index fossils are used to compare rock layers
from distant parts of the world.
How do fossils fit in geologic time?

5.
Infer How are geologic

periods of time similar to
historical eras?
384
Scientists divide Earths history into periods of time that

mark major changes in the fossil record. In history you learn
about periods of time, like the Industrial Revolution. The
periods of time in Earths history are similar to historical
periods. They often begin or end with a major event. It could
be a catastrophic geological event that leads to extinction of
life forms.
4.
E ra
Eon
E ra
M illions o f
y ears ag o
Cenozoic
65
Phanerozoic
Pe rio d
E po c h
Quaternary
Cenozoic
Age of
mammals
Tertiary
Mesozoic
248
Holocene
Pleistocene
Pliocene
Miocene
Oligocene
Eocene
Paleocene
Paleozoic
540
Late
144
Jurassic
206
Middle
Triassic
1600
Early
248
Permian
Age of
Amphibians
2500
290
Pennsylvanian
323
Mississippian
354
Late
Archean
Precambrian
0.01
1.8
5.3
23.8
33.7
54.8
65.0
Cretaceous
Mesozoic
Age of
reptiles
Carboniferous
Proterozoic
900
M illions o f
y ears ag o
3000
Middle
Paleozoic
Age of
fishes
Devonian
417
Silurian
443
3400
Ordovician
Early
Hadean
3800
Age of
Invertebrates
490
Cambrian
540
4500
Precambrian
Absolute Dating
The geologic time scale above shows that the Mesozoic Era
began 248 million years ago and ended 66 million years ago.
How can scientists know those exact dates? Geologists find
absolute ages of fossils by analyzing radioactive isotopes in
rocks. They measure how much the radioactive isotopes have
decayed, then find the age of the rocks.
Picture This
6.
Interpret Scientific
Illustrations Which
type of organism appeared
most recently?
a. fishes
b. mammals
Radioactive Decay Some kinds of atoms are unstable and
c. amphibians
emit particles over time. This is called radioactive decay. As

atoms decay, they produce new atoms with new mass or
new atomic number.
When igneous rocks form, the unstable radioactive isotopes
in them start to decay. They decay to form stable daughter
isotopes. The ratio of daughter isotopes in the rock can help
scientists find how long ago the rock formed.
d. reptiles
Around how many years
ago did they appear?
Half-life Every radioactive isotope has a half-life. It is the time

needed for half of the parent material to decay. By measuring
the ratio of radioactive parent to daughter elements, scientists
can find how many half-lives have gone by.
Which isotopes are useful for finding age?

Scientists use isotopes in igneous rocks to determine age.
Sedimentary and metamorphic rocks are not as useful, because
they may contain some material that has already undergone
radioactive decay. Radioactive isotopes of uranium, thorium,
potassium, and rubidium with different half-lives can be used
to find the ages of different rocks.
Reading Essentials
385
Geologic Maps
Geologic maps show two-dimensional models of Earths
crust. Geologic maps can also show folds in the crust. These
folds come from pressure inside Earth, and they can make
horizontal rock layers appear in different ways.
What are basins and domes?
7.
Compare and
Contrast What is the
difference between a basin
and a dome?
Remember that rock layers can be changed by tectonic

processes that cause faults and folds. One example of a rock
layer that has been changed is a basin. When plates in the Earth
move, compressional forces cause the layers to fold and dip
down. The dip in a rock layer is called a basin. This movement
exposes the youngest rock in the center of the basin.
Domes are the opposite of basins. When forces push rock
layers up, the rocks form a hill, or dome. Now, the oldest rock
is exposed at the center of the dome.
F
E
E
D
C
B
A
E
C
B
A
Undeformed
strata
Strata
Youngest exposed rocks
D
Dome
C
F
D
B
A
Picture This
8.
Infer How was the force

different for the formation
of these rock layers?
Basin
What are folds?

Geologic maps also show folds in the Earths crust. Recall
that compressional forces can squeeze and shorten materials.
If the forces on part of Earths crust are compressional, the
rocks might wrinkle or fold. Place a sheet of paper flat on your
desk. With both hands, push the sides together. Does the paper
wrinkle up or down? Folds of rock are created in a similar way
Recumbent Folds If you try the paper trick in another way,
you will see an example of a recumbent fold. This time,
keep one hand in place and push with the other hand. The
fold flops over horizontally. This is a recumbent fold.
Plunging Folds If compressional folds are applied unevenly,
a pattern called plunging folds occur. Plunging folds look
like a series of hills. This kind of folds tells a different story
about the history of the landform.
386
Oldest exposed
rocks
F
E
D
C
B
A
After You Read

Mini Glossary
absolute dating: the process of assigning a precise
relative dating: the process of placing objects or events in
numerical age to an organism, object, or event

fossil: the remains or traces of organisms found in the geologic
record
principle of superposition: a rule stating that the oldest
rocks in an undisturbed sequence of rock layers will be at
the bottom of the sequence
their proper sequence in time

unconformity: a gap in the rock record during which erosion
occurred or deposition was absent
uniformitarianism: an idea which states that the laws of
nature operate today as they have in the past
1. Review the vocabulary terms and definitions in the Mini Glossary above. Explain the
difference between absolute dating and relative dating.
2. Look at the rock layers below. Figure out the steps that had to happen to form these layers.
Put the following events in order by writing the numbers 1 through 5 in the blanks.
layer D forms from shale
an intrusion of igneous rock cuts through the layers
an organism dies in sediments of sand
layer A forms from clay sediments
sand sediments turn into sandstone
3. After reading this section on geologic time, why do you think you have to learn about this
topic? Why is it important to know about the age of rocks and fossils, and about Earth's
history?

and projects to help you learn more about geologic time.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
387
chapter
22
Chemical Bonds
1
section
Stability in Bonding
What Youll Learn
about elements in a
compound
chemical formulas
how electric forces help
form compounds
why a chemical bond
forms
Study Coach
Make Flash Cards As you

read, make a flash card of each
element mentioned in the text.
Include the name of the
element, its chemical symbol,
and its electron dot diagram.
Before You Read

Have you ever seen an object with rust on it? What was the
object made of? Why do you think rust formed on it?
Read to Learn
Combined Elements
Have you ever noticed that the Statue of Liberty is green?
Was it painted green? Is it made of green stone? Actually, the
Statue of Liberty is made of the metal copper. Copper is an
element. Pennies are also made of copper. If copper usually has
a shiny, metallic color, then why is the Statue of Liberty green?

a Foldable like the one below.
As you read this section, write
down the main ideas about
combined elements, formulas,
and atomic stability.
Combined
Elements
Formulas
Atomic
Stability
388
CHAPTER 22 Chemical Bonds
Some matter around you is in the form of elements.

For example, oxygen, copper, and sulfur are all elements.
All three exist by themselves. They can also combine with
other elements in a chemical reaction to form compounds.
When copper, sulfur, and oxygen combine in a chemical
reaction, they produce the green coating like on the Statue of
Liberty. This compound is copper sulfate, which is a green
solid. It is nothing like the elements that combined to make
it. Copper is a shiny, copper-colored solid. Sulfur is a yellow
solid. Oxygen is a colorless, odorless gas. When elements
combine, they form compounds with their own properties.
Do compounds have new properties?

Compounds may have different properties from the elements
that form them. Sodium chloride, or table salt, is a compound
made from the elements sodium and chlorine. Sodium is a
shiny, soft, silvery metal that reacts violently with water.
Chlorine is a greenish-yellow, poisonous gas. These two
elements combine to form the salt that people use in their food.
Do compounds look like their elements?
Formulas
The formula for sodium chloride is NaCl. Na is the
chemical symbol for the element sodium. Cl is the chemical
symbol for the element chlorine. Written together, they make
up the formula for sodium chloride. A chemical formula tells
what elements are in a compound and how many atoms of
each element are in one unit of the compound.
What is the formula for water?
1.
Lets look at the formula for a compound you use every

day. H2O is the chemical formula for water. H is the symbol
for the element hydrogen. O is the symbol for the element
oxygen. The number 2 in the formula is called a subscript.
Subscript means written below. A subscript written after a
symbol tells how many atoms of that element are in one unit
of the compound. In H2O, the 2 tells you there are two atoms
of hydrogen in one unit of water. If there is no subscript after
a symbol in a formula, there is only one atom of that element
in the compound. So, in one unit of H2O there are two
hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.
The table shows some familiar compounds and their
formulas. Notice that each kind of atom can be combined
with other atoms in many different kinds of compounds. For
instance, oxygen is a part of the compounds of sand, milk of
magnesia, cane sugar, and vinegar.
Explain What does a

chemical formula tell you?
Picture This
2.
Describe The formula

for cane sugar, or sucrose,
is C12H22O11. Describe what
one unit of cane sugar is
made of.
Atomic Stability
Recall that protons have a positive charge and electrons
have a negative charge. These opposite electric forces attract
each other. They are the forces that hold atoms and molecules
together. The kinds of electric forces that hold atoms together
also bring atoms together to form compounds.
Reading Essentials
389
13
14
15
16
17
18
Li
Be
Ne
Na
Mg
Al
Si
Cl
Ar
Picture This
3.
Illustrations How many
electrons are in the outer
energy level of an atom
of carbon?
Why do atoms form compounds?

Look at the periodic table on the inside back cover of this
book. It lists all the known elements. Most of these elements
can combine with others to form compounds that are more
stable. Notice the six elements in Group 18. These elements
are gases called the noble gases. Atoms of the noble gases are
very stable. They are different from the other elements
because they almost never combine to form compounds.
Compounds that are formed with a noble gas are less stable
than the original atom.
A helpful way to picture the stability of the noble gases is
to look at the electron dot diagrams of those elements. An
electron dot diagram shows the symbol of the element. It also
shows the electrons in the outer energy level of an atom. The
number of electrons in the outer energy level of an atom
determines if that atom will combine to form a compound.
How do you know how many dots to put in an electron dot
diagram? For elements in Groups 1 and 2 and 13 through 18,
you can use the periodic table. The figure below shows two rows
of the periodic table. Look at the outer energy level of the
elements in Group 1. All elements in Group 1 have one outer
electron. The elements in Group 2 have two outer electrons.
Group 13 elements have three outer electrons, Group 14 has
four, and so on. The noble gases in Group 18 have eight outer
electrons.
What makes an atom stable?

An atom is chemically stable when its outermost energy level
has all the electrons it can hold. If an atom is chemically stable,
it does not easily form compounds with other atoms.
390
Why are the noble gases stable?
Stable Noble Gases The figure to the right
shows electron dot diagrams of the noble

gases. The first electron dot diagram is for
helium. Notice that there are two electrons
around the symbol for helium, He. Remember
that hydrogen and helium need only two
electrons in their outer level to be stable. The
outer energy levels of all the other elements
are stable when they contain eight electrons.
Now look at the electron dot diagram for
neon, Ne. There are eight electrons in neons
outer energy level. Neon is stable as an atom.
Neon does not become more stable if it forms
a compound. The noble gases are stable
because they have the maximum number of
electrons in their outer energy levels.
He
4.
Describe How many

electrons are in the outer
energy level of xenon?
5.
Infer What makes noble
Ne
Ar
Kr
Xe
Rn
What elements have incomplete outer

energy levels?
Picture This
gases stable?
Hydrogen and helium are the only elements in the first row,
or period, of the periodic table. Both hydrogen and helium
need only two outer electrons to be stable. Helium has two
electrons in its outer energy level and is stable. But hydrogen
has only one electron. Its outer level is not full. Therefore,
hydrogen is more stable when it is part of a compound.
Look at the periodic table again. You can see that none of
the elements in Group 13 through Group 17 have full outer
energy levels. These elements are more stable when they
form compounds.
How do atoms become more stable?

As you have learned, hydrogen is an element that does not
have a full outer energy level. How does hydrogen, or any
other element become stable? Atoms that do not have a stable
outer energy level can do one of three things to complete
their outer level. They can gain electrons, lose electrons, or
share electrons to make a full outer level. Atoms combine with
other atoms that also do not have complete outer levels. This
way, each atom becomes more stable.
The figure on the next page shows electron dot diagrams
for sodium and chlorine. Sodium has one outer electron and
chlorine has seven. When these two elements combine,
sodium gives its outer electron to chlorine. Chlorine now has
eight electrons in its outer level. This is a full, stable energy
level. But what about sodium?
Reading Essentials
391
Picture This
6.
Use a Model Draw an

electron dot diagram of
sodium showing its new
outer energy level after it
has given its outer electron
to chlorine.
Sodium Combines with Chlorine to form Sodium Chloride
Na
Cl
Na
Cl
Sodium
Chlorine
How can sodium become more stable?
What is another way atoms can

become stable?
7.
Explain What forms

when an atom has lost or
gained electrons?
392
Remember that the formula for the compound water is H2O.

Hydrogen atoms need one electron in their outer level to be
stable. Oxygen atoms need two electrons to be stable. In this
case, neither atom can give up an electron. Instead, they share
electrons. Each hydrogen atom shares one electron from an
oxygen atom to complete its outer level. In turn, the oxygen
atom shares each of the hydrogen atoms electrons to complete
its outer level. The compound water is more stable than a
hydrogen atom or an oxygen atom.
Atoms lose and gain electrons to become more stable. An ion
is an atom that has lost or gained electrons. An ion is a charged
particle. It has more or fewer electrons than protons. The
positive and negative charges are not balanced. The electric
forces between ions can hold compounds together.
Sodium gave up the only electron in its outer level when it

combined with chlorine to form sodium chloride. If sodium
loses the electron in the outer energy level, what is left? The
next energy level of the sodium atom has eight electrons. When
the one outer electron is removed, the next level becomes the
new outer level. Sodium now has a complete, stable outer
energy level. Sodium and chlorine exchanged an electron and
are now both stable in the compound they formed.
After You Read

Mini Glossary
chemical formula: a formula that tells what elements and
ion: an atom that has lost or gained electrons
how many atoms of each element are in a compound
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Find one chemical
formula you learned about in this section and explain the parts of the formula.
2. Complete the concept web to organize the information from this section.
Atoms
become more
stable by:
They can do this by:
3. As you read this section, you made flash cards of the elements mentioned in the text.
Do you think that making flashcards would be a good way to learn the symbols of all
the elements in the periodic table? Why or why not?

and projects to help you learn more about stability in bonding.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
393
chapter
22
Chemical Bonds
2
section
Types of Bonds
What Youll Learn
what ionic bonds and

covalent bonds are
what particles are
produced by ionic and
covalent bonding
about polar and
nonpolar covalent
bonds
Before You Read

Some atoms share electrons and become more stable.
Describe a situation in which people share something and
everyone benefits.
Read to Learn
Locate Information
1.
Explain What forms

when atoms gain, lose, or
share electrons to make a
compound?
394
Gain or Loss of Electrons

Imagine that you and a friend decide to go to the movies.
You find out that you do not have enough money to buy a
ticket. But your friend has enough money for both of you and
loans you the money. Now you both have enough money to
get tickets to go to the movies.
Just as a friend can loan you money, atoms can loan
electrons to other atoms. Atoms loan electrons so both can
reach a stable energy level. When atoms gain, lose, or share
electrons, an attraction forms between the atoms. The atoms
are pulled together to form a compound. The attraction
creates a bond that joins the atoms. A chemical bond is the
force that holds atoms together in a compound. A compound
is completely different from the atoms that make it up. A
compound has different physical and chemical properties
from the atoms that are in it.
What are some common compounds?

Many common compounds are formed by the loss or gain
of just one electron. These compounds are made from a
Group 1 element, such as sodium, and a Group 17 element,
such as chlorine. Examples are sodium chloride, also known
as table salt, and potassium iodide, an ingredient in iodized
salt. These compounds all form when atoms lose or gain one
electron.

Then, highlight the answers to
those questions as you find
them.
Potassium
Iodine
How is potassium iodide formed?

What happens when potassium and iodine bond to form
potassium iodide? The figure above shows the electron dot
diagrams and electron distribution for this process.
An atom of potassium has one electron in its outer level.
This is not a stable outer energy level. When a potassium atom
combines with an iodine atom, the potassium atom loses the
one electron in its outer level. The third energy level now
becomes a complete outer level. The potassium atom now has
one less electron than it has protons. The positive and negative
charges are no longer equal. Recall than an ion is a charged
particle that is formed when an atom gains or loses electrons.
The potassium atom is now a positive ion. It has more protons
with positive charges than electrons with negative charges.
The potassium ion has a 1 charge. The symbol for a
positive potassium ion is K. The plus sign shows its positive
charge. In the symbol K, the plus sign is a superscript.
Superscript means written above.
Potassium iodide
Picture This
2.
Describe How many

electrons are there in
potassiums outer energy
level after the bond has
formed?
How does the iodine atom change?

The iodine atom also changes when it combines to form
potassium iodide. An iodine atom has seven electrons in its
outer energy level. A stable outer energy level has eight
electrons. When the iodine atom reacts with the potassium
atom, the iodine atom gains one electron from potassium.
There are now eight electrons in iodines outer energy level.
The iodine atom now has a stable outer energy level, but it
has one more electron than it has protons. It has more
negative particles than positive particles. The iodine atom has
become a negative ion with a charge of 1. Now it is called
an iodide ion and its symbol is written as I.
Reading Essentials
395
Ionic Compounds
B Build Vocabulary
Make a Foldable like the one

add the definitions of ionic
bonds, covalent bonds, polar
bonds, and nonpolar bonds to
your Foldable. Include a
compound that contains each
bond.
Ionic
Bonds
Covalent
Bonds
Polar
Bonds
Nonpolar
Bonds
An ionic compound forms when two or more ions

combine. Notice that the ionic compound potassium iodide
does not have a charge. The 1 charge and the 1 charge
cancel each other out. This means the compound is neutral
or has a neutral charge.
The Ionic Bond

Atoms that lack electrons in their outer energy level seem
to send out messages to attract atoms that will complete their
outer energy levels, and vice versa. A bond forms when ions
attract each other and form a compound. An ionic bond is the
force of attraction between a positive ion and a negative ion in
an ionic compound.
In an ionic compound, one atom gives up electrons and
the other atom takes them. Electrons are not shared in ionic
compounds. When an atom loses electrons, one or more
atoms must gain the same number of electrons that were lost.
That way, the compound stays neutral. When atoms form an
ionic compound, a large amount of energy is released. This
occurs because of the transfer of electrons.
Picture This
3.
Think Critically
Explain why magnesium
chloride cannot be made
from one atom of
magnesium and one atom
of chlorine.
Potassium iodide forms an ionic bond when one electron is

transferred. What happens when more than one electron is
transferred? The figure shows the formation of another ionic
compound, magnesium chloride, MgCl2.
When magnesium reacts with chlorine, a magnesium atom
loses the two electrons in its outer energy level. The atom
becomes a positively charged magnesium ion. The symbol for
this ion is Mg2 because it has lost two electrons and now has
a charge of 2.
Two chlorine atoms each take one of the electrons and
complete their outer levels. Each chlorine atom becomes an
ion with a 1 charge. Cl is the symbol for the chloride ion.
In this case, the magnesium atom has two electrons to give.
However, a chlorine atom can only use one electron. So, it takes
two chlorine atoms to receive the two electrons from the
magnesium atom and combine to form the ionic compound
magnesium chloride.
Mg
Magnesium
396
Cl
Cl
2 chlorine atoms
Cl
Mg2
Cl
Magnesium chloride
What if many electrons are transferred?
Does an ionic compound have a charge?

The ionic compound magnesium chloride is neutral. It
does not have a charge. The compound is neutral because the
sum of the charges on the ions is zero. The 2 charge on the
magnesium ion is equal to two 1 charges on the chloride
ions. When different atoms form an ionic compound, they
transfer their electrons. The total number of electrons and
protons stays the same. The compound is neutral.
Metals and nonmetals usually combine by forming ionic
compounds. Elements on the far left side of the periodic table
tend to form ionic bonds with elements on the far right. Ionic
compounds are often crystalline solids with high melting points.
4.
Explain Why is the ionic

compound magnesium
chloride neutral?
Sharing Electrons
Some atoms of nonmetal elements become more stable when
they share electrons. Look at the elements in Group 14 of the
periodic table. These elements have four electrons in their outer
levels. They would have to gain or lose four electrons to have a
stable outer energy level. It takes a lot of energy for an atom to
lose or gain that many electrons. Each time an ion loses an
electron, the nucleus holds the remaining electrons even more
tightly. Once one electron is removed, it takes more energy to
remove a second electron. It takes even more energy to remove
a third, and so on. For elements in Group 14, it is much easier
for them to become stable by sharing electrons.
Atoms that share electrons form a covalent bond. A
covalent bond is the force of attraction between two atoms
that share electrons. A molecule is the neutral particle that
forms when atoms share electrons.
How are single covalent bonds formed?

A single covalent bond forms when two atoms share two
electrons. Usually one electron comes from each atom in the
covalent bond. Look at the water molecule in the figure. There
are two single covalent bonds in a water molecule. In each single
bond, a hydrogen atom and an oxygen atom each give one
electron, which the atoms share.
HO
H
Recall that ionic bonds help atoms become more stable by
filling their outer energy levels. Covalent bonds also help atoms
fill their outer energy levels and become more stable.
Picture This
5.
Locate Circle the

electrons that could have
belonged only to the
hydrogen atoms before
they bonded with the
oxygen atom.
Reading Essentials
397
What are multiple bonds?

