Scipio Africanus the Younger, full Latin name Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus Africanus

Numantinus (c. 185-129 BC), Roman general, adopted grandson of Scipio the Elder. After
serving in the Roman military campaigns in Macedonia, he became military tribune to Spain in
151 BC. With the outbreak of the Third Punic War, Scipio, who was popular with both the
Roman army and people, was elected consul in 147 BC and invested with supreme command.
After a year of heavy fighting Scipio captured and razed Carthage. He returned to Rome,
having earned in his own right his inherited surname Africanus.
He served as censor in Rome for several years, before being elected to the consulship in 134
BC and sent to Spain to conduct the siege against Numantia. The capture and destruction of
the town ended 20 years of warfare in Spain and gave Scipio the additional surname
Numantinus. On his return to Rome he became the leader of the aristocracy in their battle
against the popular and agrarian reforms of his cousin Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus. On the
night before Scipio was due to deliver a speech on agrarian laws, he died, perhaps
assassinated by his political enemies. He was a patron of contemporary Roman writers,
notably the historian Polybius, and the playwright Terence. 1
Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius (163-133 BC), Roman statesman and tribune (133 BC),
whose concern for the common people ultimately led to his political downfall and death.
Together with his brother Gaius Sempronius Gracchus, Tiberius was brought up under the
special care of his mother, Cornelia, daughter of Scipio Africanus the Elder. In 146 BC he
participated in the capture and destruction of Carthage, on which occasion he is said to have
been the first Roman to scale the city wall. In 137 BC he acted as quaestor (financial
administrator) to the army of Gaius Hostilius Mancinus (consul in 137 BC) in Spain. Through
negotiation, Tiberius saved a Roman army of 20,000 from complete destruction following its
defeat by the inhabitants of the Spanish city of Nutmantia. On returning to Rome he became a
champion of the common people and impoverished farmers. He was elected tribune of the
people in 133 BC, and despite opposition from the aristocracy led by his cousin, Scipio
Africanus the Younger, he introduced a bill for the fair redistribution of public lands among
needy farmers. A committee of three, consisting of him, his brother Gaius, and his father-in-law
Appius Claudius Pulcher (consul in 143 BC), was appointed to implement the new law.
At the end of his term as tribune, Tiberius presented himself for re-election. He disregarded the
Senate's declaration that holding the office of tribune for two successive years was unlawful. A
rumour that Tiberius was seeking dictatorial power prompted his opponents to demand his
immediate death. A riot broke out in which Tiberius was murdered, along with 300 of his
followers, and his body cast into the Tiber River. 2
Gracchus, Gaius Sempronius (153-121 BC), Roman soldier and tribune (123 and 122 BC),
brother of Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, whose murder he sought to avenge.
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At the time of his brother's death in 133 BC, Gaius was serving with the Roman army in Spain.
He returned to Rome a year or two later, but took no major part in public affairs. Upon
becoming quaestor (a position in financial administration) in 126 BC, he accompanied the
army under Lucius Aurelius Orestes (consul in 126 BC) to Sardinia, then in a state of rebellion.
Although the Roman Senate, with uneasy recollections of his brother Tiberius, sought to keep
Gaius from returning to Rome by extending his term as quaestor, he felt obliged to avenge his
brother's murder and accordingly returned to the capital without authorization. He was elected
as tribune of the people in 123 BC. He then devoted himself to the enforcement of his brother's
agrarian laws, which had been allowed to lapse, and introduced legislation that favoured the
common people while curbing the power of the Senate and aristocracy.
Gaius inaugurated a programme of road repair and construction throughout Italy that
encouraged the development of the country's resources and also provided employment for the
poor. He passed a law entitling citizens of Rome to purchase grain at half price. Gaius was reelected tribune in 122. The aristocratic party, unable to check his reforms by open opposition,
resorted to the stategem of offering, through Marcus Livius Drusus (who was cotribune with
Gaius), still greater benefits; however, they had no intention of carrying out their promises, and
disagreements between them and Gaius intensified.
Lucius Opimius, an implacable foe of Gaius, was elected consul in 121, while Gaius failed to
obtain his third term as tribune. He was deserted by most of his supporters and was forced to
escape across the Tiber River. The following day his body was discovered on the Janiculum, a
hill located on the west bank of the river. 3
Drusus, Marcus Livius (died 109 BC), Roman public official. As tribune of the people with
Gaius Sempronius Gracchus in 122 BC, he undermined the reform programme of his
colleague. In 112 BC Drusus became both Roman consul and governor of the province of
Macedonia. At the time of his death he held the office of censor. 4
Marius, Gaius (c. 157-86 BC), Roman general and statesman, who led the Populares during
the civil war of 88-86 BC.
