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Abstract
In general, any restriction to flow that causes a distortion
of the flow lines from being perfectly normal to the borehole
direction would result in positive skin. As a result, the skin
factor computed from well testing is a widely used indicator of
the overall flow efficiency of a given well. This is
theoretically valid, but often, a high positive skin indicated
from a well test is assumed synonymous with a large extent of
near-wellbore formation damage and is, therefore, frequently
used as a criterion to perform stimulation treatment meant to
enhance the well productivity. This latter practice is generally
not valid since the skin factor computed from a well test is, in
reality, a composite variable that is not merely a function of
near-wellbore damage. This skin factor is also a function of
parameters such as perforation geometry, well deviation,
partial completion, and other phase and rate dependent effects.
Therefore, the skin computed from a well test must first be
broken down into its constituent components in order to
determine the "true" near-wellbore skin. Moreover, the skin
and permeability values computed from a well test are so
intimately related that an error in one directly impacts the
other. Typically, additional input data would also need to be
integrated in any given permeability-skin model in order to
reduce the computational uncertainty. Only after proper
modeling, can an appropriate stimulation treatment be
selected. This is particularly important for high-deliverability
gas wells, for which the formation damage-related skin often
makes up only a small portion of the total well test-measured
skin.
This paper outlines a methodology that can be used to
compute the various skin components as well as representative
values of the average formation permeability from a well test.
J=
qp
q OH
r
= ln e
rw
re
ln + S T
rw
S = S D + S c + + S P + S pseudo
where SD is the (formation) damage skin, SC+ is the skin due
to partial completion and slant, and Sp is the perforation effect.
H. ELSHAHAWI, K. GAD
All pseudo skins are grouped within the summation sign and
include phase and rate-dependent skins. Its important to note
that the effects of the discrete elements of skin are often
compounded and not simply additive. In particular, the
damage and perforation skins combine in a non-linear manner
to give a composite perforation/damage skin that is very much
dependent on whether or not the perforations bypass the
damaged zone.
The complex interaction of multiple factors precludes simple
global solutions to designing or analyzing well completions.
Careful analysis of the various elements and their respective
contributions to total skin is fundamental to quantifying total
skin. The following is a brief description of each component
and a listing of the value computed for it.
Partial Completion and Slant Skin (Sc+):
Wells are often partially completed such that the height that is
open to flow is smaller than the reservoir height. This is
known as partial penetration and can occur as a result of a
poor perforation job or by deliberate under-completion in to
retard or avoid coning effects in limited-entry wells. In both
cases, partial penetration decreases well productivity. If the
well is not completed at the middle of the reservoir height, the
partial completion effect will be aggravated further.
Most wells do not penetrate the producing formation
perpendicularly. Instead, there is an angle between the plane
normal to the formation and the well axis, such as when a
vertical well penetrates a dipping formation or when a
directionally drilled well penetrates a horizontal formation.
This well deviation with respect to the formation results in
increased productivity because an increased producing
interval area is exposed to flow. This increase in productivity
results in a negative skin effect.
Perforation Skin (Sp):
The major geometric parameters that influence perforation
skin are the effective shot density (actual number of producing
perforations per foot); perforation penetration into the formation, angular shot phasing, and perforation diameter. In an
ideal, homogeneous, and isotropic reservoir, perforation
geometry influences the productivity ratio for a natural
completion as follows:
SPE 68144
SPE 68144
H. ELSHAHAWI, K. GAD
SPE 68144
SPE 68144
skin. For the lowest flow rate it represents more than 85% of
the total skin.
Again, as in the previous case, the total skin in the above
plot includes the pseudo-skin effect due to flow friction in the
wellbore. The distance between the gauge and formation was
again nearly 166 meters, and the pressure drop due to friction
effect was translated into equivalent skin using the skin to
Delta-p skin ratio computed from the buildups. Fig.6 shows
the estimated skin due to wellbore friction. Fig.7, on the other
hand, shows that after removing the friction effect from the
total skin, the relationship between gas rate and total skin no
longer follows a truly linear relationship.
From Fig.7, the rate independent skin is found to be 1.6,
which is a very low value mainly due to the highly efficient
perforation process. Table 3 summarizes the components of
the rate independent skin resulting from a detailed skin-model.
Even though the permeability of this formation was as high as
in Example-1 averaging around 3290 md and with the depth of
invasion equally deep, the perforations in the example well
had much deeper penetration, certainly deep enough to
penetrate the depth of damage by more than 50%. This has
meant that the pre-perforation, drilling-induced damaged was
almost nullified or neutralized.
Example 3
This example represents another case from the Deep
Mediterranean gas fields. In this case, the rate-dependent skin
was representing more than 85% for the highest rate, and more
than 70% for the lowest rate. Fig.8 shows the total skin versus
gas flow rate. The rate independent skin equals 9.5 which was
mainly due to partial completion, as there was relatively little
formation damage on this well, no skin due to perforation, and
no partial completion of slant effects. The permeability of the
tested formation was computed to be 350 md, and the
permeability thickness product to be 79,212 md-ft.