A covalent bond can have more than two shared electrons.
Look at the dot diagram of the two nitrogen atoms. Each
nitrogen atom has five electrons in its outer energy level. A
nitrogen atom needs to gain three electrons to have a stable
number of eight electrons in its outer energy level.
Picture This
6.

electrons that are being
shared in diagram of the
nitrogen molecule. Circle
the electrons that are not
being shared.
N N
When two nitrogen atoms combine, they share three

electrons with each other. The bond between the two atoms
has six electrons, or three pairs of electrons. Each electron
pair is a covalent bond. Three pairs of electrons form a triple
bond. By sharing the electrons, each nitrogen atom now has
eight electrons in its outer energy level. The symbol for the
nitrogen molecule is N2.
Molecules also can have double bonds. A double bond is
two pairs of electrons shared between two atoms. In the
carbon dioxide molecule, CO2, the carbon atom shares two
electrons with one oxygen atom and two electrons with the
other oxygen atom. In return, each oxygen atom shares two
electrons with the carbon atom. In this way, all three atoms
have eight electrons in their outer energy levels. This makes
all three atoms stable.
Covalent bonds form between nonmetals. Nonmetals are
found in the upper right-hand corner of the periodic table.
Many covalent compounds are liquids or gases at room
temperature. Recall that ionic compounds typically are solids
at room temperature.
Are electrons always shared equally?

Atoms in a covalent bond do not always share electrons
equally. The positive charge of an atoms nucleus attracts the
electrons in a bond. Some nuclei attract electrons more
strongly than others. If a shared electron is closer to one
nucleus in a bond, that nucleus could attract the electron
more strongly.
You can see this with a magnet and a piece of metal. When
the magnet is closer to the metal, it attracts the metal more
strongly. Some nuclei have a greater positive charge than
others. Nuclei with a greater positive charge attract electrons
more strongly. In the same way, a strong magnet holds the
metal more firmly than a weak magnet.
398
Can double bonds occur?
How can you picture the sharing of electrons?

Imagine a game of tug-of-war. A covalent bond is like the
rope in a game of tug-of-war. The shared electrons are like
the knot in the center of the rope. Look at the diagram of a
molecule of HCl (hydrochloric acid) below. Each atom in the
molecule of HCl is attracting the shared electrons. However,
the atoms are not the same size. Then what happens?
(partial negative
charge)
(partial positive
charge)
Picture This
7.
Label Draw an arrow

showing the pull of
electrons toward the
chlorine atom.
Cl
The chlorine atom pulls on the electrons more than the

hydrogen atom. The chlorine atom is like the stronger team in
tug-of-war. When one team is stronger, the knot in the middle
of the rope moves towards the stronger team. A similar thing
happens in the molecule. The shared electrons are held more
closely to the atom with the stronger pull.
What is an example of unequal

electron sharing?
The covalent bond in a molecule of hydrogen chloride,
HCL, is an example of unequal electron sharing. When HCl
mixes with water, it becomes hydrochloric acid. Hydrochloric
acid is used to clean metal in factories. It is also found in your
stomach where it helps digest food.
The chlorine atom attracts the electrons in the bond more
strongly than the hydrogen atom. That means the electrons in
the bond spend more time closer to the chlorine atom than to
the hydrogen atom. The chlorine atom has a partial negative
charge when the bonding electrons are closer to it. The
symbol for a partial negative charge is the lower case Greek
letter delta followed by a negative superscript, . The
hydrogen atom has a partial positive charge when the
bonding electrons are farther away from it. The symbol for
a partial positive charge is +.
8.
Apply Why does the

chlorine atom have a partial
negative charge in a
molecule of hydrogen
chloride?
Reading Essentials
399
What are polar and nonpolar molecules?

The figure shows the energy levels of a water molecule. The
oxygen atom forms a covalent bond with each hydrogen
atom. The oxygen atom has a stronger attraction for these
bonding electrons. Two electron pairs spend more time closer
to the oxygen atom than to the hydrogen atom. This gives the
oxygen atom a partial negative charge.

9.

parts of the water molecule
that have a slight positive
charge. Circle part that has
a slight negative charge.
H2O
Water
O
Because it has an end that is partially positive and an end

that is partially negative, water is a polar molecule. Polar
means having opposite ends. A polar molecule is a molecule
that has a slightly positive end and a slightly negative end, but
the molecule itself is neutral.
When two atoms that are exactly alike form a covalent
bond, they share electrons equally. In a nonpolar molecule,
the electrons are shared equally in the bond. A nonpolar
molecule does not have oppositely charged ends. Atoms of the
same element can form nonpolar molecules.
Properties of Compounds
10. Explain Although sugar

and salt look alike, why do
they have different effects
on the taste of food?
400
You have just learned about ionic bonds and covalent

bonds. A covalent compound is one whose atoms are held
together by covalent bonds. Sugar is a covalent compound.
An ionic compound is one that is held together by ionic
bonds. Table salt, NaCl, is an ionic compound.
From the way they look, you might think that sugar and
salt are similar compounds. They are both little white grains,
and they are both used in foods. They look like they might
have the same physical and chemical properties.
Both sugar and salt are used to change the taste of foods.
You add sugar to lemonade or tea to make them taste sweet.
Table salt is used to enhance the taste of foods such as meat
and vegetables. The reason sugar and salt have different effects
on the taste of foods is because they have different physical
and chemical properties.
Picture This
How are covalent and ionic compounds

different?
Ionic and covalent compounds have different physical and
chemical properties. These differences are due to differences
in the attractive forces of the bonds.
What are some properties of covalent

compounds?
Covalent bonds are strong, but the attraction between
individual molecules of a covalent compound is weak. These
weak forces between individual molecules are responsible for
the properties of covalent compounds.
For example, melting and boiling points of covalent
compounds are low, compared to those of ionic compounds.
Sugar will melt at 185 C, but table salt will melt at 801 C.
Covalent compounds form soft solids. They are poor
electrical and thermal conductors. They do not conduct heat
and electricity well.
11. Explain Describe the

strength of the forces
between covalent
molecules.
What are some properties of ionic compounds?

The ionic bonds between ions are relatively strong. This is
why ionic compounds like table salt have high melting
points. They also have relatively high boiling points. Ionic
compounds are hard and brittle solids. If ionic compounds
are dissolved in water, they become good conductors of
electric current.
Strong attractive forces hold the ions in place in an ionic
compound. Because of this strong attraction, ionic
compounds are stable. When ions are draw together, energy
is released. The table below shows some of the different
properties of covalent and ionic compounds.
Table 2 Comparison of Covalent and Ionic Compounds
Covalent Compounds
Ionic Compounds
Electron Sharing
Electron Transfer
Melting and Boiling

Points
Lower
Higher
Electrical
Conductivity
Poor
Good
State at Room
Temperature
Solid, liquid, or
gas
Solid
Forces Between
Particles
Strong bonds between

atoms; weak attraction
between molecules
Strong attraction
between positive and
negative ions
Bond Type
Picture This
12.

information in the table
that shows that sugar melts
at a lower temperature
than salt.
Reading Essentials
401
After You Read

Mini Glossary
chemical bond: the force that holds atoms together in a
molecule: the neutral particle that forms when atoms
compound
share electrons
covalent bond: the force of attraction between two atoms
nonpolar molecule: a molecule where the electrons are
that share electrons

ionic bond: the force of attraction between a positive ion and
a negative ion in an ionic compound
shared equally in the bond

polar molecule: a molecule that has a slightly positive end
and a slightly negative end, but the molecule itself
is neutral
1. Review the terms and definitions in the Mini Glossary. Choose two terms that are related
and write a sentence that uses those two terms.
2. Complete the outline to help you organize what you learned about chemical bonds.
Types of Bonds
I.
What is an ionic bond?

A. Forms between a positive and a negative ion
C. Usually forms between a metal and
D. Forms a(n)
compound
II. What is a covalent bond?

A.
B. Electrons are
C.
D. Forms a
3. You underlined every heading in the section that asks a question and then highlighted the
answers. How did this help you learn the content of this section?
End of
Section
402

games, and projects to help you learn more about types of bonds.
B. Electrons are
chapter
22
Chemical Bonds
3
section
Writing Formulas and Naming Compounds
Before You Read

Shakespeare asked, Whats in a name? In this section, you
are going to learn what the names of chemical compounds
can tell you. On the lines below, explain what your name tells
about you.
Read to Learn
Binary Ionic Compounds

Alchemists were early scientists who tried to turn lead into
gold. They never succeeded, but they did develop some
laboratory methods that scientists still use today. The
alchemists also used symbols to write formulas.
The first formulas you will learn to write are for binary ionic
compounds. A binary compound is a compound made of two
elements. An example of a binary compound is potassium
iodide, a compound added to table salt.
What Youll Learn
how to determine
oxidation numbers
how to write formulas
and names for ionic
compounds
how to write formulas
and names for covalent
compounds
Study Coach
Make a Quiz As you read

the text under each heading,
write a question that your
teacher might ask on a quiz.
Exchange your questions with
a partner and take each others
quizzes.
What are oxidation numbers?

Before you can write a correct formula of a compound,
you need to know which elements combine to make that
compound. All elements in a certain group of the periodic
table have the same number of electrons in their outer energy
levels. So, elements in the same group all gain or lose the
same number of electrons.
Metals always lose electrons, and nonmetals always gain
electrons when they form ions. The oxidation number of the
atom tells you how many electrons an atom gains, loses, or
shares to become stable. It is the same as the charge on the ion.
The charge on the ion in an ionic compound is the same as
its oxidation number. For example, a sodium ion has a charge of
1 and an oxidation number of 1. A chloride ion has a
charge of 1 and an oxidation number of 1.
C Build Vocabulary
Make two quarter-sheet

Foldables as shown below.
Record information about the
oxidation number of the
elements and rules for writing
formulas as you read.
Oxidation
Number:
Ionic
Compounds:
Reading Essentials
403
1
Hydrogen
Helium
1
H
2
3
4
3
2
1
2
He
Lithium
Beryllium
Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Neon
3
Li
4
Be
5
B
6
C
7
N
8
O
9
F
10
Ne
Aluminum
Silicon
Phosphorus
Sulfur
Chlorine
Argon
13
Al
14
Si
15
P
16
S
17
Cl
18
Ar
11
Na
12
Mg
Potassium
Calcium
19
K
20
Ca
Rubidium Strontium
Gallium Germanium
Arsenic
Selenium
Bromine
Krypton
31
Ga
32
Ge
33
As
34
Se
35
Br
36
Kr
Indium
Tin
Antimony
Tellurium
Iodine
Xenon
37
Rb
38
Sr
49
In
50
Sn
51
Sb
52
Te
53
I
54
Xe
Cesium
Barium
Thallium
Lead
Bismuth
Polonium
Astatine
Radon
55
Cs
56
Ba
81
Tl
82
Pb
83
Bi
84
Po
85
At
86
Rn
Francium
Radium
87
Fr
88
Ra
Picture This
1.

oxidation numbers on
the periodic table.
How are oxidation numbers related to the

periodic table?
Look at the periodic table above. Notice the numbers above
each column. These are the oxidation numbers for the
elements in the column. Notice how the oxidation numbers
fit with the periodic table groupings.
What are special ions?

Part of the periodic table is not included in the figure
above. Some elements in this section can have more than one
oxidation number. The table shows some of these elements
and their oxidation numbers. Because these elements can have
more than one oxidation number, you must include more
information when you name them. When naming these
compounds, the oxidation number is expressed in the name
as a roman numeral. For example, when iron with an
oxidation number of 3 combines with oxygen, the
compound they form is iron(III) oxide.
Special Ions
Picture This
2.
Compare Circle the

Roman numerals and the
oxidation numbers for each
element in the table.
404
Name
Oxidation
Number
Copper (I)
1+
Copper (II)
2+
Iron (II)
2+
Iron (III)
3+
Sodium Magnesium
How many positive and negative ions must

a formula have?
Remember that ionic compounds are neutral. The ions in
an ionic compound have charges, but the compound itself
does not. The formula for an ionic compound must have the
right number of positive and negative ions to make the
charges balance.
For example, sodium chloride has one sodium ion with a
charge of 1 and one chloride ion with a charge of 1. The
1 balances the 1. The correct formula for sodium chloride
is NaCl. The formula tells you that one positively charged ion
combines with one negatively charged ion and makes a
neutral compound.
What about the ionic compound calcium fluoride? A
calcium ion has a charge of 2+. A fluoride ion has a charge of
1. The charge 1 does not balance 2. You need to have two
fluoride ions for every calcium ion to balance the charges. The
formula for the neutral compound calcium fluoride, CaF2,
shows exactly that. There is one calcium ion and two fluoride
ions in the compound.
3.
Infer What does the

formula CaF2 tell you about
the compound?
How do you find the correct subscripts?

Sometimes you need to use math skills to write a formula
correctly. In the compound aluminum oxide, there are
aluminum ions and oxygen ions. But, how many of each one?
From the periodic table, you can get the information about
aluminum and oxygen that you need to write the formula.
By its place on the periodic table, you can tell that
aluminum has an oxidation number of 3. That means the
aluminum ion has a charge of 3. Oxygen has an oxidation
number of 2, so its ion has a charge of 2. You must find
the least common multiple of 3 and 2 to balance the charges.
The least common multiple of 3 and 2 is 6.
Multiply 3 by 2 to equal 6. You need two aluminum
ions to have a charge of 6. Multiply 2 by 3 to equal 6.
You need three oxygen ions to have a charge of 6. The
charges balance. The correct formula for the neutral
compound aluminum oxide is Al2O3.
How do you write the formula of an

ionic compound?
Applying Math
4.

least common multiple of
5 and 2?
You learned how to use the oxidation number to find the

charge on an ion. You also learned that the charges on the ions
must balance to form a neutral compound. Now you can write
formulas for ionic compounds. Follow rules 1, 2, and 3 on the
next page.
Reading Essentials
405
5.
Restate What will a

compound be when its
positive and negative
charges balance?
Now try these rules to write the formula for lithium nitride.
Lithium and nitrogen are the two atoms that make this
compound. Look at the periodic table. Lithium is in Group 1,
so it forms ions with a 1 charge. Write the symbol for
lithium, Li, first.
Find the oxidation number of nitrogen. Nitrogen is in
Group 15. It forms ions with a charge of 3. You now can
write LiN. Can you stop now? Look at the charges of the two
ions. Do 1 and 3 balance? No, you cannot stop yet.
Use the number of the charge of a nitrogen ion as the
subscript for Li. Use the number of the charge of a lithium
ion as the subscript for N. That gives Li3N. When an element
has no subscript, it means only one ion is in the compound.
Do 3(1) and 3 balance? Yes, this is the correct formula.
How do you name a binary ionic compound?

6.
Apply Write the formula

for calcium chloride. Use
the periodic table to
identify the positive and
negative ions.
406
When you know the formula, you can write the name of a
binary ionic compound by following these rules.
1. Write the name of the positive ion.
2. Look to see if the positive ion is listed in the Special Ions
table. If it is not in the table, go right to Step 3. If it is, the
ion can have more than one oxidation number. To find
the correct oxidation number, look at the formula of the
compound. The charge of the compound is always zero.
The negative ion can only have one possible charge. From
the table, pick the charge of the positive ion that balances
the negative charge. Write that positive ions symbol along
with the correct roman numeral in parentheses.
Writing Formulas You have learned how to find oxidation

numbers and their least common multiples. Now you can
write formulas for ionic compounds. What is the formula
for an ionic compound containing sodium and oxygen? Use
these rules to figure it out:
1. Write the symbol of the element that has the positive
oxidation number or charge. Sodium is a Group 1
element. It has an oxidation number of 1+.
2. Write the symbol of the element with the negative
oxidation number or charge. Except for hydrogen, all
nonmetals have negative oxidation numbers. Oxygen has
an oxidation number of 2.
3. The compound should be neutral. To make it neutral, the
positive charges have to balance the negative charges. It
takes two sodium ions to balance one oxygen ion. Thus,
the formula becomes Na2O.
3. Write the root name of the negative ion. The root is the first
part of the elements name. For example, the root name of
chlorine is chlor-. The root name of oxygen is ox-.
4. Add the ending -ide to the root name. For example,
write oxide.
Do not use subscripts in the name of an ionic compound.
Subscripts can be used in the formula to figure out the charge
on a metal ion with more than one positive charge.
7.
Determine What is the

root name of oxygen?
Table 4 Elements in Binary Compounds
Element
-ide
Name
Oxygen
Oxide
Phosphorus
Phosphide
Nitrogen
Nitride
Sulfur
Sulfide
How do you use these rules?

Use these rules to write the name of the compound CuCl.
Find the name of the positive ion on the periodic table. Cu is
the symbol for copper. Is copper in the Special Ions table? Yes,
the copper ion can have a 1 or a 2 charge. To find the
charge on the copper in CuCl, look at the negative ion. Cl is
the symbol for chlorine. Chlorine is in Group 17 of the
periodic table. That means it has an oxidation number of 1.
From the formula, you see there is only one chloride ion in
the compound. To balance a 1 charge on the chloride ion,
the copper ion must have a 1 charge. Now you can write
copper(I) as the first part of the name.
Write the root name of the negative ion. The root name
for chlorine is chlor-. Add -ide to the root. That gives you
chloride. The correct name of CuCl is copper(I) chloride.
Compounds with Polyatomic Ions

Not all ionic compounds are binary compounds. The
formula for baking soda used in cooking is NaHCO3. Baking
soda is an ionic compound that is not binary. Compounds
like baking soda are made of more than two elements. These
compounds have polyatomic ions. A polyatomic ion is a
charged group of atoms that are bonded together by a
covalent bond. The prefix poly- means many and polyatomic
means many atoms. The polyatomic ion in baking soda is
the bicarbonate or hydrogen carbonate ion. The symbol of
this polyatomic ion is HCO3.
8.
Apply Write the name of

the compound FeI2.
Reading Essentials
407
Polyatomic Ions
Picture This
9.
Explain Use the table to
Charge
Name
Formula
1
ammonium
NH4
1
acetate
chlorate
hydroxide
nitrate
C2H3O2
CIO3
OH
NO3
2
carbonate
sulfate
CO32
SO42
3
phosphate
PO43
determine what elements

make up acetate.
To write the name of a compound with a polyatomic ion,

first write the name of the positive ion. If the positive ion is
polyatomic, use the table above to find its name.
Next, write the name of the negative ion. Again, if it is
polyatomic, look up its name in the table. What is the name of
the compound K2SO4? K is the symbol of the positive ion. It is
not polyatomic. K is the symbol for potassium. The negative
ion is SO42. It is polyatomic. Use the table again. K2SO4 is
potassium sulfate.
Now try naming the compound Sr(OH)2. You can see that the
positive ion is not polyatomic. Find the name for the symbol Sr
on the periodic table. It is strontium. The negative ion is
polyatomic. From the table of polyatomic ions, you can see that
OH is named the hydroxide ion. The name of Sr(OH)2 is
strontium hydroxide.
Applying Math
10.
Determine How many

2+ ions does it take to
balance the charge on one
4 ion?
408
How do you write the formula of a

polyatomic compound?
To write the formula for a compound with a polyatomic ion,
use the rules for writing the formula of a binary compound, but
add one more thing. If you need to show more than one
polyatomic ion, put parentheses around the formula for the ion
before you write the subscript.
Write the formula for barium chlorate. First, write the symbol
of the positive ion. The symbol for barium is Ba. Barium is in
Group 2, so it forms a 2 ion.
How do you name a polyatomic compound?
Balancing Negative Charges Now write the formula for the

negative ion. The table shows you the formula for the
chlorate ion is ClO3. Are the charges on these two ions
balanced? No, 2 does not balance 1. It takes two chlorate
ions to balance the 2 charge on the barium ion. The
formula for barium chlorate is Ba(ClO3)2.
Compounds with Added Water

Some ionic compounds have water molecules as part of
their structure. A hydrate is a compound that has water
chemically attached to its ions and written into its formula.
The word hydrate comes from a word that means water.
What are common hydrates?