Marius was born at Arpinum (now Arpino, Italy). As a young man he served in Spain under the
Roman general Scipio Africanus the Younger. In 119 BC he was elected tribune of the people.
His marriage to Julia, the aunt of Julius Caesar, improved his social status, but as leader of the
popular party he retained his sympathy with the lower classes. After serving as praetor in 115
BC, he returned to Spain, where he waged a successful campaign against the brigands and
murderers who had been terrorizing the country. He accompanied the Roman general Quintus
Caecilius Metellus to Africa in 109 BC. He was elected consul two years later and was
appointed to conduct the war against Jugurtha, king of Numidia. Assisted by his chief aide,
Lucius Cornelius Sulla, Marius captured Jugurtha and brought the war to a successful
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conclusion in 106 BC. Marius's opponents credited Sulla with the victory, thereby laying the
foundation for the later animosity between the two leaders.
Following two years spent subjugating Numidia, Marius again became consul in 104 BC and
advanced northwards to oppose the invading Germanic tribes of the Cimbri and the Teutons.
He annihilated the Teutons at Aquae Sextiae (now Aix-en-Provence, France) in 102 BC and
defeated the Cimbri the following year near Vercellae (now Vercelli, Italy). Marius was
considered the saviour of his country and in 100 BC was made consul for the sixth time.
When Sulla, as consul, was entrusted with conducting the war against the powerful Asian king
Mithridates VI Eupator in 88 BC, Marius, who had developed a jealous hatred for his patrician
rival, attempted to deprive him of his command. Civil war broke out between the partisans of
the two leaders. Marius was forced to flee, and Sulla proceeded to Asia Minor to take up his
command. Marius then hurried back to Italy, where an uprising of his followers had occurred
under Lucius Cornelius Cinna, another bitter opponent of Sulla. Marius and Cinna marched
against Rome, forcing it to capitulate. Marius then took his revenge on the aristocracy in an
indiscriminate massacre. He had himself and Cinna named after the consulship in 86 BC, but
died a few days after obtaining office. 5
Sulla, Lucius Cornelius, called Felix (138-78 BC), Roman general and statesman, who led
the Optimates (aristocratic party) during the civil war of 88-86 BC.
Born to a patrician family, the Cornelii, Sulla embarked on a military career in 107 BC as a
quaestor under Gaius Marius. He entered the Jugurthine War (111-106 BC) in Africa and
persuaded Bocchus I, king of Mauretania (reigned 111-80 BC), to deliver his son-in-law,
Jugurtha, king of Numidia, to the Roman army as a prisoner. This act ended the war, but it also
began the feud with Marius, who became increasingly jealous of his more junior officer. Sulla,
however, remained in Marius's service until 103 BC, during the campaigns against the German
tribes of the Cimbri and the Teutons (104-101 BC). In 93 BC he was praetor, or magistrate, and
the following year propraetor in Cilicia.
Sulla was made consul after his successful leadership in the Social War (90-88 BC), between
the Romans and their northern Italian allies who wanted more Roman privileges. In this
position, Sulla had the authority to wage war against Mithridates VI, king of Pontus. Marius,
then the leader of the Populares (commoners' party) and Sulla's bitter enemy, attempted to
deprive him of his command, and civil war ensued. After the overthrow of the Marian party and
the flight of Marius, Sulla departed for Asia Minor, where he defeated Mithridates by 83 BC.