Example-4
This example represents a land well in the Sinai fields of
Egypt. The rate dependence of the skin in this case is
moderate as it represents more than 30% for the lowest flow
rate and more than 50% for the highest flow rate. As Fig.9
shows, the rate independent skin equals 8.6, mainly
attributable to partial completion as the formation damage skin
was computed to be less than 1 and as the well is non-slanted.
The average permeability was found to equal 114 md-ft, while
the average permeability-thickness product was found to equal
7670 md-ft.
Example-5
This example represents a case of non-dependency of skin
on rate due to low permeability. The average permeability of
the this formation was 14 md, while the average permeabilitythickness product was 315 md-ft. As Table 4 shows, no
relationship between total skin and gas rate can be
constructed.
H. ELSHAHAWI, K. GAD
Conclusions
1. Total skin can be divided into two primary portions, ratedependent skin and rate-independent skin.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
SPE 68144
References
1. Allam, A., Siso, S., and Samir, M.: "Evaluation of the P.I.
in Non Flowing Wells-Case History," Presented at the
2nd ARPO Convention, Milan, March 1998.
2. Bell, W.T., Sakup, R.A., and Tariq, S.M.: Perforating,
Monograph Series, SPE, Richardson, TX (1995).
3. Economides, M.J, Economides, C.E., Hill, A.D.:
Petroleum Production Systems, Prentice-Hall, 1995.
4. Gatlin, C.: Petroleum Engineering-Drilling and Well
Completion, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ (1960).
5. Hassen, B.R.:
"New Technique Estimates Drilling
Filtrate Invasion," SPE 8791, 1980.
6. Hong, K.C.: "Productivity of Perforated Completions in
Formations With or Without Damage," August 1975.
7. Klotz, J.A., Krueger, P.F. and Pye P.S.: "Maximum Well
Productivity in Damaged Formation Requires Deep,
Clean Perforations," SPE 4792, 1974.
8. Krueger, R.F., Vogel L.C. and Fischer P.W.: "Effect of
Pressure Drawdown on Clean-Up of Clay or Silt Blocked
Sandstone," March 1967, p. 397-403.
9. Lee, J.: Well Testing, SPE Textbook Series Vol.1, 1970.
10. Mattthews, C.S., Russell, D.G.: Pressure Buildup and
Flow Tests in Wells, SPE Monograph Vol 1, Henry L.
Doherty Series (1962).
11. Locke, S.: "An Advanced Method for Predicting the
Productivity Ratio of a Perforated Well," JPT, December
1981, p. 2481-2488.
12. McLeod, H.O. Jr.:"The Effect of Perforating Conditions
on Well Performance," JPT, January 1983, p.31-39.
13. McLeod, H.O. Jr.: "Matrix Acidizing," Distinguished
Author Series, JPT, December 1984, p. 2055-2069.
14. Schechter, R.S.: Oil Well Stimulation, Prentice Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ (1992).
15. Van Poolen, H.K.: "Well-Bore Damage-Its Causes and
How to Correct Them," Oil and Gas Journal, September
26,1966.
16. Williams, B.B., Gidley, J.L. and Schechter, R.S.:
"Acidizing Fundamentals," SPE-AIME Monograph
Volume 6, 1979.
SPE 68144
H. ELSHAHAWI, K. GAD
SPE 68144
W e llb o r e F r ic t io n -S u b tr a c te d S k in v s R a t e
W e l lb o r e F r i c t i o n - S u b t r a c t e d S k i n = - 2 E - 0 7 Q
+ 0 .0 1 3 2 Q + 3 3 .9 8 5
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
500 0
100 00
150 00
200 00
250 00
300 00
350 00
G a s R a te ( M S C F /D )
Total Skin
400
350
80
300
70
250
60
200
To
tal
Sk
in
150
100
50
50
40
30
20
0
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
10
-10
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
F r ic tio n a l W e llb o r e S k in = 1 E - 0 7 Q + 0 .0 0 1 Q
160
140
F ric tio n a l W e llb o re S k in v s R a te
120
F r ic t io n a l we llb o r e S k in = 3 E - 0 8 Q + 0 . 0 0 0 3 Q
100
40
35
80
F r ic tio n a l W e
F r ic tio n a l W e llb o
45
60
40
20
30
25
20
15
10
0
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
G a s R a te (M SC F /D )
0
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
G a s R a t e ( M SC F /D )
Fig. 3, Estimated skin due to friction effects vs. gas flow rateExample-1.
Fig. 6, The estimated skin due to friction effect vs. gas flow
rate-Example-2.
SPE 68144
W e llb o r e F r ic tio n S u b tr a c te d S k in = - 3 E - 0 8 Q + 0 .0 0 1 9 Q - 1 .5 7 7 1
35
30
18
17
W e llb o r e F r ic t io n - S
25
16
20
Total Skin
15
15
10
14
13
12
11
0
10
10000
-5
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
12000
14000
16000
18000
20000
22000
24000
26000
G a s R a t e ( M S C F /D )
70
60
Total Skin
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
28000
30000