When a solution of cobalt chloride evaporates, pink crystals
form. The crystals have six water molecules for each unit
of cobalt chloride. The formula for this compound is
CoCl2 6H2O. The compounds name is cobalt chloride
hexahydrate. The prefix hexa- means six, so hexahydrate
means six waters.
You can remove water from these crystals by heating them.
The blue compound that results from heating contains no
water. It is called anhydrous, meaning without water. When
anhydrous CoCl2 is exposed to water, even water in the air, it
absorbs water and becomes pink again.
Plaster of paris becomes a hydrate when water is added. It
becomes calcium sulfate dihydrate, which is also known as
gypsum. The water added to the powder becomes part of the
compound.
11.
Analyze How many

water molecules does the
hydrate LiNO2 H2O have?
Formulas for Hydrates To write a formula for a hydrate,

first write the formula for the compound. Then place dot
followed by the number of water molecules. The dot stands
for the ratio of compound to water molecules. For example,
the formula for calcium sulfate dihydrate is CaSO42H2O,
a compound of calcium sulfate that contains two water
molecules.
Naming Binary Covalent Compounds

Covalent compounds form between elements that are
nonmetals. Some nonmetals can form many compounds. For
example, nitrogen and oxygen can form N2O, NO, NO2, and
N2O5. Using the rules you learned earlier, all these compounds
would be called nitrogen oxide. Now you will learn how to give
each of these compounds a different name.
12. Identify What is the

element N?
What is the compound NO?
Reading Essentials
409
How are prefixes used to name

covalent compounds?
The table below lists some Greek prefixes used to name
covalent compounds made with the same elements. These
prefixes tell how many atoms of each element are in a
compound. For example, the compound NO2 is nitrogen
dioxide. The prefix di- tells you that there are two oxygen
atoms in the compound. N2O is dinitrogen oxide. The
compound has two nitrogen atoms.
The name of the compound N2O5 is dinitrogen pentoxide.
This name uses two prefixes. There are two nitrogen atoms, so
use dinitrogen. There are also five oxygen atoms, which is called
pentoxide.
What rules apply in naming covalent compounds?
13.
Use Numbers What

does the prefix tetramean?
410
Prefixes for
Covalent Compounds
Number
of Atoms
Prefix
mono-
di-
tri-
tetra-
penta-
hexa-
hepta-
octa-
Picture This
Drop the last vowel of the prefix when the second element
of the compound begins with a vowel. In pentoxide, the a is
dropped from penta-.
There is a prefix to use when a compound has only one
atom of an element. The prefix is mono-. Many times monois not used. Instead, it is understood that if no prefix is used,
there is only one atom of that element in a compound. In
some cases, monois used for emphasis. Carbon monoxide is
one example.
After You Read

Mini Glossary
binary compound: a compound made of two elements
hydrate: a compound that has water chemically attached to its
ions and written into its formula
oxidation number: the number that tells how many

electrons an atom gains, loses, or shares to become stable
polyatomic ion: a charged group of atoms that are bonded
together by a covalent bond
1. Review the terms and definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence that explains in
your own words what a polyatomic ion is.
2. Complete the flow chart with the steps used in writing the name of a binary ionic
compound.
To write the name of a binary ionic compound
1.
2.
3.
4.
Visit gpescience.com to access your textbook, interactive games, and projects

to help you learn more about writing formulas and naming compounds.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
411
Chemical Reactions
23
Chemical Changes
1
section
What Youll Learn
how to identify the

reactants and products
in a chemical reaction
how a chemical reaction
follows the law of
conservation of mass
how chemical equations
show chemical changes
Study Coach

this section, write down the
headings that ask questions.
Write questions of your own
about the main ideas and the
vocabulary terms. After you read,
make your questions into a quiz.
Before You Read

Think about what happens when you bake a cake. On the
lines below, describe how the ingredients change form
throughout the process of baking a cake.
Read to Learn
Describing Chemical Reactions
Dark, mysterious mixtures react. Gases bubble up and
expand out of liquids. Powerful aromas move through the
air. You are in your kitchen baking a chocolate cake. Many
chemical reactions happen in the kitchen.
Chemical reactions take place all around you. They even
happen inside your body. A chemical reaction is a change
in which one or more substances are converted into new
substances. A reactant is one of the substances that react.
A product is one of the new substances that are produced.
How do chemical and nuclear reactions

compare?
A Ask Questions Make a
Foldable like the one shown.

As you read the section, answer
the questions about Antoine
Lavoisier and his experiments.
Who?
Antoine
Lavoisie
r
Wha
t?
412
n?
Whe
re?
Whe
CHAPTER 23 Chemical Reactions
When chemical reactions occur, new compounds form. They

form when chemical bonds between the atoms in reactants
break and new bonds form. Recall that chemical bonds form
when atoms share outer electrons or when electrons are
transferred from one atom to another. In chemical reactions,
only the outer electrons of atoms are involved.
The nucleus of an atom is not affected by a chemical
reaction. An atoms nucleus is changed only by a nuclear
decay or a nuclear reaction. Nuclear reactions include fission
and fusion. The energy released by nuclear reactions is millions
of times greater than the energy released by chemical reactions.
chapter
Conservation of Mass
By the 1770s, scientists were beginning to study chemical
reactions more carefully. The French chemist Antoine
Lavoisier discovered an important rule, that the total mass of
the products of a chemical reaction always equals the mass of
the reactants. This principle is called the conservation of mass.
The figures below show an experiment Lavoisier performed.
The mass of the candle and the air in the jar (the reactants)
before burning is the same as the mass of the gases and the
candle (the products) after burning.
Burning a candle inside a closed glass container stopped
any of the reactants or products from escaping. By using a
sealed container for his experiment, Lavoisier could accurately
measure the masses of both the reactants and the products.
Before
burning
After
burning
Picture This
1.
Compare How does the

height of the right side of
the scale in the first figure
compare to the height of
the right side of the scale in
the second figure?
Who was the father of modern chemistry?

Lavoisiers explanation of the law of conservation of mass
started modern science on its path. He was the first scientist
to describe a chemical reaction called combustion. You will
learn about combustion later in this chapter.
In addition, Lavoisier was a pioneer in the early study of the
chemistry of living things. He studied the processes of
respiration and metabolism. His experiments prepared the
way for advances in biochemistry, medicine, and sports
medicine, which is why Lavoisier is called the father of
modern chemistry.
Why are names important?

As Lavoisier and other scientists began to learn more about
chemistry, they saw they needed better ways to describe their
ideas. Lavoisier wanted to improve the way elements and
compounds were named. He knew that using the same names
for elements and compounds would help chemists
understand each other better. In 1787, Lavoisier and several
other scientists wrote the first logical instructions for naming
substances based on their composition.
2.
Draw Conclusions
Imagine that chemists did
not use the same rules to
name compounds. How
might this cause problems
for a chemist who tried to
repeat an experiment done
by the first chemist?
Reading Essentials
413
Picture This
3.
Compare Name
something in Lavoisiers
laboratory that you could
find in a present-day
laboratory.
What were Lavoisiers experiments?

Lavoisier wanted to know exactly what happened when
substances changed form. In his laboratory, shown above, he
experimented with mercury. He put solid mercury(II) oxide,
a red powder, in a sealed container. He found the mass of the
reactant in the container. When he heated the container, the
mercury(II) oxide changed to a silvery liquid. It also gave off
a gas. The silvery liquid was the metal mercury. He then
found the mass of the products in the container again. It was
the same as the mass before the experiment.
oxygen
0.7 g
plus
mercury
9.3 g
Lavoisier showed that the gas produced in the experiment,

oxygen, was a part of air. He did this by heating mercury
metal with air. He saw that some of the air combined with
mercury to make mercury(II) oxide. He studied the effect of
oxygen on living animals and on himself.
4.
Evaluate How useful is

the description of a chemical
reaction if some of the
important information is
missing?
A Principle Confirmed Lavoisier did hundreds of

experiments in his laboratory. He confirmed that in a
chemical reaction, matter is not created or destroyed, but is
conserved. This principle, known as the law of conservation
of mass, means that the total starting mass of the reactants
of a chemical reaction always equals the total final mass of
the products.
Writing Equations
It is important to include all the information when you
describe a chemical reaction. You need to know the reactants,
what was done with them, the reaction itself, and the
products. The full description of a reaction can be quite long
and complex. It may not explain the reaction clearly.
414
mercury(II) oxide
10.0 g
Shortcuts Scientists have a shortcut for describing chemical

reactions. A chemical equation is a way to describe a
chemical reaction using chemical formulas and other
symbols. Some symbols used for equations are in the table.
Picture This
5.
Summarize What
does the symbol (g) placed
next to a compound in a
chemical equation mean?
Why is it easier to use formulas?

Look at this complex description of a chemical reaction
involving two reactants in a solution:
Nickel(II) chloride, dissolved in water, plus sodium

hydroxide, dissolved in water, produces solid nickel(II)
hydroxide plus sodium chloride, dissolved in water.
If you use a chemical equation, the same description is
shorter and easier to understand as:
NiCl2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Ni(OH)2(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
On the left side of the equation are the reactants, nickel(II)
chloride and sodium hydroxide. One the right side of the
equation are the products, nickel(II) hydroxide and sodium
chloride. Notice the symbols in parenthesis after the formulas.
The symbols give information about the physical state of each
of the reactants and the products.
6.
Analyze In the chemical

equation, what do the
symbols (aq) and (s) mean?
Unit Managers
Look again at the chemical equation on the previous page.
What do the numbers to the left of NaOH and NaCl mean?
Remember the law of conservation of mass? Matter is not
made or lost in a chemical reaction. Atoms are rearranged,
but they are never created or destroyed. The numbers in the
equation are called coefficients. A coefficient shows the
number of units of a substance taking part in a reaction. You
can think of coefficients as unit managers.
Reading Essentials
415
7.
Evaluate Write the

number of pieces of each
ingredient needed for one
sandwich on the blanks
below.
Bread
Turkey
Cheese
Tomato
Lettuce
Using Coefficients Suppose you were going to make

sandwiches for a picnic. You know that each sandwich needs
two slices of bread, one slice of turkey, one slice of cheese,
two slices of tomato, and one leaf of lettuce. If you also
know how many sandwiches you need to make, you can
figure out how much bread, turkey, cheese, tomato, and
lettuce to buy so you do not have any food left over.
Making sandwiches is similar to a chemical reaction. The
ingredients for the sandwiches are the reactants. The finished
sandwiches are the products. The number of units of bread,
turkey, cheese, tomato, and lettuce are the coefficients of
the reactants. The number of finished sandwiches is the
coefficient of the product.
How do chemists use coefficients?

When chemists know the number of units of each reactant,
they are able to add the correct amounts of reactants needed
for a reaction. The units or coefficients will tell how much
product will form. For example, here is the chemical equation
from the example on the previous page.
NiCl2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Ni(OH)2(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
Picture This
8.
Observe What does the

2NaOH represent?
Na
Cl
Ni2
Cl
NiCl2
OH
OH
2NaOH
Na
Cl
Na
Cl
Ni2
Na
OH
OH
Ni(OH)2
2NaCl
What is the IUPAC?

Antoine Lavoisier and other chemists saw the main reason
for using a system of names. A system of names makes it
easier to share data. Since Lavoisier helped to make the first
system of names, the naming guidelines have evolved.
In 1919, the International Union of Applied Chemistry
(IUPAC) was formed. The main goal of the IUPAC is to guide
the naming of chemical compounds. The IUPAC has other
duties. It sets standards for methods in chemistry, evaluates
atomic weights, and oversees other areas of chemistry.
416
You can see that one unit of NiCl2 and two units of NaOH
produce one unit of Ni(OH)2 and two units of NaCl. The
figure below shows you how the coefficients affect the
number of molecules in the reaction.
After You Read

Mini Glossary
chemical equation: a way to describe a chemical reaction
product: a new substance that is produced in a chemical
using chemical formulas and other symbols

chemical reaction: a change in which one or more
substances are converted into new substances
reaction
reactant: a substance that reacts in a chemical reaction
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence describing a
chemical equation.
2. Complete the concept web by writing three ways that Antoine Lavoisier helped make
chemistry a modern science.
Lavoisiers
Contributions to
Chemistry
3. You created a quiz with questions about important topics from the section. Which
question was the hardest for you to answer? Why do you think this was?

and projects to help you learn more about chemical changes.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
417
Chemical Reactions
chapter
23
2
section
Chemical Equations
What Youll Learn
what a balanced
chemical equation is
how to write a balanced
chemical equation
Before You Read

Do you remember playing on a seesaw when you were
younger? What happened if the person on the other side was
much larger or much smaller than you?
Read to Learn
Study Coach
Outline As you read the
Balanced Equations
The equation below is for Lavoisiers mercury(II) oxide
reaction.
heat
HgO(s) Hg(l) + O2(g)

How many atoms of mercury (Hg) are on each side of the
equation? There is one mercury (Hg) atom on the reactant
side and one mercury (Hg) atom on the product side. How
many atoms of oxygen (O) are on each side? Notice that there
is one oxygen (O) atom on the reactant side, but the product
side has two oxygen (O) atoms.

about balanced chemical
equations.
1st
step
418
2nd
step
3rd
step
4th
step
Atoms
HgO
Hg
Hg
O2
1
2
Remember that according to the law of conservation of

mass, one oxygen atom cannot become two oxygen atoms.
You cannot rewrite HgO as HgO2. That would make the
number of oxygen atoms balance, but HgO and HgO2 are not
the same compound. The formulas in a chemical equation
must accurately represent the compounds that react.
section, create an outline of

what you read. Write down the
headings that you see in the
text. Under the headings,
include important information.
What does a balanced equation show?

A chemical equation must be balanced. Balancing only
changes the way a reaction is represented by a balanced
equation. It does not change what happens in the reaction.
To balance a chemical equation, change the coefficients. A
balanced chemical equation has the same number of atoms
of each element on each side of the equation. Practically,
balancing is done by comparing the number of atoms in the
products with the number of atoms in the reactants, for each
kind of atom.
How do you choose coefficients?
You often can find the coefficients to balance an equation

just by guessing and checking your guess. In the mercury(II)
oxide equation on the previous page, the number of
mercury atoms is balanced. However, there is one oxygen
atom on the left side of the equation and two oxygen atoms
on the right side. You need to balance the number of oxygen
atoms. Try putting a coefficient of 2 in front of HgO on the
left side of the equation. This balances the oxygen, but not
the mercury.
Atoms
2HgO
Hg
Hg
O2
1.
1
2
To balance the mercury atoms, put a 2 in front of the

mercury atom on the right side of the equation.
Atoms
2HgO
Hg
2Hg
Analyze Results Why

does putting a coefficient
of 2 in front of HgO on the
left side of the equation
balance the oxygen but
not the mercury?
O2
2
2
Now the equation is balanced.

2HgO 2Hg + O2
What are the steps for balancing an equation?

Magnesium burns with a very bright light. Have you ever
seen a flare burning at the scene of a traffic accident? The
flare probably was made of magnesium. When it burns, the
chemical reaction results in a white powder, magnesium
oxide. To write a balanced chemical equation for this reaction,
follow the steps described on the next page.
Reading Essentials
419
Applying Math
2.
Apply When lithium

metal is treated with water,
hydrogen gas and lithium
hydroxide are produced.
Balance the following
chemical equation that
shows this reaction.
Li(s) + H2O(g) LiOH(aq) +
H2(g)
Step 1 Write a chemical equation using formulas and

symbols. Remember that oxygen is a diatomic molecule,
which means that it consists of two oxygen atoms in a
covalent bond.
Mg(s) + O2(g) MgO(s)
Step 2 Count the atoms in the reactants and products.
Atoms
Mg
Mg
O2
MgO
1
The magnesium atoms are balanced, but the oxygen atoms

are not. So, the equation is not balanced.
Step 3 Choose coefficients to balance the equation.
Remember that you cannot change the subscripts of a formula
to balance the equation. Instead, try putting the coefficient 2 in
front of MgO.
Step 4 Check the number of atoms on each side of the

equation again. Now there are two magnesium atoms on the
right side of the equation and only one on the left. You need to
put the coefficient 2 in front of Mg to balance the equation.
2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)
Above is the balanced chemical equation for the burning of
magnesium. Now try one on your own. Balance the equation
for the following reaction:
Fe(s) + Cl2(g) FeCl3(s)
Applying Math
3.
Calculate What number

goes in each indicated
blank?
Fe
Fe
Cl
Cl2
FeCl3
1
Use the table to help count the atoms.

Write your answers for what goes in the indicated blanks in
the margin.
a.
b.
(a.)
c.
420
Atoms
Fe + (b.) Cl2 (c.) FeCl3
Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)
After You Read

Mini Glossary
balanced chemical equation: a chemical equation with
the same number of atoms of each element on both sides
1. Review the term and its definition in the Mini Glossary. Use the term in a sentence that
shows you understand what it means.
2. Complete the flow chart with the steps to balance a chemical equation.
Balancing a Chemical Equation
3. You made an outline of the section as you read it. How did this strategy help you learn the
material in the section?

and projects to help you learn more about chemical equations.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
421
Chemical Reactions
chapter
23
3
section
Classifying Chemical Reactions
What Youll Learn
what the five kinds of

chemical reactions are
what a redox reaction is
which metals replace
others in compounds
Before You Read

Why do you think there are different sections in your school
library to organize, or classify, the books?
Read to Learn
read this section, highlight the
headings that are questions in
one color. Then highlight the
answers to those questions in
another color.
Types of Reactions
You may have noticed there are all sorts of chemical
reactions. Millions of chemical reactions occur every day.
Scientists organize, or classify, reactions into five types
combustion, synthesis, decomposition, single displacement,
and double displacement. Organizing reactions in this way
helps scientists use the knowledge they gain, just as classifying
books in the library helps you use the books.
What are combustion reactions?
C Build Vocabulary Make

the following Foldable to help
you organize information about
chemical reactions. Label the tabs
as shown.
on
busti
Com
is
Synthes
position
Decom
Single
ent
isplacem
Double
ent
Displacem
422
When you see something burning, you are seeing a

combustion reaction. A combustion reaction occurs when
a substance reacts with oxygen to produce heat and light.
Combustion reactions produce one or more products that
contain the elements of the reactants. For example, carbon
reacts with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide. This reaction
describes what happens when coal burns.
Many combustion reactions also fit into other types of
reactions. For example, the reaction between carbon and
oxygen is a combustion reaction. It is also a synthesis reaction
because carbon dioxide is formed.
What are synthesis reactions?

In a synthesis reaction, two or more substances combine
to form another substance. The general formula for a
synthesis reaction is A + B AB. Substance A reacts with
substance B to form substance AB.
Find Main Ideas As you
Water Synthesis An example of a synthesis reaction is

hydrogen burning in oxygen to form water.
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(g)
This reaction is used to power some rockets, including the
main engines of a space shuttle. Have you ever seen a rusty
car or bike? The reaction that causes rust is a synthesis
reaction. When iron reacts with oxygen in the presence of
water, hydrated iron(II) oxide, or rust, is formed.
1.
Explain What type of

reaction is the formation
of rust?
What are decomposition reactions?

A decomposition reaction is the reverse of a synthesis
reaction. A decomposition reaction occurs when one
substance breaks down, or decomposes, into two or more
substances. The general formula for a decomposition reaction
is AB A + B. Most decomposition reactions use heat, light,
or electricity. For example, an electric current passed through
water produces hydrogen and oxygen. The chemical equation
and figure below show this.
elec.
2H2O(l) 2H2(g) + O2(g)

Test Tubes
Picture This
2.
Interpret Illustrations
Look at the coefficients
of the products in the
equation. Which test tube
has hydrogen in it, the left
one or the right one? How
do you know this?
Battery
Beaker
What are single-displacement reactions?

A single-displacement reaction happens when one element
replaces another element in a compound. The general formula
for a single-displacement reaction is A + BC AC + B. Atom
A displaces, or takes the place of, atom B. A new molecule, AC,
forms. A single-displacement reaction occurs when a copper
wire is put into a solution of silver nitrate. Copper is a more
active metal than silver, so it replaces the silver. A blue
copper(II) nitrate solution forms. The silver, which is not
soluble, forms on the wire.
Cu(s) + 2AgNO3(aq) Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2Ag(s)
Reading Essentials
423
What is the activity series?

You can predict which metal will replace another metal in
displacement reactions. The diagram lists metals by how
reactive they are. The most active metals are at the top of the
list. The least active metals are at the bottom. A metal can
replace any metal below it on the list, but not above it.
Notice that copper, silver, and gold are the least active
metals on the list. That is why these elements often occur in
relatively pure deposits. Gold is sometimes found in veins in
quartz rocks. Copper is sometimes found in pure lumps.
Picture This
3.
Order Write these

elements in order from
least active to most active:
lead, aluminum, copper,
silver, zinc.
Lithium
Potassium
Calcium
Sodium
Aluminum
Zinc
Iron
Tin
Lead
(Hydrogen)
Copper
Silver
Gold
MOST ACTIVE
LEAST ACTIVE
4.
Identify which type of

reaction causes a precipitate
to form.
In a double-displacement reaction, the positive ion of one

compound replaces the positive ion of the other compound
to form two new compounds. The general formula for a
double-displacement reaction is AB + CD AD + CB.
A double-displacement reaction takes place if a precipitate,
water, or gas forms when two ionic compounds in solution
are combined. A precipitate is an insoluble compound (one
that cannot be dissolved) that comes out of solution during
a double-displacement reaction.
Look at the following example of a double-displacement
reaction.
Ba(NO3)2(aq) + K2SO4(aq) BaSO4(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
The reactants are barium nitrate and potassium sulfate. Both
of these compounds are in solutions. The products are solid
barium sulfate, which is the precipitate, and potassium nitrate
in solution.
The chemical reactions you learned about in this section
are only a few examples. Thousands more reactions of each
type happen all around you.
424
What are double-displacement reactions?
What are oxidation-reduction reactions?
In many chemical reactions, substances gain or lose electrons.

Chemists use two terms to describe gaining or losing electrons.
Oxidation is a loss of electrons during a chemical reaction.
Reduction is a gain of electrons during a chemical reaction.
Chemical reactions involving electron transfer of this sort
often involve oxygen. Oxygen is very reactive. It often pulls
electrons from metals. Oxidation-reduction reactions cause
metals to corrode, or rust.
As is shown in the figure, oxygen combined with the element
iron in the metal of the car. This reaction produced a
compound called rust. Rust is much weaker than iron, so the
rusted pieces of metal fell apart.
During an oxidation-reduction reaction, one substance
gains electrons and another loses electrons. The substance that
gains electrons becomes more negative, so we say it is reduced.
Another substance loses electrons and becomes more positive.
We say it is oxidized.
Reduction and oxidation always happen together. That is
why these reactions are often called redox reactions. Redox
stands for reduction and oxidation.
5.
Draw Conclusions
Chlorine has seven electrons
in its outer energy level. In
reactions, chlorine usually
gains an electron. In a
redox reaction, would
chlorine be oxidized or
reduced? Explain.
Picture This
6.
Explain What has

happened to the electrons
in the metal of the car in
the figure?
Reading Essentials
425
After You Read

Mini Glossary
combustion reaction: a reaction in which a substance reacts
single-displacement reaction: a reaction in which one
with oxygen to produce heat and light

decomposition reaction: a reaction in which one substance
breaks down, or decomposes, into two or more substances
double-displacement reaction: a reaction in which the
positive ion of one compound replaces the positive ion of
the other compound to form two new compounds
element replaces another element in a compound

synthesis reaction: a reaction in which two or more
substances combine to form another substance
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Choose two terms that are
related and write a sentence using both of them.
2. Write the letter of the description in Column 2 that matches the reaction in Column 1.
Column 2
1. decomposition reaction
a. A + B AB
2. single-displacement reaction
b. AB + CD AD + CB
3. synthesis reaction
c. burning
4. combustion reaction
d. A + BC AC + B
5. double-displacement reaction
e. AB A + B
3. How did highlighting the questions and answers in different colors help you learn the
material in this section?
End of
Section
426

projects to help you learn more about classifying chemical reactions.
Column 1
chapter
23
Chemical Reactions
4
section
Reaction Rates and Energy
Before You Read

You have probably seen video of a building being demolished
by an explosion. Describe what happened on the lines below.
What Youll Learn
energy change sources

in chemical reactions
about exergonic and
endergonic reactions
how catalysts and
inhibitors are used
Read to Learn
Chemical Reactions and Energy

When they are no longer useful, buildings are sometimes
demolished with dynamite. A dynamite explosion is an
example of a rapid chemical reaction.
Most chemical reactions happen more slowly than a
dynamite explosion. All chemical reactions release or absorb
energy. The energy released in a chemical reaction can be in the
form of heat, light, sound, or electricity. Wood burns and
releases heat and light. A glow stick releases only light. A
flashlight battery releases electricity. Dynamite releases energy
as light, heat, and sound.
Underline As you read this

section, underline the
information you think is
important. When you finish
reading, look back at what
you underlined.
How is energy conserved during reactions?