Returning to Rome, he attempted to crush the powerful Marian party. He had himself appointed
dictator (82-79 BC), assuming the name Felix (fortunate), and condemned to death or exile
most of those who had been Marian supporters. Sulla instituted a complete constitutional
reform, designed to restore the power of the Senate and aristocracy by imposing strict controls
on the tribunes and other magistrates. Of particular importance was his reorganization of the
system of criminal procedure by increasing the number of quaestiones perpetuae, the first

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permanent criminal courts established in Rome. In 79 BC he resigned from his dictatorship and
retired to Campania, where he died the following year. 6
Cinna, Lucius Cornelius (died 84 BC), Roman patrician, one of the principal supporters of
the Roman general Gaius Marius. Following the expulsion of Marius from Rome by his
opponent Lucius Sulla, Cinna was allowed to become consul on the condition that he swore not
to challenge the constitution. Cinna, however, impeached Sulla in 87 BC. Cinna and Marius
then declared themselves consuls, after proscribing many Roman citizens. Cinna was killed by
his army at Brundisium (now Brindisi, Italy) while preparing to attack Sulla. His daughter
Cornelia was the first wife of Julius Caesar, and his son and namesake, Lucius Cornelius
Cinna (fl. 1st century BC), participated in the assassination of Caesar.7

Caesar, Gaius Julius (100-44 BC), Roman general and statesman, who laid the foundations
of the Roman imperial system.
Early Life
Born in Rome on July 12 or 13, 100 BC, Caesar belonged to the prestigious Julian clan; yet
from early childhood he knew controversy. His uncle by marriage was Gaius Marius, leader of
the Populares. This party supported agrarian reform and was opposed by the reactionary
Optimates, a senatorial faction. In his last year as consul (chief magistrate), Marius exacted a
terrifying toll on the Optimates. At the same time he had the young Caesar appointed flamen
dialis, one of an archaic priesthood with no power. This identified him with his uncle's extremist
politics, and his marriage in 84 BC to Cornelia, the daughter of Marius's associate, Cinna,
further confirmed him as a radical. When Lucius Cornelius Sulla, leader of the Optimates, was
made dictator in 82 BC, he issued a list of opponents to be executed. Although Caesar was not
harmed, he was ordered by Sulla to divorce Cornelia. Refusing that order, he found it prudent
to leave Rome. He did not return to the city until 78 BC, following Sulla's resignation.
By then, Caesar was 22 years old. Unable to gain office, he left Rome again and went to
Rhodes, where he studied rhetoric; he returned to Rome in 73 BC, a very persuasive speaker.
The year before, while still in Rhodes, he had been elected to the pontificate, an important
college of Roman priests.
Triumvirate
In 71 BC Pompey the Great, who had earned his epithet in service under Sulla, returned to
Rome, having defeated Quintus Sertorius, the rebellious Populares general, in Spain. In the
same year Marcus Licinius Crassus, a rich patrician, suppressed the slave revolt led by
Spartacus in Italy. Both Pompey and Crassus obtained the consulship for 70 BC. Pompey, who
by this time had changed sides, was technically ineligible, but with Caesar's help had won the
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office. In 69 BC, Caesar was elected quaestor (magistrate) and in 65 BC curule aedile, in which
office he gained great popularity for his lavish gladiatorial games. To pay for these, he
borrowed money from Crassus. This united the two men, who also found common cause with
Pompey. When Caesar returned to Rome in 60 BC after a year as governor of Spain, he joined
forces with Crassus and Pompey to form the First Triumvirate; to cement their relationship
further, Pompey married Caesar's daughter, Julia. With the support of this alliance, Caesar
was elected consul for 59 BC despite Optimate hostility, and in 58 BC he was appointed
governor of Roman Gaul. For the next seven years he led the campaigns known as the Gallic
Wars at the end of which Roman rule was established over central and northern Europe west
of the River Rhine.
Power Play
While Caesar was in Gaul, his agents attempted to dominate politics in Rome. This, however,
threatened Pompey's position, and it became necessary for the triumvirs to arrange a meeting
at Luca in 56 BC, which resulted in a temporary reconciliation. It was decided that Caesar
would continue in Gaul for another five years, while Pompey and Crassus would both be
consuls for 55 BC; after that date, the triumvirs would have proconsular control of their
respective provinces. Caesar then left to put down a revolt in Gaul and to lead an expedition to
Britain. Crassus, ever eager for military glory, went to his post in Syria. After entering into war
with Parthia, he was defeated and killed at Carrhae in 53 BC. This removed the last buffer
between Caesar and Pompey; their family ties had been broken by the death of Julia in 54 BC.
Civil War
In 52 BC, with Crassus out of the way, Pompey was made sole consul. This office, combined
with his other powers, put him in a formidable position. Jealous of his younger rival, he
determined to break Caesar's power, an objective that could not be achieved without first
depriving him of his command in Gaul. In order to protect himself, Caesar suggested that he
and Pompey both lay down their commands simultaneously, but this was rejected; goaded by
Pompey, the Senate summarily called upon Caesar to resign his command and disband his
army, or else be considered a public enemy. The tribunes, who were Caesar's agents, vetoed
this motion, but they were driven out of the Senate chamber. The Senate then entrusted
Pompey with providing for the safety of the state. His forces far outnumbered Caesar's, but
they were scattered throughout the provinces, and his troops in Italy were not prepared for war.