The law of the conservation of energy states that energy
cannot be created or destroyed. Energy can only change form.
In compounds, chemical potential energy is stored in the
chemical bonds.
Energy is released in some chemical reactions. This
happens when chemical potential energy is changed into
other forms of energy. The other forms include light, heat,
sound, or electricity.
Energy is absorbed in some chemical reactions. This
happens when other forms of energy are changed into
chemical potential energy in chemical bonds.
In all chemical reactions, energy changes form, but it is
never created or destroyed. All reactions follow the laws of the
conservation of energy and mass.
D Make a Venn Diagram

compare and contrast exergonic
and endergonic reactions.
onic
Exerg on
ti
Reac
Both
Endergonic
Reaction
Reading Essentials
427
Activation Energy
1.
Explain What is the

minimun amount of energy
needed to start a reaction
called.
As you learned earlier, atoms and molecules have to bump

into each other before a product can be formed. In order for
new bonds to form, atoms must be close to each other. Also,
the reactants must have a certain amount of energy for the
reaction to start. The minimum amount of energy needed to
start a reaction is the activation energy. If there is not enough
energy, the reaction simply will not start.
For instance, spilled gasoline will not catch fire unless there
is an energy source to ignite it. Once it starts burning,
gasoline will release more than enough energy to keep the fire
going. Activation energy varies from reaction to reaction. It is
needed both for exothermic and endothermic reactions.
Endergonic Reactions
What is an endothermic reaction?

An endothermic (en duh THUR mihk) reaction absorbs
energy, usually as heat. When an endothermic reaction takes
place in a beaker, it can make the beaker feel cold. Physical
changes also can be endothermic. For example, when Epsom
salt dissolves in water, the water becomes cooler. When Epsom
salt dissolves, it is an endothermic physical change.
2.
Compare and
Contrast What is the
difference between an
endergonic reaction and an
endothermic reaction?
428
What drives endothermic reactions?

With an endothermic reaction, the chemical reaction will
not take place unless energy is supplied. A constant source of
energy must be supplied to keep the reaction going. The
products have more stored energy than the reactants.
For instance, the chemical reaction of carbon dioxide
(CO2) and nitrogen monoxide (NO) is endothermic. With an
endothermic reaction, the reactants have a lower energy level
than the products. Energy must supplied to give energy to the
products and to overcome the barrier of the activation energy.
An endergonic (en dur GAH nihk) reaction absorbs energy.

In an endergonic reaction, it takes more energy to break the
bonds in the reactants than is released when new bonds in the
products form. Endergonic reactions absorb energy such as
heat, light, or electricity.
Electricity is often used to supply energy to endergonic
reactions. Electricity supplies energy to a reaction that puts
a coat of metal onto a surface. This reaction is called
electroplating. Electricity also is used to supply energy to
separate aluminum metal from its ore.
Exergonic Reactions
An exergonic (ek sur GAH nihk) reaction releases energy. In
an exergonic reaction, less energy is needed to break the bonds
in the reactants than is released when new bonds form in the
products. Exergonic reactions give off energy, such as light or
heat. An exergonic reaction produces visible light in a glow stick.
What are exothermic reactions?

In some reactions, the energy is given off as heat. Have you
ever used a heat pack? Heat packs release energy as heat. An
exothermic (ek soh THUR mihk) reaction releases energy,
usually as heat. Burning wood and exploding dynamite are
examples of exothermic reactions. When iron combines with
oxygen and turns into rust, the reaction is also exothermic.
The chemical reaction that produces rust happens so slowly
that you cant detect the heat.
3.
Explain What do
burning wood and rusting
iron have in common?
How are exothermic reactions used?

Have you turned on a light or used a blow dryer today? The
energy you used probably came from exothermic reactions. The
power plant that the electricity came from probably uses fossil
fuels. Fossil fuels include coal, petroleum, and natural gas. The
carbon in the fossil fuels combines with oxygen to form carbon
dioxide gas and energy. This reaction is exothermic.
Other substances in fossil fuels also react. Often, the
products of these other reactions are pollutants. Sulfur in
fossil fuels reacts with oxygen to form sulfur dioxide, which
combines with water in the air to form acid rain.
Picture This
4.
Identify What type of

reactions provides the
energy for the items in the
figures?
When is energy released?

With an exothermic reaction, the chemical reaction releases
energy as heat. Energy does not have to be supplied constantly
to cause the reaction. The reactants have more stored energy
than the products.
For instance, the chemical reaction of carbon monoxide
(CO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is exothermic. The
reactants have a higher energy level than the products. Energy
is released constantly after the reaction begins. Activation
energy has to be supplied to start the reaction.
Reading Essentials
429
E Compare and

Foldable to help you understand
how catalysts and inhibitors are
similar and different.
Catalysts
Inhibitors
Atoms and molecules that are reactants have to collide in

order for chemical reactions to occur. The rate of reaction is
the rate at which reactants are changed into products. What
conditions control the reaction rate and how can the rate be
changed?
Temperature Raising the temperature makes atoms and
molecules move faster. That gives them more kinetic energy.
More atoms and molecules have enough energy to react.
Reactions usually go faster as the temperature goes up.
Concentration The closer atoms are to one another, the
greater the chance of collision. The amount of a substance
in a certain volume is called concentration. Increasing the
concentration increases the reaction rate.
Surface Area When something is split into pieces, it has
more surface area. The larger the surface area, the faster a
substance can react. A powdered substance will react faster
than a lump of it. Increasing the surface area speeds up the
reaction rate.
Agitation Stirring a mixture allows the reactants in it to
collide more often. Rapid stirring speeds up the reaction rate.
Slower stirring makes the reaction rate slower.
Pressure Increasing the pressure of gases reduces the space
in which the atoms or molecules can move. That means more
collisions can occur. The reaction rate goes faster when the
pressure rises. The rate slows when the pressure drops.
What are catalysts?

A catalyst (KA tuh lust) is a substance that speeds up a
chemical reaction without being permanently changed itself.
A chemist might add a catalyst to a reaction that would
be too slow to be useful. When a catalyst is added to a
reaction, the mass of the products does not change. A catalyst
lowers the energy of activation for a reaction. Collisions
among reactants become more effective. The reaction rate
increases.
What are inhibitors?

5.
Define What is an
inhibitor?
430
Sometimes, it is helpful to prevent or to slow down

chemical reactions. An inhibitor is a substance that slows
down a chemical reaction. Like catalysts, inhibitors do not
change the amount of product produced in a chemical
reaction. Food preservatives called BHT and BHA are
inhibitors. They slow down reactions and prevent foods,
such as cereals and crackers, from spoiling.
Chemical Reaction Rates
After You Read

Mini Glossary
activation energy: minimum amount of energy needed to
exothermic reaction: a reaction that releases energy,
start a reaction
catalyst: a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction
without being permanently changed itself
endothermic reaction: a reaction that absorbs energy,
usually as heat
usually as heat
inhibitor: a substance that slows down a chemical reaction
rate of reaction: the rate at which reactants are changed
into products
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence giving an
example of the type of reaction that can cause its container to get cold or even freeze water.
2. Complete the table. The first row gives examples of different kinds of reactions. Name the
type of reaction for each example. Then describe the reaction.
Example of
Reaction
Glow Stick
Type of reaction
Description of
the reaction
Dynamite
Exploding
Exergonic
reaction
Electroplating
Metals
Cold Pack
Endergonic
reaction
Release energy
in the form
of heat
3. What idea was the hardest for you to understand in this section? How would you explain
that idea to a friend?

projects to help you learn more about rates of reaction and energy.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
431
chapter
24
Solutions, Acids, and Bases
1
section
How Solutions Form

Before You Read
What Youll Learn
the parts of a solution

how things dissolve
the rate at which solids
and gases dissolve
Have you ever made a drink from a powdered mix? What

happened to the powder?
Read to Learn
Locate Information As
A Draw and Label Make
a half-sheet Foldable like the

one below. As you read, draw
three diagrams showing solute
and solvent molecules before
dissolving, during dissolving,
and after dissolving. Label your
drawings.
What is a solution?
Many people like to watch hummingbirds and put up
feeder bottles in their yards. They fill the feeders with a red
liquid made of water, sugar, and red food coloring. The
colored liquid attracts hummingbirds. To make this food, you
add sugar to water and stir. When you stir, the sugar crystals
disappear. Next, you add a few drops of red food coloring
and stir again. The red color spreads evenly. Why does this
happen?
The mix of sugar and red dye in water is a solution. A
solution is a mixture that has the same composition, color,
density, and taste spread evenly throughout it. You cannot
see the sugar crystals in the solution because they have broken
up into molecules. The food coloring also breaks up into
molecules. The sugar molecules and the food coloring
molecules mix evenly among the water molecules in the
solution, as the figure shows.
Dissolving:
432
CHAPTER 24 Solutions, Acids, and Bases
you read this section, highlight

the factors that affect how
quickly substances dissolve.
Solutes and Solvents

To describe a solution, you could say that one substance
dissolves in another. The solute is the substance that dissolves
in a solution. The solvent is the substance that does the
dissolving in a solution. In sugar-water, the sugar is the solute
and the water is the solvent. Sugar-water is an aqueous
solution. An aqueous (A kwee us) solution is any solution
in which water is the solvent.
What can dissolve in a liquid?
1.
Identify What is a
solvent?
In a solution made with a liquid and a solid, the solid is the

solute and the liquid is the solvent. In salt water, salt is the
solute and water is the solvent. Salt water is another aqueous
solution. Some solutions are made from a gas dissolved in a
liquid. In carbonated soda, carbon dioxide gas is dissolved in
water. The gas is the solute and the liquid is the solvent. Other
solutions have a liquid dissolved in another liquid, such as the
liquid food coloring in the hummingbird food. The solvent is
usually the liquid present in the larger amount.
Do all solutions contain a liquid?

Solutions also can be mixtures of gases or even mixtures of
solids. The air you breathe is a solution. Air is a solution of
78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, and small amounts of
other gases.
Some jewelry is made of mixtures of metals. Sterling silver
is a mixture of silver and copper. Mixtures of metals are solid
solutions. In a solid solution, one metal is the solute and the
other metal is the solvent. The two metals are melted together.
Solid solutions are known as alloys. Most of the coins you use
are made of alloys. Some musical instruments are made of an
alloy called brass. Brass is a solid solution of copper and tin.
The figure below shows atoms of copper and tin in a solid
solution of brass.
Picture This
2.
Observe Look at the

spacing of the atoms in the
solution on this page and
the solution on the first
page. Which is densest, a
solid solution or a liquid
solution?
Reading Essentials
433
How Substances Dissolve

Fruit drinks and sports drinks are examples of solutions
made by dissolving solids in liquids. Both contain sugar and
other substances that add color and flavor to the drink. You
know that sugar dissolves in water, but how does it happen?
A solid starts to dissolve at its surface. To understand how a
water solution forms, you need to remember two things you
have learned about water molecules. First, water molecules,
like all particles, are always moving. Second, water molecules
are polar. Polar means that they have a positive end and a
negative end. Sugar molecules are also polar.
Explain Where does a
solid start to dissolve?
How does a solid dissolve in a liquid?

The figures below show how sugar dissolves in water. In
the figure on the left, water molecules move toward a sugar
crystal. The positive ends of sugar molecules attract the
negative ends of water molecules.
In the middle figure, water molecules pull some of the
sugar molecules into solution. This process continues as layer
after layer of sugar molecules move away from the crystal. In
time, the sugar crystal dissolves completely.
The water molecules and sugar molecules spread out and
mix evenly. They are now a homogeneous solution. The word
homogeneous means that the solution is evenly mixed. The
figure on the right shows sugar molecules surrounded by
water molecules in a sugar-water solution. This process
happens whenever a liquid solvent dissolves a solid solute.
Sugar Dissolving in Water
Picture This
4.
Identify Circle a water

molecule in the first figure.
Mark the positive ends with
a plus sign and the negative
end with a minus sign.

How do liquid and gas solutions form?

Liquids and gases also can form solutions. Liquid and gas
particles form solutions in a way that is similar to sugar and
water. But, the process is more complex. Liquid particles and
gas particles move much faster than solid particles. The
movement separates the solute particles and mixes them
evenly in the solvent. The result is a homogeneous solution.
434
3.
How do solids dissolve in other solids?

You have learned that all particles move. The particles in a
solid do not move enough to spread out and mix evenly with
other solids. Solids must be melted into liquids and then
mixed together. In the liquid state, the atoms can move more
freely. They spread out and form a homogeneous solution.
The atoms stay in solution after cooling.
5.
Infer What must be done

to solids so they can be
mixed together?
Rate of Dissolving
Sometimes a solute dissolves quickly into a solvent. At
other times, it dissolves more slowly. Stirring or heating a
solution makes a solute dissolve faster. If the solute is a solid,
you can break it into smaller pieces.
Stirring Stirring a solution speeds up the dissolving process
by making the solvent and solute particles move faster. More
solvent particles come into contact with more solute
particles. The solid solute dissolves more quickly.
Crystal Size When you break a solid solute into smaller

pieces, you increase its surface area. Remember that the
dissolving process takes place at the surface of the solute.
More surface area means that more solute comes in contact
with the solvent. When the surface area of the solute
increases, the solute dissolves more quickly.
Temperature When you make hot chocolate from a mix,
you mix the powder into a hot liquid. The sugar in the mix
dissolves faster in a hot liquid solvent. Solvent particles
move faster when the temperature of the solvent increases.
Fast-moving solvent particles have more chances to come in
contact with solute particles. The more often solute and
solvent particles come in contact, the faster the solute
particles break loose and dissolve.
6.
Determine Why does

breaking up a solid solute
into smaller pieces speed
up the dissolving process?
Can these methods be combined?

If you use more than one of these methods at the same
time, you can speed up the dissolving process even more.
Suppose you place a sugar cube in cold water. The sugar
will dissolve eventually. If you heat the water, the sugar will
dissolve faster. If you heat the water and stir the solution, you
increase that rate even more. Finally, if you crush the sugar
cube, heat the water, and stir the solution, the sugar will
dissolve at the fastest rate. The rate of dissolving increases
with each additional method you use.
Reading Essentials
435
After You Read

Mini Glossary
aqueous solution: a solution in which water is the solvent
solute: the substance that is dissolved in a solution
solution: a mixture that has the same ingredients, color, and

density spread evenly throughout it
solvent: the substance that does the dissolving in a solution
1. Review the terms and definitions in the Mini Glossary. Select two terms and write
definitions of the terms in your own words.
2. Complete the outline to help you organize what you learned about solutions.
Solutions
I.
Solutions
A. A solution is
B. An example of a solution made with a liquid and a solid is
C. An example of a solution made with a liquid and a gas is
D. An example of a solution made with two solids is
II. Solutes and solvents

A. A solute is
B. A solvent is
III. How substances dissolve
A. Water molecules approach the solid solute.
B.
C.
IV. Rate of dissolving is affected by
A.
B.
C.

and projects to help you learn more about how solvents form.
436
End of
Section
chapter
24
2
section
Solubility and Concentration
Before You Read

The labels of some containers of fruit juices say, Not from
concentrate. What do you think this means?
What Youll Learn
what solubility is
about the concentration
of solutions
three types of solutions
factors that affect
solubility of gases
Read to Learn
Check for Understanding
How much can dissolve?
To make saltwater, you add a teaspoon of salt to water and

stir. The salt dissolves. If you keep adding salt to the water,
eventually no more salt will dissolve. You have modeled the
solubility of salt in a given amount of water. Solubility
(sahl yuh BIH luh tee) is the greatest amount of solute that
can dissolve in a specific amount of solvent at a given
temperature.

highlight any sentences that
you read more than once. After
you finish the section, go back
and read the highlighted
sentences again.
Are the solubilities of all substances the same?

You can dissolve more than 35 g of salt in 100 g of water at
20C. However, you can only dissolve about 10 g of baking
soda in 100 g water. Salt and baking soda have different
solubilities in water. The difference in the solubilities of
solutes depends on the nature of the solutes and the solvent.
Concentration
Suppose you and a friend are making lemonade. You add
one teaspoon of lemon juice to a glass of water. Your friend
adds four teaspoons of lemon juice to the same amount of
water. Your friends is more concentrated because it has more
solute dissolved in the solvent. Your lemonade is more
dilute because it has less solute dissolved in the solvent. The
concentration is a measure of how much solute is in a
solution compared to how much solvent there is.
B Classify Make a Foldable
like the one below. As you read

this section, take notes about
the different types of solutions.
Saturated
Unsaturated
Supersaturated
Reading Essentials
437
How much solute is in a concentrated solution?

Concentrated and dilute are not precise terms. However, the
concentration of solutions can be stated precisely. One way is
to state the concentration as a percentage by volume of the
solute. For example, the label on a bottle of orange-flavored
drink states that the drink contains 10 percent fruit juice. This
means that in 100 mL of the drink, there are 10 mL of juice.
Or, to make 100 mL of a 10 percent solution of orange drink,
the manufacturer added 10 mL of juice to 90 mL of water.
Commonly, fruit-flavored drinks have 10 percent or less fruit
juice. Generally, if two or more liquids are being mixed, the
concentration is given in percentage by volume.
Types of Solutions
Identify Which of the
following does not describe
a solution according to the
amount of solute
dissolved?
a.
b.
c.
d.
saturated
soluble
unsaturated
supersaturated
Different solutes have different solubilities. You can

describe three kinds of solutions based on the amount of a
solute that is dissolved in them. The three kinds are called
saturated, unsaturated, and supersaturated.
What is a saturated solution?

The table lists the solubilities of some compounds. They are
stated in 100 g of water at different temperatures. If you add
35 g of copper (II) sulfate, CuSO4, to 100 g of water at 20C,
only 32 g will dissolve. The solution is saturated. A saturated
solution is a mixture that contains all the solute it can hold at
a given temperature. If you raise the temperature of the mix,
more copper (II) sulfate can dissolve. As shown in the table
below, usually the solubility of solid solutes increases as the
temperature of the liquid solvent increases.
Solubility of Compounds
in g/100 g of Water
Applying Math
2.
Use a Table How many

grams of sugar are needed
to make a saturated
solution of sugar in 100 g of
water at 20C?
438
Compound
0C
20C
100C
Copper(II) sulfate
23.1
32.0
114
Potassium bromide
53.6
65.3
104
Potassium chloride
28.0
34.0
Potassium nitrate
13.9
31.6
245
Sodium chlorate
79.6
95.9
204
Sodium chloride
35.7
35.9
39.2
Sucrose (sugar)
179.2
203.9
487.2
56.3
1.
What is a solubility curve?

The graph shows some of the information from the table
on the previous page. Each line on the graph is a solubility
curve for a substance. You can use this graph to find how
much solute dissolves in 100 g of water at a given
temperature. To find how much sodium chloride, NaCl,
dissolves in 100 g of water at 50C, find 50C on the x-axis.
Trace a line upward from 50C to the curve for NaCl. Read
the amount shown on the y-axis at that point. About 35 g of
NaCl dissolves in 100 g of water at 50C. As the temperature
of the water increases, more solute can dissolve. This is true
for most liquid solvents and solid solutes.
Solubility (grams per 100 g of water)
Temperature Effects on Solubility

240
Potassium
nitrate
(KNO3)
200
160
120
80
40
0
Sodium
chlorate
(NaClO3)
Applying Math
3.
Use a Graph About

how much potassium
nitrate is needed to make a
saturated solution in 100 g
of water at 80C?
4.
Infer Would a solution
Potassium
bromide
(KBr)
Sodium chloride
(NaCl)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Temperature (C)
What is an unsaturated solution?

You learned that 32 g of copper (II) sulfate forms a saturated
solution with 100 g of water at 20C. What if a solution has
less than 32 g of copper (II) sulfate? Then the mix can hold
more of the solute. An unsaturated solution is a mixture that
can dissolve more solute at a given temperature. The term
unsaturated solution is not precise. You know exactly how
much copper (II) sulfate makes a saturated solution in 100 g
of water at 20C. An unsaturated solution can have any
amount of copper (II) sulfate less than 32 g in 100 g of water
at 20C.
How can a solution become supersaturated?

Suppose you make a saturated solution of potassium nitrate
(KNO3) with 100 g of water at 100C. You add 245 g of KNO3
to the water, just as the solubility table shows. You then let the
solution cool to 20C. What happens? Some of the KNO3
solute comes out of solution and falls to the bottom of the
container. You can see from the table that at 20C only 31.6 g
of KNO3 dissolves in 100 g of water. At the lower temperature,
the solvent cannot hold as much solute.
made of 30 g of copper (II)

sulfate dissolved in 100 g of
water at 20C be a saturated
or an unsaturated solution?
Reading Essentials
439
Explain Compared to a
saturated solution, the
supersaturated solution
contains what amount of
solvent? Circle the correct
answer.
a.
b.
c.
d.
the same
less
more
does not matter
When do solutions give off energy?

The supersaturated sodium acetate solution becomes hot as
sodium acetate forms crystals. Energy is given off as heat
when those crystals form. This fact has a practical use. Some
heat packs are filled with a supersaturated solution that gives
off heat as the solute crystallizes.
Some solutes take energy from their surroundings when
they dissolve. As a result, the temperature of the solution
drops. Ammonium nitrate is an example. A cold pack has
inner bags of water and ammonium nitrate. A solution forms
when the inner bags are broken. The ammonium nitrate
draws energy from the water as the solution forms. The water
temperature drops and the pack feels cool.
Solubility of Gases
6.
Draw Conclusions
How could you make the
bubbles come out of
solution before you drink
a soda?
440
Soda is a solution of carbon dioxide gas dissolved in

flavored water. When you shake an open bottle of soda, it
bubbles. Shaking or stirring a solution of a gas in a liquid
allows more gas molecules to reach the surface of the liquid,
where they escape from the liquid into the air.
What do pressure and temperature affect?

Increasing the pressure of a gas that is above a liquid forces
more gas to dissolve in the liquid. Soda is bottled under great
pressure, which increases the amount of gas that can dissolve
in the soda and also keeps the carbon dioxide gas in solution.
When you open a bottle of soda, the pressure is released and
bubbles of gas come out of solution.
Cooling a liquid increases the amount of gas that will
dissolve in it. This is the opposite of what you would do to
increase the speed when you dissolve most solids in a liquid.
Less gas can dissolve in warm liquids, which is why more
bubbles form in warm soda than in cold.
5.
Unstable Solutions Most saturated solutions act the same

way as the potassium nitrate mix when they are cooled. But
some solutions can hold more solute than seems possible. A
supersaturated solution is a mixture with more solute than a
saturated solution at the same temperature. Suppose you
cool a saturated solution of sodium acetate from 100C to
20C. No solute comes out of the solution. This solution is
supersaturated. A supersaturated solution is not stable. If
you drop a tiny crystal of sodium acetate in this solution,
crystals start to form. The extra sodium acetate comes out
of the solution and forms crystals.
After You Read

Mini Glossary
concentration: how much solute is in a solution compared to
how much solvent
saturated solution: a mixture that contains all the solute it

can hold at a given temperature
solubility: the greatest amount of solute that can dissolve in a
specific amount of solvent at a given temperature
supersaturated solution: a mixture that has more solute

than a saturated solution at the same temperature
unsaturated solution: a mixture that can dissolve more
solute at a given temperature
1. Review the terms and definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence using one of the
terms that describes a type of solution.
2. Complete the table below to help you organize the information you learned about solubility and types of solutions.
Type of Solution
How is it made?
Does it depend
on temperature?
Does it depend on
the amount of solute?
Saturated
Unsaturated
Supersaturated
3. As you read this section, you highlighted the sentences that you read more than once. How
could you use this strategy if you were studying with a friend?

projects to help you learn more about solubility and concentration.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
441
chapter
24
3
section
Acids, Bases, and Salts

Before You Read
What Youll Learn
to compare acids and

bases
to recognize common
acids and bases
how acids and bases
ionize and dissociate
Think of a food or drink you like that tastes sour. What do

you think gives it a sour taste?
Read to Learn
Underline As you read,
underline any words or
sentences you think might be
important to remember. When
you finish reading, look back at
what you underlined to make
sure you understand it.
Acids
What do you think about when you hear the word acid? Do
you think of a substance that can burn your skin or put a hole
in metal? Many sour foods contain acids. Some acids are
dangerous, others are safe, and some are good to eat.
C Compare and Contrast

help you understand acids and
bases.
Describe
Acids
Bases
442
Properties
Common
Examples
When an acid dissolves in water, some of the hydrogen

atoms in the acid are released as hydrogen ions, H+. An acid is
a substance that produces hydrogen ions, H+, in a water
solution. The ability to produce H+ ions gives acids their
common properties. When an acid dissolves in water, the H+
ions join with water molecules to form hydronium ions. A
hydronium ion (hi DROH nee um I ahn), H3O+, is a
combination of an H+ ion and a water molecule.
Acids have some common properties. All acids taste sour.
The familiar, sour taste of many foods, such as tomatoes and
oranges, is due to acids. However, you should never taste an
unknown substance to see if it is acidic. Some acids can cause
painful burns to skin.
Acids are corrosive, which means they eat away some
metals. When an acid reacts with a metal, hydrogen gas is
released and metallic compounds form. Acids also cause
indicators to change color. An indicator is an organic
compound that changes color in an acid or a base. Litmus
paper is an indicator that turns red in acid.
What are the properties of acids?
What are some common acids?

Many foods contain acids. Citrus fruits contain citric acid.
Lactic acid is found in yogurt and buttermilk. Pickled foods
contain vinegar, also known as acetic acid. Your stomach uses
acid to help digest food. At least four acids (sulfuric,
phosphoric, nitric, and hydrochloric) play roles in industrial
applications.
Some common acids and their uses are listed in the table
below. Many of these acids are important in making products
such as fertilizer. Remember that many acids can burn
your skin.
Common Acids and Their Uses
Name, Formula
Use
Other Information
Acetic acid, CH3COOH
Food preservation
and preparation
When in solution with water,

it is known as vinegar.
Acetylsalicylic acid,
HOOCC6H4OOCCH3
Pain relief, fever relief,

to reduce inflammation
Known as aspirin
Ascorbic acid, H2C6H6O6
Antioxidant, vitamin
Called vitamin C
Carbonic acid, H2CO3
Carbonated drinks
Involved in cave, stalactite, and

stalagmite formation and acid rain
Hydrochloric acid, HCl
Digestion as gastric juice in

stomach, to clean steel in a
process called pickling
Commonly called muriatic acid
Nitric acid, HNO3
To make fertilizers
Colorless, yet yellows when

exposed to light
Phosphoric acid, H3PO4
To make detergents,
fertilizers and soft drinks
Slightly sour but pleasant taste,

detergents containing phosphates
cause water pollution
Sulfuric acid, H2SO4
Car batteries, to manufacture

fertilizers and other chemicals
Dehydrating agent, causes burns by

removing water from cells
Picture This
1.

acids listed in the table.
What is the first element
in the chemical formula
of most acids?
2.

for a substance that can
form hydroxide ions or
accept hydrogren ions?
Bases
Bases can be defined in two ways. A base is any substance
that forms hydroxide ions, OH, in a water solution. A base is
also any substance that accepts H+ ions from acids.
Unlike acids, not many foods are bases. Egg whites and
baking powder are two foods that are basic. Some medicines,
such as antacids, are basic. A common base is soap. A
characteristic of bases is that they feel slippery, like soapy
water. Many cleaning products contain bases. Bases are
important in industry, also. For example, sodium hydroxide is
a base that is used in the paper industry. It separates cellulose
fibers from wood pulp. Then the cellulose fibers are used to
make paper.
Reading Essentials
443
What are the properties of bases?

Bases are considered the opposites of acids. While bases and
acids do share some features, bases also have their own
properties. When they are not dissolved in water, many bases
are solids in the form of crystals. In solution, bases feel
slippery and taste bitter. Like strong acids, strong bases are
corrosive. Bases can burn your skin. Never taste or touch a
substance to see if it is basic. Bases also cause indicators to
change color. Litmus paper is an indicator that turns blue in
bases.
What are some common bases?

The table below lists some common bases and their uses.
You may have used many common bases found in cleaning
products and not even known it.
Picture This
Name, Formula
Use
Other Information
bases listed in the table.

What atoms do most of the
bases have in their
chemical formulas?
Aluminum
hydroxide,
Al(OH)3
Color-fast fabrics,
antacid, water
purification
Sticky gel that collects

suspended clay and dirt
particles on its surface
Calcium hydroxide, Leather-making,

Ca(OH)2
mortar and plaster,
lessen acidity of soil
Called caustic lime
Laxative, antacid
Magnesium
hydroxide, Mg(OH)2
Called milk of magnesia

when in water
Called lye and caustic soda;

Sodium hydroxide, To make soap, oven
cleaner, drain cleaner, generates heat (exothermic)
NaOH
textiles, and paper
when combined with water,
reacts with metals to form
hydrogen
Ammonia, NH3
Cleaners, fertilizer, to Irritating odor that is

make rayon and nylon damaging to nasal
passages and lungs
Solutions of Acids and Bases

Many food products and cleaning products that contain
acids and bases are solutions. Water is the main solvent for
these solutions because water molecules have polarity.
4.
Explain Why is water the

main solvent for acidic and
basic solutions?
444
What happens when acids dissolve in water?

Remember that an acid produces hydrogen ions (H+) in
water. When an acid dissolves in water, the negative ends of
nearby water molecules attract the positive hydrogen in the
acid. The acid separates into ions, which is called dissociation.
After dissociation, there are negative ions and positive H+ ions.
The H+ ions join with water molecules to form hydronium
ions (H3O+). So, an acid gives off hydronium ions when it
dissolves in water. The figures on the next page shows hydrogen
chloride (HCl) splitting into hydronium and chloride ions.
3.
Common Bases and Their Uses
Picture This
Hydrochloric Acid in Water

HCl H2O
H3O
Cl
Cl
Identify When HCl

dissociates, what ions does
it produce?
6.
Determine Why is
5.
Cl
What happens when bases dissolve in water?

Bases form hydroxide ions (OH) in water. In the table of
bases on the previous page, you may have noticed that most
bases have OH in their formulas. When bases dissolve in
water, the positive ends of nearby water molecules attract the
OH ions in the base. The base dissociates. After dissociation,
there are positive ions and negative OH ions. Unlike acid
dissociation, the OH ions do not combine with water
molecules. The figure shows the dissociation of sodium
hydroxide (NaOH).
Sodium Hydroxide in Water
NaOH H2O
Na OH H2O

Na
H
O
NaOH
Na
O
H2O
Na
H
OH
H
O
O
H2O
Neutralization
Neutralization is a chemical reaction between an acid and a
base that happens in a water solution. The products of the
reaction are not acids or bases. One of the products is always
water. For instance, the base sodium hydroxide, NaOH,
neutralizes hydrochloric acid, HCl. Hydronium ions from the
acid combine with hydroxide ions from the base. The product
is neutral water.
water always the product

of neutralization?
H3O+(aq) OH 2H2O(l )
Antacids are popular medicines. They contain bases or
other compounds that neutralize the acids in your stomach.
One of these popular antacids is sodium bicarbonate,
NaHCO3.
Reading Essentials
445
How do acid-base reaction equations look?

A general equation shows acid-base reactions in water.
acid base salt water
The complete equation for the reaction between HCl and
NaOH is this.
HCl(aq) NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) H2O(l )
How is salt formed?

As shown in the equation above, NaOH is neutralizing
HCl. But only half of the ions are shown in the equation. The
other ions react to form a salt. A salt is a compound formed
when the negative ions from an acid combine with the
positive ions from a base. When HCl reacts with NaOH, the
salt formed is sodium chloride.
Na(aq) Cl(aq) NaCl(aq)
Ammonia, NH3, is a base that does not contain OH. In

water, ammonia actually splits water molecules. An ammonia
molecule attracts a hydrogen ion from a water molecule to
form an ammonium ion, NH4+. The water molecule is now a
hydroxide ion, OH.
Ammonia is found in many household cleaners. Never
use products containing ammonia with other cleaners that
contain chlorine (often sodium hypochlorite). Cleaners
with chlorine include bathroom bowl cleaners and bleach.
Ammonia reacts with the chlorine and gives off toxic gases.
The gases can severely damage lungs and cause death.
Some Common Salts and Their Uses
Name, Formula
Picture This
7.
Uses
Sodium chloride, NaCl
Salt
Food, manufacture
of chemicals
Sodium hydrogen
carbonate, NaHCO3
Sodium bicarbonate
Baking soda
Food, antacids
Potassium nitrate, KNO3
Saltpeter
Fertilizers
Ammonium chloride, NH4Cl
Sal ammoniac
Dry-cell batteries
Circle the salts that are

used in foods.
446
Common Name
How is ammonia unlike other bases?
After You Read

Mini Glossary
acid: a substance that produces hydrogen ions, H+, in a water
solution
base: any substance that forms hydroxide ions, OH, in a water
solution or a substance that accepts H+ ions from acids
indicator: an organic compound that changes color in an acid

or a base
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence using the
term for the substance that makes many foods taste sour.
2. Fill in the Venn diagram with properties of acids and bases. Be sure to put any properties
that acids and bases have in common in the part where the ovals overlap.
Acids
Form
in water
Taste
Turn litmus
Bases
ions
Cause
Form
ions in water
Taste
Turn litmus
Feel
3. You underlined words and sentences in this section that you thought would be important
to remember. How did this help you learn about the topics in the section?

projects to help you learn more about acids, bases, and salts.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
447
24
4
section
Strength of Acids and Bases

Before You Read
What Youll Learn
what makes acids and

bases strong or weak
to compare strength
and concentration
about pH and acid or
base strength
Describe the difference between a food that is very sour and a

food that is just a little sour.
Read to Learn
Study Coach

Write down the main point of
each paragraph as you read this
section. After you read, look
over the main points to make
sure you understand them.
D Compare and Contrast

understand how the strength
and concentration of acids and
bases are the same and
different.
Strength:
Strong and Weak Acids and Bases

Some acids, such as the sulfuric acid in car batteries, can
burn your skin. Some acids are stronger than others. The
strength of an acid or a base depends on how many acid
molecules dissociate into ions in water. A strong acid is one
in which almost all the acid molecules dissociate in water.
Hydrochloric acid (HCl), nitric acid (HNO3), and sulfuric
acid (H2SO4), are examples of strong acids. A weak acid is
one in which only a small number of the acid molecules
dissociate in water. Acetic acid (CH3COOH) and carbonic
acid (H2CO3) are weak acids.
Ions in solution can conduct electric current. Acids and
bases can carry an electric current because they dissociate
into ions. The more ions in a solution, the more electric
current the solution can conduct. Strong acids have many
ions in solution, so they conduct current well. Weak acids
have few ions in solution and do not conduct current as well.
What are equations for acid dissociation?

A chemical equation shows the substances that react and
the substances that form in a reaction. An arrow points from
the reactants to the products. An equation for the dissociation
of a strong acid uses a single arrow that points toward the
ions that form.
Concentration:
HCl(g) H2O(l ) H3O(aq) Cl(aq)
448
chapter
Weak Acids In weak acids, such as acetic acid (CH2COOH),

just some of the acid dissociates. An equation for the
dissociation of a weak acid uses double arrows pointing in
opposite directions. The arrows show that not all of the acid
dissociates.
CH3COOH(l ) H2O(l ) H3O(aq) CH3COO(aq)
What are strong and weak bases?

A strong base is one that dissociates completely in solution.
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is an example of a strong base.
An equation for the dissociation of a strong base uses a single
narrow pointing toward the ions that form.
NaOH(s) H2O (l) Na+(aq) OH(aq)
A weak base is one that does not dissociate completely in
solution. Ammonia (NH3) is a weak base. An equation for the
dissociation of a weak base uses double arrows pointing in
opposite directions.
1.
Identify Circle the

phrase that is true for a
weak base in a solution.
a.
b.
c.
d.
NH3 (aq) H2O NH4 (aq) OH(aq)
dissociates completely
partly dissociates
forms an acid
does not dissolve much
The words strong and weak refer to how easy it is for the
acid or base to dissociate in solution. Strong acids and bases
dissociate completely. Weak acids and bases dissociate only
partially. The words dilute and concentrated tell how much
acid or base is dissolved in the solution. A dilute solution
means there is a small amount of acid or base in the solution.
A concentrated solution means there is a large amount of acid
or base in the solution.
You can have dilute solutions of strong acids and bases. You
also can have concentrated solutions of weak acids and bases.
The figure below, at left, shows a dilute solution of a strong
acid. The figure below, at right, shows a concentrated solution
of a weak acid. Notice which acid is more dissociated.
Chloride
ion
Acetic
acid
2.
Describe In the figure,

the solution of acetic acid is
more concentrated than
the solution of hydrochloric
acid. Does this mean acetic
acid is stronger than
hydrochloric acid? Explain.
Acetate
ion
Hydronium
ion
Hydronium
ion
Picture This
How are strength and concentration described?
Reading Essentials
449
Vinegar
Picture This
3.
Gastric contents
Egg white
Milk
Tomatoes
Baking
soda
Analyze Which
substance is more basic:
baking soda or milk of
magnesia? Which
substance is more acidic:
soft drinks or tomatoes?
Soft drinks
Blood plasma
Ammonia
10
11
12
Drain cleaner
13
14
Milk of
magnesia
If you have a swimming pool or keep tropical fish, you

know that the pH of the water must be kept at certain levels.
The pH of a solution is a measure of the concentration of H+
ions in the solution. The pH of a solution is measured on a
scale ranging from 0 to 14. The greater the concentration of
H+ ions is, the lower the pH and the more acidic the solution.
The figure shows a pH scale and the pH of some common
acid and base substances. Solutions with a pH lower than 7
are acidic. Solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic. The
greater the pH value, the more basic the solution is. A
solution with a pH of 7 is neutral. In a neutral solution, the
concentrations of H+ and OH ions are equal. Pure water at
25C has a pH of 7.
You can measure pH with universal indicator paper. The
paper changes color when H3O+ or OH ions are present in
solution. The color of the paper is then compared to colors in
a chart to find the pH. You also can find pH with an
electronic pH meter. The meter has electrodes that measure
the pH when they are placed in a solution.
Blood pH
4.

compounds called that
allow you to eat acidic
foods without causing a pH
change in your blood?
450
The pH of your blood must remain between 7.0 and 7.8. If

your blood pH goes outside of this range, enzymes do not
work. Enzymes are protein molecules that act as catalysts for
many of your bodys reactions. Why doesnt your blood pH
change when you eat acidic foods? Your blood contains
compounds called buffers that allow small amounts of acids
or bases to be absorbed without changing the pH.
Buffers are solutions containing ions that react with
additional acids or bases to decrease their effects on pH. The
buffers help your blood stay at an almost constant pH of 7.4.
One buffer system in the blood involves bicarbonate ions,
HCO3-. Even small amounts of concentrated acids will not
change the pH much.
Solution pH
After You Read

Mini Glossary
pH: a measure of the concentration of H+ ions in a solution
strong acid: an acid in which almost all the acid molecules
dissociate in water
strong base: a base that dissociates completely in solution
weak acid: an acid in which only a small number of the acid

molecules dissociate in water
weak base: a base that does not dissociate completely in
solution
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Choose two related terms and
use them together in a sentence.
2. Complete the table to describe acids and bases.
Understanding Acids and Bases

Property
Description
Strength
Strong acids and bases almost completely dissociate in solution.

Weak acids and bases
Concentration
Concentrated acids and bases

Dilute acids and bases have few particles in solution.
pH
Acids have a pH lower than 7.

Bases have a pH
3. As you read this section, you wrote down the main points of the section. How did these
help you understand the section better?

projects to help you learn more about the strength of acids and bases.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
451
Nuclear
Changes
25
chapter
Radioactivity
What Youll Learn
what particles make up

an atom and its nucleus
how the nucleus is held
together
what radioactivity is
Study Coach
Make Flash Cards Make

flash cards of important terms
you read about in this section.
Write the term on one side of a
flash card and its definition on
the other side. Keep reviewing
the flash cards until you know all
the terms and their definitions.
Before You Read

Have you ever heard of an object, such as chair, being
described as unstable? In the space below, give examples of an
object that is unstable and an object that is stable.
Read to Learn
The Nucleus
Even though you may not know it, particles are constantly
hitting you. Most of these particles are from stable atoms.
But some of these particles are from unstable atoms in soil,
rocks, and the air. Which atoms are unstable? What particles
do they emit, or give off? The answers to these questions
begin with the nucleus of an atom.
What are protons and neutrons?
1.

charge does an electron
have?
452
CHAPTER 25 Nuclear Changes
Recall that an atom is made up of very small particles. The

particles are protons, neutrons, and electrons. The protons and
neutrons are located in the nucleus at the center of an atom.
Protons are positively charged particles. Neutrons have no
electric charge. Neutrons are electrically neutral. Since the
nucleus contains positively charged protons, it has a
positive charge. Each proton has one positive electrical charge,
or 1. The total amount of positive charge in a nucleus is
equal to the number of protons that the nucleus has. The
number of protons in a nucleus is called its atomic number.
Atoms usually contain the same number of protons as
electrons. Electrons have a negative charge. Electrons are
attracted to the positively charged nucleus. This electric
attraction pulls the electrons close to the nucleus.
1
section
Is the nucleus the largest part of an atom?