Early in 49 BC Caesar crossed the Rubicon, a small stream separating his province of
Cisalpine Gaul from Italy, and moved swiftly southwards. Pompey fled to Brundisium and from
there to Greece. Within three months Caesar controlled all Italy; his forces then took Spain and
the key port of Massilia (modern Marseille, France).
In Rome Caesar became dictator until elected consul for 48 BC. At the beginning of that year
he landed in Greece and destroyed Pompey's forces at Pharsalus. Pompey escaped to Egypt,
where he was assassinated. When Caesar arrived there, he installed Cleopatra, daughter of
the late King Ptolemy XI, as queen. In 47 BC he subdued Asia Minorwhen he is supposed to
have said Veni, vidi, vici (I came, I saw, I conquered)and returned to Rome as dictator. By
48 BC all Optimate forces had been defeated and the Mediterranean world pacified.
Dictatorship and Assassination

The basis of Caesar's power was his position as perpetual dictator. According to the
traditional Republican constitution, this office could only be held for six months during a dire
emergency. Even before Caesar, however, that rule had been broken. Sulla had reigned as
dictator for several years, and Caesar followed this precedent. He was also made consul for
ten years in 45 BC and received the sanctity of tribunes, making it illegal to harm him. In
addition he obtained honours that increased his prestige. He wore the robe, crown, and sceptre
of a triumphant general and used the title imperator. Furthermore, as Pontifex Maximus, he
was head of the state religion. Above all, however, he was in total command of the armies, and
this remained the main source of his power.
Caesar instituted a wide-ranging programme of reform. In the provinces he eliminated the
highly corrupt tax system, sponsored the establishment of colonies of veterans, and extended
Roman citizenship. At home he reorganized the courts and increased the number of senators.
His reform of the calendar gave Rome a rational means of recording time.
A number of senatorial families, however, felt that Caesar threatened their position, and his
honours and powers made them fear that he wanted to be rex (king), a title they, as
Republicans, hated. In 44 BC, a group of senators, including Gaius Cassius and Marcus Junius
Brutus, plotted his assassination. On the Ides (15th) of March 44 BC, when Caesar entered the
Senate house, the group killed him.
Personal Life
After Caesar's first wife, Cornelia, died in 68 BC, he married Pompeia, a granddaughter of
Sulla. When the mysteries of the Bona Dea, over which she presided, were violated, she was
maligned by gossips, and Caesar divorced her, telling the Senate that any wife of his must
remain above suspicion. His next marriage (59 BC) was to Calpurnia and was politically
motivated. Since Caesar had no male heirs, he stipulated in his will that his great nephew,
Octavius, become his successor. It was Octavius who became Rome's first emperor under the
name of Augustus.
Caesar was a gifted writer, with a clear and simple style. His Commentaries, in which he
described Gaul and his Gallic campaigns, is a major source of information about the early
Celtic and Germanic tribes.
Achievements
Scholarly opinion of Caesar's achievements is divided. Some regard him as an unscrupulous
tyrant, with an insatiable lust for power, and blame him for the demise of the Roman Republic.
Others, admitting that he could be ruthless, insist that the Republic had already been
destroyed. They maintain that to save the Roman world from chaos a new type of government
had to be created. In fact, Caesar's reforms brought stability to the Mediterranean world. He
was also a superb general, who inspired loyalty in his soldiers. As one of the most striking
figures in the ancient world he became the subject of many literary and biographical works,
including the play Julius Caesar (1599) by the English dramatist William Shakespeare. 8

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Augustus (emperor) (63 BC-AD 14), first emperor of Rome (27 BC-AD 14), who restored
unity and orderly government to the realm after nearly a century of civil wars. He presided over
an era of peace, prosperity, and cultural achievement known as the Augustan Age.
Originally named Gaius Octavius, Augustus was born in Rome on September 23, 63 BC; he
was the great nephew of Julius Caesar, whom he succeeded as ruler of the Roman state.