Protons and neutrons are packed together tightly in the
nucleus of an atom. The particles in the nucleus are so close
that the nucleus takes up only a tiny part of an atom. The part
outside the nucleus in which the electrons are located is much
larger than the nucleus. Think of an atom as a football
stadium. Its nucleus would be the size of a marble. Although
the nucleus takes up very little space, it contains almost all the
mass of an atom.

a Foldable like the one shown
write down main ideas about
the strong force.
The Strong
Force
The Strong Force
Particles with the same charges repel, or push away from,

each other. Why dont the positively charged protons in the
nucleus repel each other? Another force holds the particles of
the nucleus together. The strong force is the force that makes
protons and neutrons attract each other and stay together.
The strong force is one of the four basic forces in nature. The
strong force is 100 times stronger than the electric force, but it
only works when particles are close together. The figure below
shows the strong force and the electric force. The two particles
on the left are close, like the protons and neutrons in a nucleus,
so the strong force is working. But the particles on the right are
farther apart. So the strong force weakens, and the electric force
takes over. So when protons are far apart, they are repelled by
the electric force.
Picture This
Strong force
No strong force
Electric force
Electric force
Total force
Total force
2.
Illustrations In the
figure, circle the example
showing that the strong
force is greater than the
electric force.
How do forces work in a small nucleus?

Not all nuclei (singular, nucleus) are the same size. Small
nuclei have only a few protons and neutrons. The strong force
holding the particles together is greater than the electric force
that is pushing the particles apart. As a result, the protons and
neutrons are held tightly together.
Reading Essentials
453
How do forces work in a large nucleus?
3.
Describe Name the

force that causes protons to
push away from each other.
Even though there are more particles in a large nucleus

than in a small nucleus, the strong force in a large nucleus is
about the same strength as the strong force in a small nucleus.
The strong force holds together particles that are closest
together. In a nucleus with many protons, the electric force
repels protons that are far apart.
The diagram below shows how the electric force that pushes
the protons apart is greater in a large nucleus than in a small
nucleus. The increased repulsive force causes the particles in
a large nucleus to be held together less tightly than those in a
small nucleus.
Strong force
Total force
Electric force
Strong force
Electric force
Picture This
4.
Identify Circle the

nucleus that has the largest
repulsive force.
Radioactivity
When the strong force can hold a nucleus together forever,
the nucleus is stable. If the strong force is not large enough to
hold the nucleus together, the nucleus becomes unstable and
can break apart or decay. When a nucleus decays, it emits
particles and energy. Radioactivity is the process of a nucleus
decaying and emitting particles and energy. Large nuclei are
more unstable than small nuclei. All nuclei with more than
83 protons are radioactive. Some smaller nuclei are also
radioactive. Even a nucleus with only one proton could be
radioactive.
454
Total force
What is produced when a nucleus decays?

When an unstable nucleus decays, energy is emitted. If
energy is conserved and cannot be created or destroyed,
where does this energy come from? Recall that in nuclear
reactions, mass can be converted, or changed, into energy. As
an unstable nucleus decays, a small amount of mass is
converted into energy. As a result, the mass of the initial
nucleus is slightly larger than the mass of the final nucleus
plus the mass of any particles that are emitted. A large
amount of energy is produced by the conversion of only a
small amount of mass.
5.
What are isotopes?

Look at the two helium nuclei in the figure below. How are
they different? They both have two protons, but the one on
the right has one more neutron. All atoms of the same
element have the same number of protons in the nucleus.
However, all the atoms of the same element do not always
have exactly the same number of neutrons. Isotopes are atoms
of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons.
The atoms of all isotopes of the same element do have the
same number of protons and electrons and the same chemical
properties.
Picture This
6.
Explain What is emitted

from a decaying nucleus?
Compare and
Contrast How are the
two helium isotopes
different?
Helium-3
Helium-4
How is a nucleus numbered?

You can describe a nucleus using its atomic number. The
atomic number of an atom is the number of protons in the
nucleus. You can also describe a nucleus using its atomic
mass. The nucleus contains almost all the mass of an atom, so
the mass number of an atom is the number of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus.
Look at the diagram of helium-3 above. Its mass number is
3 because it contains a total of three protons and neutrons.
But its atomic number is 2 because it contains two protons.
Look at the diagram of helium-4 above. Its mass number is 4
because it contains a total of four protons and neutrons.
However, the atomic number is 2 because the helium nucleus
contains two protons.
Reading Essentials
455
How can you relate an atoms information to

radioactivity?
The symbol below stands for the stable isotope of carbon.
mass number 12
atomic number 6 C element symbol
7.
Calculate How many

neutrons are there in the
isotope of hydrogen
shown below?
3
1H
mass number 14
atomic number 6 C element symbol
The name of this isotope is carbon-14. The mass number
tells you it has a total of 14 neutrons and protons in its nucleus.
The atomic number tells you that carbon-14 has six protons.
If you subtract the atomic number (6) from the mass number
(14) you find that carbon-14 has eight neutrons in its nucleus.
The ratio of neutrons to protons is 8 to 6, which is not a 1-to-1
ratio, so this isotope is unstable, or radioactive.
Who discovered radioactivity?
8.
Recall Who discovered

the elements polonium
and radium?
456
In 1896, Henri Becquerel made an interesting discovery.

He left uranium salt in a drawer with a photographic plate.
When he developed the plate, he saw an outline of the
uranium salt on it. Becquerel realized that the uranium must
have given off rays, or radiation, that darkened the film.
Two years after Henri Becquerels discovery of radioactivity,
there was another important discovery. Marie and Pierre
Curie discovered two new elements. The elements are
polonium and radium. Both new elements were radioactive.
Marie and Pierre Curie wanted to get a large sample of
radium so they could study it. It took them more than three
years to obtain about 0.1 g of radium from several tons of
the mineral pitchblende.
Applying Math
The symbol for carbon is C. The name for this isotope is

carbon-12. It is named for its mass number, or the total
number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. The atomic
number tells you there are six protons in the nucleus.
How many neutrons are in C-12? If you subtract the
atomic number from the mass number, you get the number
of neutrons in the nucleus. In an atom of carbon-12, there
are six neutrons because 12 6 6. Because the ratio of
neutrons to protons is 6 to 6, or 1 to 1, this isotope is stable.
Now look at the symbol for a radioactive isotope of carbon.
After You Read

Mini Glossary
radioactivity: the process of a nucleus decaying and emitting
particles and energy
strong force: the force that makes protons and neutrons in

the nucleus attract each other and stay together
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence on the lines
below that shows your understanding of the term radioactivity.
2. Complete the table below to organize information about stable and unstable nuclei.
Type of Nucleus
Comparison of
Strong Force v.
Electric Force
Radioactive?
Example
Stable
Unstable
3. Think about what you have learned. How did making flash cards of important terms help
you learn the content?

End of
Section
Reading Essentials
457
Nuclear
Changes
25
chapter
2
section
Nuclear Decay
What Youll Learn
how alpha, beta, and

gamma radiation are
similar and different
what the half-life of a
radioactive material is
how radioactive dating
is used
Before You Read

When you read the word radiation, what do you think of?
Brainstorm some words or phrases that come to mind and
write them on the lines below.
Read to Learn
Identify the Main Idea
Nuclear Radiation
When an unstable nucleus decays, it breaks apart. As it
decays, the nucleus emits particles and energy called nuclear
radiation. The three types of nuclear radiation are alpha, beta
(BAY tuh), and gamma radiation. Alpha and beta radiation
are particles. Gamma radiation is an electromagnetic wave.
Alpha Particles
B Compare and
Contrast Make a Foldable like

the one shown below. As you
read this section, take notes on
how alpha, beta, and gamma
radiation are similar and how
they are different.
A
l
p
h
a
458
B
e
t
a
G
a
m
m
a
An alpha particle is made of two protons and two neutrons.

During alpha radiation, the decaying nucleus emits an alpha
particle. An alpha particle is the same as the nucleus of a
helium atom. An alpha particle has a charge of +2 and an
atomic mass of 4. This means it has two protons and two
neutrons. An alpha particles symbol is the same as the symbol
of a helium (He) atom.
Alpha particles have much more mass than beta or gamma
radiation and a greater electric charge. Alpha particles can
penetrate, or pass through, matter but it makes them lose
energy quickly. When alpha particles penetrate matter, they
attract negatively charged electrons from the atoms that they
pass. This electric force pulls electrons away from the atoms.
This process causes alpha particles to lose energy and slow
down. Alpha particles are heavier and move more slowly than
the other two types of radiation. Alpha radiation cannot
penetrate material as deeply as beta and gamma radiation.
As you read the section,

highlight the main idea in
each paragraph.
How can humans be harmed by alpha particles?

Alpha particles are heavy and move slowly. You can think of
them as bowling balls moving in slow motion. They may not
be able to penetrate material deeply, but they can do a lot of
damage to whatever they hit. Alpha particles can be harmful
if they are released inside the human body. These particles
can damage cells. Damaged cells do not work properly and
may cause illness and disease.
How can alpha particles help you?
1.
Smoke detectors work by emitting alpha particles. The

alpha particles collide with molecules in the air. The
molecules break apart and form atoms with positive and
negative charges. These charged particles flow within the
smoke detector, creating an electric circuit. If smoke particles
enter the smoke detector, they break this circuit. Once the
circuit is broken, the smoke detector sounds an alarm.
Compare Alpha particles

can be helpful and harmful
to humans. List one way
they can help and one way
they can harm.
Help:
Harm:
What is transmutation?
Recall that an alpha particle is made up of two protons
and two neutrons emitted from a decaying nucleus. The
nucleus now has two fewer protons and two fewer neutrons
than it had originally. When an atom loses protons, it
becomes a different element. Transmutation is the process of
changing one element to a different element by the decaying
process.
The nucleus that emitted the alpha particle has changed.
It now has two fewer protons. Its atomic number is two less
than the atomic number of the original element. The new
element also has two fewer neutrons. Its mass number is
four less than the original element.
The figure shows a polonium nucleus. Polonium has 84
protons and a total of 210 protons and neutrons. During
transmutation, the nucleus gives off an alpha particle. The nucleus
now has 82 protons and a total of 206 protons and neutrons. The
element with an atomic number of 82 and a mass number of 206
is lead. The polonium atom has become a lead atom.
210
84
Po
4
2
He
206
82
Pb
Picture This
2.

symbol for lead?
Transmutation
Reading Essentials
459
Beta Particles
3.
b. beta particle
A second type of radioactive decay is beta radiation.

Sometimes in an unstable nucleus, a neutron decays into a
proton and emits an electron. The electron leaves the nucleus.
This electron is a beta particle. A beta particle is an electron
that a neutron emits when it decays into a proton. The
symbol for a beta particle is 10e.
c. gamma rays
How does transmutation relate to beta particles?
Classify Which of the

following is emitted when
a neutron decays into a
proton? Circle your answer.
a. alpha particle
An atom that loses a beta particle undergoes transmutation.

It changes into a different element. The figure below shows an
iodine nucleus giving off a beta particle. Before the nucleus
decays, it has 53 protons and a total of 131 protons and
neutrons. One of the neutrons becomes a proton by giving
off a beta particle. Now, the number of protons increases by
one and the number of neutrons decreases by one. The new
element, xenon, has 54 protons. Notice that the mass number
has not changed. There is still a total of 131 protons and
neutrons in the nucleus.
I
0
1
Picture This
4.

circle the mass numbers
and underline the atomic
numbers.
131
54
Xe
How can beta particles harm you?

Beta particles move much faster than alpha particles
because they are smaller and lighter. Beta particles can also
penetrate deeper into the material they hit. A beta particle can
pass through a sheet of paper. A sheet of aluminum foil will
stop a beta particle. Beta particles, like alpha particles, can
damage cells if they are released inside the human body.
Gamma Rays
The third type of radiation is gamma radiation. Gamma
radiation is not emitted as particles, like alpha and beta
radiation. Gamma radiation is emitted as electromagnetic
waves called gamma rays. Gamma rays are electromagnetic
waves with the highest frequencies and the shortest
wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum. The symbol for
a gamma ray is , which is the Greek letter gamma.
460
131
53
What are the properties of gamma rays?

Gamma rays have no mass and no charge. They travel at the
speed of light. A nucleus usually emits gamma rays when an
alpha or beta particle is created. Gamma rays can pass easily
through a sheet of paper or aluminum foil because they travel
very fast and have no mass. It takes thick blocks of a material
such as concrete or lead to stop gamma rays. Gamma rays
cause less damage to cells inside the human body than alpha
and beta particles.
Radioactive Half-Life
If an element is radioactive, how can you tell when its atoms
are going to decay? Not all radioactive isotopes decay in the
same amount of time. Some decay in less than a second.
Others continue to decay for millions of years. The measure
for the time it takes a radioactive nucleus to decay is called a
half-life. The half-life of a radioactive isotope is the amount of
time it takes for half of the nuclei in a sample of the isotope to
decay. The nucleus left after the isotope decays is called the
daughter nucleus.
In the figure below, radioactive hydrogen-3 (H-3) is decaying
into helium-3 (He-3). Notice that there are eight H-3 atoms in
the beginning. The half-life of H-3 is 12.3 years. After the first
12.3 years have passed, the amount of H-3 left has been reduced
by half. Now there are four H-3 atoms and four He-3 atoms.
After the second 12.3 years have passed, there are two H-3
atoms and six He-3 atoms. The amount of H-3 in the sample
has been reduced by half again.
5.
Determine How many

H-3 and He-3 atoms will
there be after a third halflife of 12.3 years passes?
Radioactive Decay and Half-Lives

H-3
H-3
He-3
H-3
H-3
H-3
H-3
He-3
H-3
12.3 years
H-3
12.3 years
H-3
H-3
He-3
He-3
He-3
He-3
He-3
H-3
He-3
H-3
H-3
He-3
He-3
H-3
1 half-life
1 half-life
Reading Essentials
461
Radioactive Dating
6.
Explain what scientists

use to find the age of rocks.
Scientists often want to know the ages of rocks and fossils.

The ages of these objects can be found using radioactive
isotopes and their half-lives. First, the amount of the
radioactive isotope in the object is measured. Then, the
amount of the isotopes daughter nuclei is measured. With
these measurements, scientists know how much of the
radioactive material has decayed and how much is still
radioactive.
The number of half-lives it took for the radioactive isotope
to decay can now be calculated. The number of half-lives is
the amount of time that has passed since the isotope began
to decay. This is usually also the age of the object. Different
isotopes are used to date different materials.
All living things take in the radioactive isotope carbon-14.
When plants take in carbon dioxide to make food, they take
in carbon-14. When an animal eats the plant, carbon-14 is
added to its body. Therefore, most plants and animals, and
the objects made from them, contain carbon-14. For this
reason, it is useful in dating many objects.
As carbon-14 decays, it becomes carbon-12. Carbon-12 is
a stable and non-radioactive isotope. As the carbon-14 in a
plant or animal decays, more carbon-14 replaces it when a
plant makes food or an animal eats a plant. This means the
ratio of carbon-14 atoms to carbon-12 atoms in a plant or
animal stays the same as long as the plant or animal is alive.
After a plant or animal dies, the carbon-14 atoms decay
without being replaced. Over time, the ratio of carbon-14
to carbon-12 decreases. Scientists can use this ratio to figure
out the age of the object. Carbon dating can only be used
to estimate the age of objects up to 50,000 years old. Objects
older than 50,000 years do not contain enough carbon-14
to measure, so another dating method has to be used.
7.
Apply What method of

radioactive dating do you
think scientists would use
to find the age of a fossil
from a bird that lived about
10,000 years ago?
462
How is uranium used to date objects?

Some rocks contain radioactive isotopes of uranium. These
radioactive isotopes can be used to estimate the age of
rocks. Uranium has two radioactive isotopes that have long
half-lives. Each isotope decays into a different isotope of lead.
The amounts of these uranium isotopes and their daughter
nuclei are measured. The ratios of these amounts are used to
calculate the number of half-lives that have passed since the
rock was formed. This gives an estimate of the age of the rock.
How is carbon used to date objects?
After You Read

Mini Glossary
alpha particle: particle made of two protons and two neutrons
half-life: the amount of time it takes for half of the nuclei
that are emitted from a decaying atomic nucleus

beta particle: an electron that a neutron emits when it decays
into a proton
gamma rays: electromagnetic waves with the highest
frequencies and the shortest wavelengths in the
electromagnetic spectrum
in a radioactive sample to decay

transmutation: the process of changing one element to a
different element by the decaying process
1. Review the terms and definitions in the Mini Glossary above. Choose two of the terms
that are related and write a sentence using both terms.
2. Complete the table below to organize what you learned about different types of nuclear
radiation. Some of the table is filled in to help you start.
Alpha
Radiation
Beta
Radiation
Symbol
How it forms
What its
made of
Gamma
Radiation
Given off by the

decaying nucleus
An electron
Speed it travels
Moves at the
speed of light
Mass
Has no mass

End of
Section
Reading Essentials
463
Nuclear
Changes
25
chapter
Detecting Radioactivity
What Youll Learn
how cloud and

bubble chambers and
electroscopes are used
to detect radioactivity
how a Geiger counter
measures radiation
why you are always
surrounded by some
radiation
Locate Information
Then highlight the answers to
the questions as you find them.
Before You Read

Many devices warn you about something that could cause a
problem or be dangerous. For example, a smoke detector
makes a loud noise to let you know there may be a fire. On
the lines below, list three devices and their warning signals.
Read to Learn
Radiation Detectors
You cant see or feel alpha particles, beta particles, or
gamma rays. You must use special instruments to tell if they
are present. These instruments detect radioactivity. Some
radioactive particles have an electric charge. The charged
particles form ions in the matter they pass through. Radiation
detectors are instruments that detect newly formed ions.
How does a cloud chamber detect radiation?
C Make a List Make a

Foldable like the one shown
list the instruments used to
detect or measure radiation.
Beside each instrument, briefly
describe how it works.
Detecting Radioactivity:
464
A cloud chamber can be used to detect alpha or beta

particle radiation. A cloud chamber is a rectangular box with
transparent sides. It contains water vapor or ethanol vapor.
A radioactive sample placed in the cloud chamber gives off
charged alpha or beta particles that travel through the water
or ethanol vapor. These charged particles move through the
chamber and pull electrons off atoms in the air. When an
atom loses electrons, it becomes an ion. The radioactive
particles leave a trail of ions as they travel through the cloud
chamber. The water vapor or ethanol vapor condenses
around these ions, forming small droplets. A trail of small
droplets can be seen along the path of the radioactive particle.
Beta particles leave long, thin trails. Alpha particles leave
shorter, thicker trails.
3
section
How does a bubble chamber detect radiation?

A bubble chamber is a device containing superheated liquid
that detects radioactive particles. The liquid in a bubble
chamber does not boil because the pressure is very high. When
a radioactive particle passes through a bubble chamber, it
leaves a trail of ions, just like in a cloud chamber. In a bubble
chamber, the superheated liquid boils along the ion trail. The
path of the radioactive particle shows up as a path of bubbles.
How does an electroscope detect radiation?

Nuclear radiation can cause an electroscope, like the one
shown below, to lose its charge. In the first figure below, the
leaves of the electroscope are negatively charged, so they repel
each other. The leaves stay apart until their extra negative
charges can combine with positive charges. The negatively
charged electrons can move to particles in the air that have
a positive charge. When radioactive particles move through
the air, they remove electrons from some molecules in air.
Molecules that lose electrons become positive ions.
Radioactive particles can make other molecules in air gain
electrons and become negative ions. The second figure shows
radioactive particles creating positive ions in air.
Positive ions that form near the negatively charged leaves
attract electrons from the leaves. The third figure shows
negatively charged electrons moving from the leaves of the
electroscope to positive ions in the air. When the leaves of the
electroscope lose their negative charge, they come together.

Negatively charged leaves
1.
Make a Drawing In
the space below, draw the
leaves of the electroscope
above without an electric
charge.

Picture This

Alpha particles create positive ions.
Negative charges move to positively

charged ions.
Reading Essentials
465
Measuring Radiation
It is important to keep track of the amount of radiation a
person receives. Large amounts of radiation can harm the
human body.
How does a Geiger counter measure radiation?

A Geiger counter is a device that measures radiation by
producing an electric current when it detects a charged
particle. Inside a Geiger counter is a negatively charged
copper tube. A positively charged wire runs through the tube.
The tube is filled with gas at a low pressure. When radiation
enters the tube at one end, it knocks electrons off other gas
atoms. The process continues and produces an electron
avalanche. The positively charged wire in the tube attracts
the free electrons. When a large number of electrons touches
the wire, a short, strong current is produced in the wire. An
amplifier strengthens the current, creating a clicking sound or
a flashing light. The number of clicks or flashes of light that
occur each second tells how strong the radiation is.
Ionized gas atom
2.
Electrons
Radioactive
particle path

circle what attracts the
knocked off electrons.
Window
Amplifier
and counter
Voltage
source
e

e
Background Radiation
3.
Explain What emits

background radiation?
466
The air, the ground, and even the walls of your house give
off radiation. This type of radiation is background radiation.
Background radiation is found in small amounts. Radioactive
isotopes that occur in nature emit background radiation.
Rocks, soil, and air contain these isotopes. Bricks, wood, and
stone also contain small amounts of radioactive isotopes.
Even the food, water, and air used by animals and plants have
them. As a result, all animals and plants have small amounts
of these isotopes.
Picture This
Where does background radiation come from?

Background radiation comes from several sources. The circle
graph below shows the sources of background radiation
received on average by a person living in the United States. The
largest source comes from the decay of radon gas. Decay of
uranium-238 in soil and rocks produces radon gas. Radon gas
can move from the soil and rocks into houses and basements.
Sources of Background Radiation
Rocks
Other
and soil
7%
8%
Cosmic
Radon
rays X rays
55%
8%
11%
Applying Math
4.
Use a Graph List the

three largest sources of
background radiation in
the United States.
Inside
the body
11%
Some background radiation comes from high-speed nuclei

that hit Earths atmosphere. These nuclei are called cosmic
rays. When cosmic rays hit the atmosphere, they give off
alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. Because the atmosphere
absorbs most of this radiation, it does not reach Earths
surface. At very high altitudes, the atmosphere is thinner
than it is at Earths surface. There is less atmosphere to absorb
this radiation. As a result, background radiation from cosmic
rays is greater at higher altitudes.
Is there radiation in your body?

Some of the elements in your body contain radioactive
isotopes that occur naturally. Remember, carbon-14 is a
radioactive isotope that emits a beta particle when it decays.
About one out of every trillion carbon atoms is a carbon-14
atom. Every time you breathe, you inhale about 3 million
carbon-14 atoms.
One person can receive a different amount of background
radiation than another. The total amount of background
radiation your body receives depends on many things. It
depends on the type of rocks that are in the ground where you
live, the materials used to build your house, the elevation where
you live, and many other things. Background radiation comes
from processes that happen naturally. You never can remove all
background radiation from your surroundings.
5.
Describe Name two

things that affect the
amount of background
radiation you receive.
Reading Essentials
467
After You Read

Mini Glossary
bubble chamber: a device containing superheated liquid
Geiger counter: a device that measures radiation by
that detects radioactive particles

cloud chamber: a device containing water vapor or ethanol
vapor that detects alpha or beta particle radiation
producing an electric current when it detects a charged

particle
1. Review the terms and definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence about one of the
devices used to measure radiation.
2. Complete the graphic organizer below to organize what you have learned about detecting
radiation with a cloud chamber. Fill in the boxes with the following sentences. Place them
in the order that they happen.
Water or ethanol vapor condenses around the ions.
Condensed water leaves a path of small drops.
Radioactive sample creates ions in the air.
2. As you read this section, you underlined the answers to questions in the text. Was it
difficult to find the answers to any questions? Explain.
End of
Section
468

and projects to help you learn more about the methods of science.
Detecting Radiation with a Cloud Chamber
Nuclear
Changes
25
chapter
4
section
Nuclear Reactions
Before You Read

Nuclear reactions produce power in many parts of the world.
In the space below, list two things that you would like to learn
about nuclear reactions.
Read to Learn
Nuclear Fission
In the 1930s, the physicist Enrico Fermi tried bombarding
uranium (U) nuclei with rapidly moving neutrons. He
incorrectly thought the neutrons would combine with the nuclei
and form larger, heavier nuclei. In 1938, Otto Hahn and Fritz
Strassmann found that when a neutron hits a uranium-235
(U-235) nucleus, the nucleus splits apart into smaller nuclei.
In 1939, Lise Meitner theorized that when a neutron hits a
uranium-235 nucleus, the nucleus becomes so unstable that it
splits into two smaller nuclei. The process of splitting a nucleus
into smaller nuclei is called nuclear fission. The word fission
means to divide.
What Youll Learn
what nuclear fission is

what nuclear fusion is
how radioactive tracers
can be used in medicine
Study Coach
State the Main Ideas As

you read the section, stop after
each paragraph and put what
you have just read into your
own words.
What nuclei can split during nuclear fission?

Only large nuclei, such as the nuclei of uranium and
plutonium, can split apart during nuclear fission.
Nuclear fission begins with a neutron hitting a U-235 nucleus.
This produces a nucleus of U-236. U-236 is so unstable that it
immediately splits into a barium nucleus and a krypton nucleus.
The process also produces several neutrons. The total mass of
the products of a fission reaction is a little less than the total
mass of the original nucleus and the neutron.This small amount
of missing mass becomes another product of nuclear fission.
The missing mass is changed into a large amount of energy. In
the figure on the next page, the wavy lines stand for the energy
produced through fission.
Find Main Ideas Make

a Foldable like the one below to
take notes on the main ideas of
each reaction.
Fission
Fusion
Reading Essentials
469
Picture This
1.
Nuclear Fission Reaction of U-235
91
36
Kr

sum of the mass numbers
for Kr and Ba? Why does
this not equal the mass
number of U-236?
n
energy
n
n
235
92
U
236
92
U
(Unstable nucleus)
142
56
Ba
How are mass and energy related?

The diagram above shows that in the process of nuclear
fission, some mass is lost. This mass is changed into energy.
Albert Einstein proposed that mass and energy are related.
He said that mass can be changed into energy and energy
can be changed into mass. This is Einsteins special theory of
relativity. The theory says that energy in joules is equal to
mass in kilograms multiplied by the speed of light squared.
The mass-energy equation expresses this theory.
Einsteins theory of relativity states small amount of mass

can be changed into a huge amount of energy. For example, if
one gram of mass is changed into energy, it releases about 100
trillion joules of energy.
How does a chain reaction occur during

nuclear fission?
2.
Illustrate Draw a
diagram of a chain reaction
in the space below.
470
In a nuclear fission reaction, neutrons are released. These

neutrons can hit other nuclei. Then the nuclei split and emit
more neutrons. These neutrons hit other nuclei, and the
fission reaction repeats. A chain reaction is a series of fission
reactions caused by neutrons released in each reaction.
If a chain reaction is uncontrolled, a huge amount of energy is
released in a short amount of time. However, chain reactions can
be controlled. Adding materials that absorb the free neutrons is
one way to control chain reactions. These materials keep the
neutrons from hitting other nuclei and continuing the reaction.
Not all fission reactions cause a chain reaction. A chain
reaction cannot occur if there is less than critical mass to
provide enough free neutrons. The critical mass is the
amount of starting material that makes each fission reaction
produce at least one more fission reaction.
Energy (joules) mass (kg) [speed of light (m/s)]2

E mc 2
Nuclear Fusion
You have learned that nuclear fission releases great amounts
of energy. When one nucleus of uranium-235 splits, it releases
about 30 million times more energy than when one molecule
of dynamite explodes. Another type of nuclear reaction, called
nuclear fusion, releases even more energy than nuclear fission.
In a nuclear fusion reaction, two small, light nuclei combine
to form one large, heavy nucleus. Fusion combines atomic
nuclei, and fission splits nuclei apart.
How are temperature and fusion related?

In a fusion reaction, two nuclei combine into one. How can
two nuclei get close enough to combine? The nuclei have to be
moving very fast. Nuclei are positively charged. Positively
charged objects repel each other. If nuclei move fast enough,
their kinetic energy overcomes the electric force pushing them
apart. Then the two nuclei get close enough to combine.
A particles kinetic energy increases as temperature increases.
The temperature must be millions of degrees Celsius for nuclei
to move fast enough to combine in a fusion reaction. These
high temperatures exist on the Sun and other stars.
3.
Explain how two nuclei

can overcome the
electronic force pushing
them apart.
How is the Suns energy produced?

The Sun is made mostly of hydrogen. It produces energy by
the fusion of hydrogen nuclei. The figure shows one step of
many in the fusion process. A proton (H-1) and a hydrogen
isotope (H-2) combine to form an isotope of helium (He-3). In
the final step, two He-3 atoms fuse to form one He-3 atom. In
this process, the extra mass changes into a huge amount of
energy. The thermal energy and light Earth receives from the
Sun comes from this process.
About one percent of the Suns mass has so far been changed
into energy. It is estimated that the Sun has enough hydrogen for
fusion reactions to continue for another 5 billion years.
H-1

He-3
Picture This
4.
Label the proton, the

hydrogen isotope, and
the helium isotope in the
figure.
H-2
Reading Essentials
471
Using Nuclear Reactions in Medicine
5.
Apply Give an example

of something people do
that is similar to a doctor
using a tracer.
Suppose you planned to meet a friend in a crowded place.

How could you find her? It would be easier to find her if
you knew she would be wearing a red hat. In a similar way,
scientists can find one molecule in a large group of molecules
if they know something special about the molecule. A
molecule cant wear a red hat, but scientists can add
something to a molecule to help them find it in a large group
of molecules. Scientists can put a radioactive isotope inside a
molecule. Then they can locate the molecule by detecting the
radiation that the isotope emits.
A tracer is a radioactive isotope used to find or keep track
of a molecule. Doctors can use tracers to follow a molecule as
it moves through your body. Tracers can be used to see how
plants use nutrients and fertilizers.
How are iodine tracers used?
How can cancer be treated with radioactivity?
6.
Determine How can

radiation kill cancer cells?
472
When a person has cancer, a group of cells in that persons

body grows out of control. These cells can form a tumor.
Radiation can be used to stop some cells from growing into
tumors. Sometimes, a radioactive isotope can be placed inside
or near a tumor. Other times, tumors can be treated from
outside the body.
Remember that radiation emitted when particles decay can
turn nearby atoms into ions. If a source of radiation is placed
near cancer cells, atoms in those cells can be ionized. If atoms
in an important molecule, such as DNA or RNA, are ionized,
the molecule might not function properly. Once this happens,
the cancer cell might stop growing or even die. How can
doctors be sure that only cancer cells absorb the radiation?
Because most cancer cells grow quickly, radiation affects them
more than other cells. However, some other cells in the body
grow quickly, just as cancer cells do. Radiation can also damage
these cells. Cancer patients who receive radiation sometimes
have severe side effects because of damage to these cells.
The thyroid gland is located in your neck. If the thyroid

gland is not working properly, you could get sick. When
iodine enters the body, it goes to the thyroid and stays there.
The radioactive isotope iodine-131 is used to see if a persons
thyroid is working properly. In the thyroid, iodine-131 atoms
decay and give off gamma rays. The gamma rays can be
detected. Doctors can use the information to tell whether a
thyroid is healthy.
After You Read

Mini Glossary
chain reaction: a series of fission reactions caused by
nuclear fission: the process of splitting a nucleus into
neutrons released in each reaction

critical mass: the amount of starting material that makes
each fission reaction produce at least one more
fission reaction
smaller nuclei
nuclear fusion: a reaction where two small, light nuclei

combine to form one larger, heavier nucleus
tracer: a radioactive isotope used to find or keep track of
a molecule
1. Review the terms and definitions in the Mini Glossary above. Write a sentence using the
terms chain reaction and critical mass.
2. Complete the Venn diagram by listing one thing that fission and fusion have in common,
one thing that applies only to fission, and one thing that applies only to fusion.
Fission
Fusion
Both
3. Think about what you have learned. You stopped after each paragraph and put what you
have just read into your own words. Would you recommend this strategy to a friend?
Why or why not?

End of
Section
Reading Essentials
473
Stars
and
Galaxies
26
chapter
Observing the Universe
What Youll Learn

that a constellation is a
pattern of stars
about the different
types of telescopes
Study Coach
Two Column Notes As you

read, write important words or
concepts in one column and
details about it in the second
column next to it.
A Classify Make a three-tab
Foldable, as shown below, about

observing the universe. Label
tabs Know, Like to Know, and
Learned.
Before You Read

Stars in the night sky change throughout the year. Have you
ever looked through a telescope? Describe what you saw.
Read to Learn
Constellations
You have probably looked at the clouds and thought that
they had the shape of something familiar. Perhaps youve seen
a cloud that looks like a whale or a rabbit. Long ago, people
saw shapes in the patterns of the stars in the night sky. They
named these star patterns after characters in myths, or stories,
or after the animals they resembled. Many of the names given to
star patterns by ancient cultures survive today. Constellations
are the named star patterns we still recognize. Astronomers use
constellations to find and name stars.
From Earth, the stars in a constellation appear to be quite
close to each other, though in reality they are extremely far
from one another. Although you can see that some stars in a
constellation are brighter than others, you dont see the
distance they are from each other or from you.
The constellation Orion, shown on the next page, has stars
of different brightness.
How did mythology name the constellations?

Know
Like to Know
Learned
474
CHAPTER 26 Stars and Galaxies
In many cultures, Orion was a great hunter who had two

hunting dogs. Canis Major, of Orions big dog, and Canis
Minor, the of Orions little dog, can be seen easily in the night
sky. Another constellation, Ursa Major, is named for a myth
about a bear. Have you ever see the Big Dipper? The Big
Dipper is part of Ursa Major.
1
section
Picture This
1.
Determine and trace the

lines connecting the stars
that make up the
constellation Orion.
2.

lens does a refracting
telescope use?
Why do scientists use telescopes?

Constellations and their stars can be seen with the unaided
eye. But to see other objects in space, or to see some objects
better, you need a telescope. Scientists and amateur
astronomers use different types of optical telescopes to study
objects in visible light. Radio telescopes are used to study
objects in the radio wavelength.
What are optical telescopes?

There are two basic types of optical telescopes. One type
uses only lenses to study light and the other type uses lenses
and mirrors.
Optical telescopes collect visible light and give an enlarged
image of an object. Light is collected by an objective lens, or
mirror, which forms the image at the focus (or focal point) of
the telescope. At the focus, the light that is bent by the lens or
the mirror as it enters the telescope comes together to form an
image. A second lens, the eyepiece lens, enlarges or magnifies,
the image. The distance from the objective to the focus is the
focal length of the telescope. You can calculate the magnifying
power of a telescope by dividing the focal length of the
objective (Mp) by the focal length of the eyepiece. (fo)/(fe)
Mp = fo/fe
What are refracting optical telescopes?

A refracting telescope uses a convex lens, which is curved
outward like the surface of a ball, as an objective. When the
lens curves outward on both sides, it is called a double lens.
Light from an object passes through this double lens and
bends to form an image at the focus. The eyepiece, also a
double convex lens, then magnifies the image. There is a limit
to how large a refracting telescope can be, so when a really
large telescope is needed, people use reflecting telescopes.
Reading Essentials
475
What are reflecting optical telescopes?

3.
Infer Why is support

necessary in larger reflecting
telescopes?
A reflecting telescope uses a mirror as an objective to

reflect light to the focus. Light from the object passes through
the open end of the reflecting telescope. The light strikes a
concave mirror, which is curved like the inside of a bowl
located at the base of the telescope. Often, a smaller mirror is
used to reflect light into the eyepiece, where it is magnified for
viewing.
In very large reflecting telescopes, the astronomer actually sits
inside the telescope and looks through the eyepiece at the
focus. Because mirrors in reflecting telescopes can be
supported from underneath, much larger telescopes can be
built.
What are some new telescope designs?
What are radio telescopes?
4.
Explain Why must a

radio telescope have a very
large objective?
476
Radio waves, like visible light, are a form of electromagnetic

energy given off by stars and other objects in space. Radio
waves can be detected during the day, not just at night
when stars are visible. Radio waves pass freely through
Earths atmosphere, even on cloudy days.
A radio telescope collects and amplifies radio waves.
Radio waves have long wavelengths, so a radio telescope is
built with a very large objective, usually in the form of a
large dish antenna. Often, several radio telescopes are built
close together and are connected to form one huge radio
telescope. The Very Large Array (VLA) is one example.
The newest telescope designs use active and adaptive

optics. With active optics, a computer is used to correct
changes in temperature, false images from mirrors, and bad
viewing conditions. Adaptive optics uses a laser to search
the atmosphere and send information about air
disturbances to a computer. The computer then adjusts the
telescopes mirrors thousands of times per second to reduce
the effects of this atmospheric interference. The European
Southern Obervatorys Very Large Telescope in Chile is the
largest telescope in use. It uses adaptive optics.
What is the Hubble Space Telescope?

Earths atmosphere limits what Earth-based telescopes can
do, even if these telescopes have advanced optics. For this
reason, scientists use space telescopes, such as the Hubble
Space Telescope. The clear images Hubble provides have
changed scientists ideas about space. Hubble is able to send
images of galaxies that are billions of light-years away.
A light-year is a unit that measures huge distances based on
the distance that light travels in one year, about 9.5 trillion km.
Remember that a light-year measures distance, not time.
5.
Identify What does a

light-year measure?
6.
Apply What do you think
Spectroscope
A spectroscope is a device that uses a prism or diffraction
grating to disperse the light into its component wavelengths.
When a spectroscope is connected to a telescope, the light
entering the telescope from stars or other bodies in outer
space is separated into its electromagnetic spectrum.
Separating light into its different wavelengths tells scientists
a great deal about a star. For example, scientists can find out
what a star is made of, its surface temperature, and whether it
is moving away from or toward Earth. Astronomers can even
tell how fast a star is moving in relation to Earth.
What are spectra?

A spectroscope separates light into its individual wavelengths,
or its spectrum. Visible light can be separated into a spectrum of
colors, including red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and
violetthe colors of the rainbow. In fact, a rainbow is actually a
visible spectrum of sunlight that has been separated out by
droplets of water in Earths atmosphere.
A spectrum displays all wavelengths in the light being
studied. You have learned that a stars spectrum tells
its surface temperature. In light emitted by a star, if the blue
section is brightest, the star has a relatively high surface
temperature. If the red section of the spectrum is brightest,
the temperature of the star is much lower.
a fillspectrum lightbeam
does?
Reading Essentials
477
After You Read

Mini Glossary
constellation: the patterns of stars that form shapes that
reflecting telescope: a telescope that uses a mirror as an
ancient people named

light-year: the distance that light travels in one year, about
9.5 billion km
radio telescope: a telescope that collects and magnifies
radiowaves coming from objects in space
object to reflect light to the focus

refracting telescope: a telescope that uses a double convex
lens, which is curved outward like the surface of a ball, as
an objective
spectroscope: an instrument that uses a prism to separate
light into the different wavelengths that make it up
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Explain why it is more likely
that people would see star patterns when they do not use a telescope than when they look
through a telescope. Use two vocabulary words in your answer.
2. Complete the table below to describe how each type of telescope works.
HOW IT WORKS
Reflecting telescope
Refracting telescope
Radio telescope
Spectroscope
3. You used two-column notes as you read this section. How did using two-column notes
help you understand constellations and telescopes?

and projects to help you learn more about observing the universe.
478
End of
Section
TELESCOPE
chapter
26
Stars and Galaxies
2
section
Evolution of Stars
Before You Read

You learned that the solar system, including the Sun, formed
long ago. Back then, the Sun was different from the way it is
now. Do you think the Sun will change in the future? Explain
your answer.
Read to Learn
How Do Stars Form?

As you have learned about the Sun, star formation begins
with the condensation of a large cloud of gas, ice, and dust. This
cloud of material is called a nebula. The particles of gas, ice, and
dust pull on each other because of gravity, and the nebula
begins to contract, or shrink. The force of gravity causes the
nebula to be unstable, resulting in its breaking up into smaller
cloud pieces.
As the particles in the smaller cloud pieces move closer
together, the temperature in the cloud increases. When the
clouds interior temperature reaches 1 million K, the center of
the cloud is called a protostar. When the temperature reaches 10
million K, hydrogen atoms fuse, or join, to form the element
helium. During fusion, a small amount of mass is changed into
a huge amount of energy. The energy moves outward through
the condensing ball of gas.
What is an H-R Diagram?

The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram is a graph that shows the
relationship between absolute magnitude and a stars
temperature. The graph shown on the next page was developed
in the early 1900s by scientists who noticed that most stars with
higher temperatures also give off more energy and have higher
absolute magnitudes.
What Youll Learn

how stars form
the stages of star
evolution
how the Sun has and
will evolve
Study Coach
Summarize As you read this

section, summarize each
paragraph, writing down the
important concepts and the
details that support them.
B Find Main Ideas Make

a Foldable to write down main
ideas about the types of stars.
Main
Sequence
Stars
Giants
White
Dwarfs
Reading Essentials
479
What is the main sequence?

The scientists, for whom the diagram is named, found that 90
percent of all stars fell on a line drawn on of the H-R diagram.
The main sequence is a line drawn from the upper left to the
lower right of an H-R diagram, and it contains 90 percent of all
stars. The other 10 percent of all stars fall elsewhere on the
diagram.
Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram for Stars
1,000,000 L
Supergiants
Picture This
1.

average temperature of a
main sequence star with a
luminosity of 1?
Luminosity ( L )
10,000 L
100 L
L
1
L
100
1
L
10,000
Giants
Sun
Main sequence
White dwarfs
O
B
A
25,000 10,000
G
6,000
M
3,000
Temperature (K)
A star like our Sun probably once had a diameter about

100 times its present size. As a star continues to form, it
shrinks and its density increases, which raises its internal
temperature. Once fusion begins and the star settles into the
main sequence, it becomes stable. Its outward pressure due to
the energy released during fusion and the inward pressure
from gravity are in balance called stellar equalibrum. A star
in the main sequence is in this state of balance called stellar
equilibrium. When this long-term balance is finally lost, the
star enters the next stage of its life.
What is the main sequence?
2.
Explain What process

causes a star to begin
losing its main sequence
status?
480
As long as the inward pull of its gravity is balanced by its

outward pressure, a star is in the main sequence. Stars are
thought to spend most of their lives in the main sequence,
which explains why this is the largest group on the H-R
diagram. The Sun has been a main sequence star for about
5 billion years and will continue in this state for about another 5
billion years.
When its hydrogen fuel is used up, a star loses its equilibrium
and main sequence status. What it then becomes is determined
by its total mass. An average star like the Sun will become a red
giant, then a white dwarf, and finally a black dwarf. Larger stars
can become supergiants and end up as neutron stars or black
holes. Stars with far less mass than the Sun may stay on the
main sequence for 16 trillion years. Most stars on the main
sequence are red dwarfs, and they probably make up about 80
percent of all stars in the universe.
How Do Stars Change?
What are giants and dwarfs?