Caesar was fond of the youth and had him raised to the College of Pontificesa major Roman
priesthoodat the age of 16. When Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC, Octavius was in Illyria,
where he was serving in the army; on his return to Italy, he learned that he was Caesar's
adopted heir. He subsequently took the name Gaius Julius Caesar, to which historians have
added Octavianus; in English, the name is usually shortened to Octavian.
The Second Triumvirate
Caesar's assassination plunged Rome into turmoil. Octavian, determined to avenge his
adoptive father and secure his position, vied with Mark Antony, Caesar's ambitious colleague,
for power and honour. After some political and military skirmishes, during which Antony was
driven across the Alps while Octavian was made senator and then consul, Octavian recognized
the necessity of making peace with his rival. In late 43 BC, the two together with Antony's ally,
the general Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, met and formed the Second Triumvirate to rule the
Roman provinces. The alliance was sealed by a wide-ranging proscription, in which their
opponents including 300 senators and 200 knights were slain. Among those killed was the
ageing orator Cicero.
Octavian and Antony next took the field against the leaders of Caesar's assassins, Marcus
Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus, both of whom committed suicide in 42 BC, after
their defeat at Philippi in Macedonia, Greece. By 40 BC the triumvirs had divided control of the
Roman world amongst themselves. Octavian ruled most of the western provinces, Antony the
eastern ones, and Lepidus Africa. Although Antony and Octavian clashed over control of Italy,
they settled their differences, and in 37 BC Octavian gave Antony his sister, Octavia, in
marriage. In 36 BC, Sextus Pompeius, son of Pompey the Great and the last major opponent
of the triumvirs, was eliminated. Octavian then forced Lepidus from power, while Antony was in
the east fighting the Parthians.
The triumvirate was finally dissolved when Antony sent Octavia back to Rome, and soon after
married Cleopatra, whom Caesar had installed as Queen of Egypt. By recognizing Caesarion,
her son by Caesar, as her co-ruler, Anthony threatened Octavian's position as Caesar's only
successor, and war was inevitable. Octavian defeated the joint forces of Antony and Cleopatra
at the naval battle of Actium in 31 BC; the following year Antony and Cleopatra both committed
suicide. Caesarion was murdered. In 29 BC Octavian returned to Rome in triumph as the sole
ruler of the Roman world.
The First Citizen
In 27 BC the Roman Senate gave Octavian the title Augustus (consecrated, or holy), which
later became synonymous with emperor, and his reign has often been considered a dyarchy
because of the Senate's participation in it. The Senate bestowed on him a host of other titles
and powers that had been held by many different officials in the Republic. In 36 BC he was
granted the inviolability of a plebeian tribune, and in 30 BC he received the powers of a
tribune, thus giving him the veto and control over assemblies. The Senate also granted him

ultimate authority in the provinces; this, together with the consulship of Rome and Italy, which
he held 13 times during his reign, conferred on him supreme authority throughout the empire.
After the death of Lepidus he also became Pontifex Maximus (chief priest) with control over
religion. Despite his pre-eminence as reflected in the titles princeps, or first citizen, and
imperator (from which emperor is derived), Augustus was careful not to take on the trappings
of monarchy. In fact, he made much of the claim that he was restoring the Roman Republic.
A patron of the arts, Augustus was a friend of the poets Ovid, Horace, and Virgil, as well as the
historian Livy. His love of architectural splendour was encapsulated in his boast that he had
found Rome brick and left it marble. As a strict adherent of Roman virtues in times of growing
permissiveness, he tried to regulate public morals by passing sumptuary and marriage laws. In
the economic sphere, he encouraged the development of agriculture in Italy.
Augustus married three times; his third wife was Livia Drusilla, who had two sons, Tiberius and
Drusus Germanicus, by a previous marriage. Augustus also had a daughter, Julia, by a
previous marriage. Drusus and Julia died, leaving his stepson and son-in-law, Tiberius, to
succeed Augustus when he died at Nola, Italy, on August 19, AD 14.
Evaluation
Both ancient and modern writers have varied in their assessments of Augustus. Some have
condemned his ruthless quest for power, especially his part in the proscription at the time of
the Triumvirate. Others, including the staunch Republican supporter Tacitus, have admitted his
good points as a ruler. Modern scholars sometimes criticize his unscrupulous methods and
authoritarian style of rule, but they usually recognize his achievements in establishing an
efficient administration and a stable government, and in bringing security and prosperity to the
Roman Empire.9

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