When hydrogen in a stars core is used up, there is no
outward pressure to balance the stars inward pull of gravity.
The stars core contracts and its interior temperature
increases. The outer layers of the star expand and cool. A
giant is an average star, like our Sun, in the late stage of its
life cycle.
Even though its surface is cool, the giants core gets hotter.
Once the core temperature reaches 100 million K, carbon
forms. Now the star is enormous, and its surface is much
cooler than when it was a main sequence star.
The star enters its final stage of life, becoming a white
dwarf. A white dwarf is a star whose outer layers escape into
space, leaving behind the hot, dense core. The core continues
to contract.
3.
What are supergiants, neutron stars, and

black holes?
A main sequence star eight times larger than the Sun
becomes a supergiant. Supergiant cores reach high
temperatures that produce heavy elements such as iron.
Eventually iron accumulates in the core because iron does not
fuse easily, there is no outward radiation of energy to balance
the inward pull of gravity, and the core collapses. The outer
part of the star explodes, producing a supernova.
A supernova is a gigantic explosion in which the
temperature in the collapsing core reaches 10 billion K and
atomic nuclei are split into neutrons and protons. Protons
bond with electrons to form neutrons, and the collapsing core
becomes a neutron star. The typical neutron star is about the
size of a large city, but it has a mass greater than the Suns.
Stars with a mass 25 times greater than the Sun become
black holes. The final collapse of the core continues past the
neutron star stage. A black hole is so dense that nothing can
escape its gravity if it gets too close, including light.
Define What is a white

dwarf?
4.
Compare What
determines whether a star
becomes a white dwarf or a
supergiant?
What is a supernova?
The heavy elements in your own body formed during
supernova explosions. Type I supernovas form from hydrogenpoor, low-mass stars that have pulled in matter from a nearby
red giant star. The star is destroyed completely by a process
called carbon detonation. A Type II supernova forms from
hydrogen-rich, high-mass stars. Type II leaves a collapsed core,
which can form a neutron star or black hole.
Reading Essentials
481
The SunA Main Sequence Star

You learned that the Sun is classified as a main sequence
star. On an H-R diagram, the Sun is in the middle of the main
sequence. Solar mass is the mass of the Sun. For most stars,
you can estimate the relationship between mass and luminosity (brightness) by using the formula L/Lo = (MMo)3.5.
What is the structure of the Sun?

Scientists cannot see the inside of the Sun, but they have
learned about what takes place inside it by studying its outer
layers. The Suns interior contains a core, a radiation layer,
and a convection layer.
The photosphere is the surface of the Sun. This layer gives
us light. The atmosphere above the photosphere is made up
of the chromosphere and the corona.
Identify From what part
of the sun does Earth get
light?
What is the solar interior like?

The core is the innermost layer of the Sun. This is where
fusion takes place. The energy produced in the Suns core may
take millions of years to reach the photosphere, where it is
radiated into space.
The layer just above the core is the radiation zone. Here,
gases are completely ionized (lose electrons). There are no
electrons tied to their atoms that can capture photons, so
radiation and the energy of fusion pass easily through this
layer.
Moving outward from the radiation zone, the temperature
drops and some electrons remain bound to their atoms. At the
outer edge of the radiation zone, all of the photons present in
the core have been absorbed. Convection carries the energy
from these photons through the next layer, the convection
zone, to the Suns surface.
What is the photosphere?

The Suns photosphere, or surface, is at the top of the convection zone. Hot gases from the bottom of the convection
zone move upward toward the Suns surface. Cooler gases
sink. This creates convection cells all over the Sun. The
convection cells make the photshere look grainy.
482
5.
What are sunspots?

Some areas of the Sun appear darker than others. Sunspots
are darker areas of the Suns photosphere that are cooler than
surrounding areas. Scientists observing sunspots as they move
with the Suns rotation have learned that the Sun doesnt
rotate as a solid body. Instead, it rotates faster at its equator
than at its poles. Scientists realized this by observing the time
sunspots take less time to circle the Sun around its equator is
less than nearer its poles.
When do sunspots occur?
6.
Define What is a
sunspot?
Sunspots appear and disappear over periods of days, weeks, or

months. The number of sunspots increases and decreases in a
fairly regular pattern called the sunspot, or solar activity cycle.
Periods of maximum sunspot activity alternate with periods of
minimum sunspot activity about every 11 years.
What are prominences and flares?

Sunspots are related to other solar features. Prominences are
huge, arching columns of gas that result from the intense magnetic fields associated with sunspots. Convection in the convection zone causes magnetized gases to flow toward the
photosphere. If the magnetic field is strong enough, magnetic
field lines shoot out from the Suns surface near a pair of
sunspots, causing a prominence of solar material to loop from
one sunspot to the other.
Gases near a sunspot may get suddenly brighter, shooting gas
outward at high speed in solar flares. Solar flare temperatures
can reach 100 million K. Flare particles escape the Sun and blast
into space.
What are CMEs?

Sometimes the Sun gives off large bubbles of ionized gas,
known as CMEs, or coronal mass ejections. During sunspot
minimums, there is usually only one CME per week. Sunspot
maximums may produce two to three CMEs per day.
Earthward-bound CMEs give our planet a sudden shock
wave of solar wind. CMEs are associated with auroras. When
scientists observe a CME, they alert people to watch for
auroras at lower latitudes.
When high-energy particles in CMEs and the solar wind
pass Earths magnetic field, they produce electric currents
that flow toward Earths poles. The electric currents ionize
atmospheric gases and reduce their energy level, which causes
them to produce light. CMEs present little danger to living
things, but they may interfere with orbiting satellites and
radio signals.
7.
Compare and
Contrast How do solar
prominences differ from
solar flares?
Reading Essentials
483
After You Read

Mini Glossary
giant: an average star in the late stage of its life cycle
main sequence: a line drawn from the upper left to the lower
right of an H-R diagram containing 90 percent of all stars.
photosphere: surface layer the Sun that gives us light
solar mass: the mass of the Sun
sunspots: darker areas of the Suns photosphere that are

cooler than surrounding areas
white dwarf: a star whose outer layers escape into space,
leaving behind the hot, dense core, which continues to
contract under the force of gravity
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Use some of the terms to
describe the surface of the Sun.
2. Write the characteristics of each type of star in the boxes below.

Types of Stars
Giants
White dwarfs
3. You summarized paragraphs and passages as you read this section. How did summarizing
help you understand stars?

and projects to help you learn more about the evolution of stars.
484
End of
Section
Main sequence stars
Stars
and
Galaxies
26
chapter
3
section
Galaxies and the Milky Way
Before You Read

Stars are organized into large groups. What force do you
think keeps stars together in their groups?
Read to Learn
Galaxies
Do you know where you are in the universe? You are on a
planet called Earth that orbits a star we call the Sun. Yet the
Sun orbits something also, and it interacts with other objects
in the universe. The Sun is just one star among billions of
stars in its galaxy. A galaxy is a large group of stars, gas, and
dust held together by gravity. The Milky Way,the name of our
galaxy contains about 400 billion stars. Countless other galaxies exist in the universe, and about 40 billion can be seen.
Each of the billions of galaxies contains the same elements,
forces, and types of energy as our galaxy. There are three
major types of galaxies: spiral, elliptical, and irregular.
What Youll Learn

how the same natural
laws apply to all
galaxies
about three main types
of galaxies
Study Coach
Authentic Questions As
you read, write down any
questions you have about
the text. Discuss your questions
with the class or find out their
answers after youve read this
section.
What are spiral galaxies?

Spiral galaxies have spiral, or coilshaped, arms that wind
outward from the galaxys center. These spiral arms are made up
of bright stars, dust, and gas. Normal spiral galaxies have arms
that start close to the center of the galaxy. Barred spirals have
spiral arms stretching out from a large central bar of stars, dust,
and gas that passes through the center of the galaxy.
Astronomers are not sure whether the Milky Way is a normal or
a barred spiral galaxy. The different types of galaxies are shown
in the figure on the next page.
1.

galaxy is the Milky Way?
Reading Essentials
485
Categories of galaxies
C Observe Make a
three-tab Foldable, as shown

below, about observing the
universe. Label tabs Elliptical
Galaxy, Spiral, and Irregular.
Elliptical
Galaxy
Spiral
Irregular
Elliptical
Spiral
Irregular
What are elliptical galaxies?

As astronomers become able to learn more details about
the universe, theyve seen that most galaxies are elliptical
galaxies. Elliptical galaxies are shaped like footballs. Some
giant elliptical galaxies are up to 9 million light-years across
and contain stars. Yet the most elliptical galaxies are dwarf
galaxies, which are usually about 3,000 light-years across and
contain fewer than a million stars.
Irregular galaxies are those that are not classified in other
identifed groups. Irregular galaxies have many different
shapes and contain between 100 million and 10 billion stars.
They are larger than dwarf elliptical galaxies but smaller than
spiral galaxies. Irregular galaxies are less common than the
other two galaxy types.
The Clouds of Magellan are two irregular galaxies that orbit
the Milky Way and are affected by its gravity. Several other
dwarf elliptical galaxies are also affected by the Milky Ways
gravity. One of these, the Sagittarius dwarf, is being absorbed
by the Milky Way. This galaxy lies about 60,000 light-years
from the center of the Milky Way and on the opposite side of
the galaxy.
What is the Local Group?

2. Draw In the spaces
below, draw the basic
shape of one spiral galaxy
and one elliptical galaxy.
486
Just as stars are grouped into galaxies, galaxies are grouped

into clusters. Galaxy clusters are even grouped into superclusters. The Local Group is the cluster to which our Milky
Way galaxy belongs. The Local Group is a relatively small
cluster of about only 45 galaxies of various types and sizes.
The largest galaxy in the Local Group is the Andromeda
Galaxy, a spiral galaxy a little larger than ours that lies about
2.6 million light-years away. If both galaxies continue to move
through space as they do today, Andromeda and the Milky Way
may collide, or bump into each other, in the distant future.
What are irregular galaxies?
How do galaxies form?

Astronomers are not sure how galaxies originally formed.
Scientists think that changes in the density of matter in the
early universe began to form blobs of gas that would
eventually form galaxies. These blobs may have had a mass
similar to that of dwarf galaxies. In fact, dwarf galaxies may
be the remains of these early blobs of matter.
Most astronomers now believe that the galaxies closer to us
grew by absorbing or combining with smaller objects. Some
evidence indicates that more distant galaxies tend to be much
smaller than those near the Milky Way. It makes sense to
conclude that, over time, these small, ancient galaxies combined
to form the larger, more organized galaxies of the universe
today. We also have evidence that galaxies do collide.
3.
Explain From what did

early galaxies form?
4.
Apply Observe what

happens when a person
enters first a crowed
room and then a room
containing only three
people. How can this
explain why individual stars
arent affected when
galaxies collide?
Why do galaxies collide?

The galaxies in some clusters are grouped very close
together. In the Virgo Cluster, thousands of galaxies orbit
within 10 million light-years of each other.
A small galaxy often does not have enough energy to escape
the gravitational pull of nearby large galaxy. When the galaxies
collide, or interact by passing very close to each other, there is
a burst of star formation in each galaxy. The gas and dust
clouds in each galaxy are shocked and squeezed, leading to
star formation.
Galaxy collisions have a strong effect on the structure and
shape of the colliding galaxies. Spiral galaxies may lose their
spiral shape. However, it seems that little happens to the
individual stars within the colliding galaxies. There is so
much open space between the stars that the individual stars
of the two galaxies just move past each other.
The Milky Way

The Milky Way galaxy contains about 400 billion stars,
including our Sun. The Sun makes one complete orbit around
the center of the galaxy in about 225 million years, traveling at a
speed of 220 km/s. Since it formed, the Sun has made just over
22 orbits of the Milky Way.
The Milky Way has always been classified as a normal spiral
galaxy, but new evidence hints that it might be a barred spiral. Its
difficult to know because astronomers can never see our galaxy
from the outside, and Earth is located within one of the galaxys
spiral arms. All stars you see belong to the Milky Way Galaxy.
Reading Essentials
487
Dwarf Galaxies The Milky Way galaxy, like others, grows by
absorbing smaller galaxies. For the past 2 billion years, it has

been gobbling up a nearby small elliptical galaxy called the
Sagittarius dwarf. This dwarf galaxy is about to be torn apart,
and if we could see infrared light, we would see stars and other
material from the galaxy becoming part of our section of the
Milky Way. Scientists believe that, the Milky Way will absorb the
Clouds of Magellan and other nearby dwarf galaxies.
What is the structure of the Milky Way?

The Milky Way galaxy measures about 100,000 light-years
across. The Sun lies about 26,000 light-years from the center of
the galaxy, on the edge of one of the spiral arms. The Milky
Ways disk is about 1,000 light-years thick. It would take 1,000
years to travel from the top to the bottom, even at the speed of
light. The bulge in the center of the Milky Way is about 10,000
light-years in diameter. Near its center, the Milky Way is much
denser than it is near the Sun.
Determine How thick is
the disk of the Milky Way?
What are spiral arms?

The arms of a spiral galaxy look like pinwheels that begin
near the center of the galaxy and reach outward through the
galaxys disk. The spiral arms contain both young stars and
material that has not yet formed into stars. The spiral arms also
contain young open star clusters, which occur in the part of the
galaxy where stars are forming.
Still, astronomers do not fully understand why some galaxies
form into spirals. They think that the spiral shape might be
caused by unstable gas in the center of the galaxy, near its
central bulge. The spiral shape might also be caused by the
gravitational effects of other galaxies that are or were nearby.
Also, the shape might just be an extension of the shape of the
galaxys bulge. No one knows for sure.
What is the galaxy center?
6.
Infer What force might a

supermassive black hole
have that causes an entire
galaxy to orbit around it?
488
Recent theories suggest that some very strange objects may

hide among the very dense population of stars at a galaxy core.
Some theories propose that an extremely huge black hole might
exist at the cores of galaxies. It is hard to confirm this because
the core of a galaxy, and any black hole it may contain, is hidden
behind its densely packed stars. Yet scientists have some evidence for the black hole theory. At the core of the Milky Way is
an object called Sgr A* (saj-ay-star) that gives off an amount of
energy equal to that of a million suns. The leading theory about
this super-energetic object is that it is a supermassive black hole
that contains the mass of 3 million suns.
5.
After You Read

Mini Glossary
galaxy: a large group of stars, gas, and dust held together by
gravity
Milky Way: the name of our galaxy, which contains about 400
billion stars
Local Group: the galaxy cluster to which our Milky Way galaxy
belongs
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Describe our place in
the universe using at least two of these terms.
2. What type of galaxy is shown below? Write the galaxy type and then label the different
parts of this Milky Way galaxy diagram.
This type of galaxy is called a(n)
C. ____________
A. ____________
B. ____________
3. You wrote down important questions as you read. How did writing down questions help
you understand the information in this section?

and projects to help you learn more about galaxies and the Mily Way.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
489
Stars
and
Galaxies
26
chapter
Cosmology
What Youll Learn

about the most
accepted theories of the
origin of the universe
about dark matter, dark
energy, and why the
universe may be
expanding
Study Coach
Map Definitions Make a

definition map to describe and
define vocabulary words and the
ideas related to them. For each
word, your map should answer
the questions: What is it? and
What is it like?
Before You Read

Why do you think scientists are so interested in how the
universe began?
Read to Learn
How did it begin?
Cosmology is the study of how the universe began and has
evolved. There have been several models of the origin of the
universe. A 1948 steady-state model suggested that the universe
always was and forever will be as it is now.
Another theory, called the oscillating model, proposed
that the universe began with expansion everywhere and that,
over time, the expansion slowed and matter contracted. After
ultimate contraction, the whole process of expansion and
contraction happened again, and again, for all time.
The Big Bang Theory

D Find Information
Make a two-tab Foldable, as

shown below, about observing
the universe. Label tabs Big Bang
Theory, and Expanding Universe.
Big Bang
Theory
Expanding
Universe
490
The big bang theory is the theory that the universe started
with a huge explosion and has been expanding ever since.
The big bang was not like an ordinary explosion of matter
but a fast expansion of space itself and of matter into that
space. Scientists continue to look for evidence to support
this theory.
When did the universe begin?

One NASA space mission produced a map of the oldest
light in the universe. The mission was called the Wilkinson
Microwave Anisotrophy Probe (WMAP). With other evidence,
the map helped scientists estimate the age of the universe as
about 13.7 billion years, when the big bang occurred.
4
section
Discovering Radiation Scientists measured temperature

variations found in microwave background radiation for the
entire universe. They discovered that this radiation was
probably produced about 400,000 years after the big bang,
when temperatures cooled enough for atoms to form.
1.
Explain What type of

change does the Doppler
effect have on sound and
light?
Expansion of the Universe

Stars within the Milky Way can be detected using the
Doppler effect. As you have learned, sound waves coming
from a moving source are compressed, or squeezed, as it
approaches you and stretched as it moves away from you.
Such Doppler shifts occur in light as well.
As a star moves toward Earth, the wavelengths of light it
gives off are compressed, causing a blue shift. As a star moves
away from Earth, its wavelengths of light are stretched,
causing a red shift. Using Doppler shift, scientists found that
some galaxies in the Local Group are moving toward the
Milky Way, some are moving away, and some are moving with
it. A red shift is also seen in the light from distant galaxies, but
this is explained differently.
1
2
Picture This
3
Red shift
2.
Blue shift
B
Draw an arrow that shows

the direction of the red
shift pictured in the figure.
1 2 3 4
Wavelength
Wavelength
appears shorter.
appears longer.
Bulb moves from 1 to 4
What is the Hubble red shift?

The Doppler shift alone does not explain the shift in the
wavelengths of light coming from distant galaxies. The shift,
known as the Hubble red shift, shown in the figure above, is
caused by the stretching of space itself as the universe
expands. Light waves traveling through space grow larger as
space expands, and lights wavelengths become redder as the
expansion speeds up. The red shift is seen coming from all
galaxies outside the Local Group, showing the entire universe
is expanding.
Reading Essentials
491
What is the universe made of?

Astronomers have found that if only the detectable mass, or
regular matter, of galaxies were measured, the galaxies should
not rotate, move, or interact as they do. It appears that regular
matter makes up only a small part of the known universe.
Much of the matter that must be present cannot be seen,
though it makes up a large part of the galaxies in the universe
and affects their movement. Dark matter is the unseen and
little-understood matter that affects galaxies.
3.
Explain What is the

property of dark matter
that caused it to influence
formation of galaxies?
Scientists are not really sure what dark matter is, but the
concept of dark matter helps explain the universe. Gravity from
dark matter may have led to the condensation of dust and gas
clouds to form galaxies. Dark matters gravity may also explain
the clumping of galaxies into clusters.
Temperature differences might have led to density
differences in the early universe. As the universe expanded,
gravity from dark matter in high-density areas could have
pulled matter together to form galaxies. Thus, the regions of
the universe that currently have galaxies were also regions of
dense dark matter. This would explain the distribution of
galaxies in the universe.
The Great Wall is a sheet of galaxies that has large empty
areas, or voids, around it. Scientists suggest that the region of
the Great Wall had great density that pulled matter together
to form galaxies. Lower-density areas lack galaxies.
What is dark energy?

4.
Analyze What is the

relationship between
matter, gravity, and dark
energy?
492
Recall that the universe seems to be expanding more rapidly

now than it did in the past. Why?
Astronomers propose a hypothesis that a new form of
energy causes the expansion. Dark energy is an unseen form
of energy that scientist believe causes the expansion of the
universe. When matter was closer together, gravity could
easily overcome the expansion caused by dark energy. Now,
with matter farther apart, gravity is not strong enough to
overcome dark energy. Remember that though they have
similar names, dark matter and dark energy are not related.
What is dark matter?
After You Read

Mini Glossary
big bang theory: the theory that the universe started with a
dark energy: an unseen form of energy that scientists believe
big bang, or explosion, and has been expanding ever since

cosmology: the study of how the universe began and has
evolved
causes expansion of the universe

dark matter: the unseen and little understand matter that
affects galaxies
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Use one or two of the terms to
describe the origin or expansion of the universe.
2. Fill in the blanks in the graphic below.
Universe begins with

the explosion of
space and matter at
the __________.
__________ in
high-density regions
of the universe
causes matter to
come together to
form galaxies.
The force of
__________ from
galaxies is able to
overcome the forces
of expansion.
As expansion
continues, gravity can
no longer overcome
the energy of
expansion that comes
from _________.
3. As you read, you made a map to help you learn the definitions of new words. How did
making a definition map help you understand the information in this section?

and projects to help you learn more about the origin and evolution of the universe.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
493

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Reading Essentials

An Interactive Student Textbook

Copyright by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The Nature of Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

Organizing Foldables to make Chapter Projects:

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Organizing Foldables to make Chapter Projects:

Teaching Tips for Foldables

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The Nature of Science

The Methods of Science

What Youll Learn

how scientists solve

Identify Highlight each

Before You Read

What are the major categories of science?

Make the following Foldable to

CHAPTER 1 The Nature of Science

Science covers many different topics. These topics fall

How does science explain nature?

Copyright by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Copyright by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Interpret Why are there

Stating a Problem Many scientific investigations begin with

Research List two

Forming a Hypothesis A hypothesis is a possible

Define What are the two

CHAPTER 1 The Nature of Science

Variable An experiment usually has at least two variables. A

Copyright by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Researching and Gathering Information It is important

Copyright by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Constants and Controls To keep an investigation fair, all

Classify Is the plant that

List two reasons why data

Analyze the Data An important part of any experiment is

Being Objective Scientists must avoid a bias. A bias occurs

Visualizing with Models

Explain What are

What are high-tech models?

Scientific models dont have to be something you can touch.

Identify and list three

CHAPTER 1 The Nature of Science

Copyright by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Models in History Models have been used throughout

Scientific Theories and Laws

The Limitations of Science

Copyright by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Science is used to explain many things about the world.

Think Critically Give

After You Read

dependent variable: the condition in an experiment

model: anything that represents an idea, event, or object to

CHAPTER 1 The Nature of Science

Visit gpescience.com to access your textbook, interactive games,

Copyright by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The Nature of Science

Before You Read

Copyright by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Units and Standards

Precision and Accuracy

What Youll Learn

the SI units and symbols

Make an Outline Make an