PSAE Region IV Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

V-1

Crop Processing
Arnold R. Elepao
Associate Professor
Agricultural and Bio-Process Division
Institute of Agricultural Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology
University of the Philippines Los Baos

I.

Glossary ( from American Society of Agricultural

Engineers, 1987)

Air-moving device (AMD) A revolving, wheel-type, mechanical device used to

move air for drying or aeration. For the purposes of this Standard, an AMD
shall include the wheel or blade assembly, mounting structure and casing, but
may or may not include a power source.
Aeration - The purposeful movement of air at a low rate through a product to
maintain or improve product quality. Air flow rates usually do not exceed 0.08
cubic meters per minute per cubic meter of product (0.1 cubic feet per minute
per bushel of product) through a dry product and 0.80 cubic meters per
minute per cubic meter of product (1cubic feet per minute per bushel of
product) through a wet product.
Ambient temperature The temperature of the surrounding air.
Approved - The use of approved or approved-type refers to listing by a
recognized testing agency or laboratory.
Available heat
- In drying a harvested crop, the quantity of heat in air that can
be utilized in evaporating water from the product.
Batch - A quantity of a harvested crop put into a bin or container on a repetitive
basis specifically for treatment, such as drying.
Blending - The process of mixing two or more different products together, such as
grains and supplements, to obtain desired food ratios, or the process of
mixing different quantities of the same product with different moisture
contents to obtain a final mass with a uniform moisture content.
Bushel
- One bushel by volume equals 1.25 cubic feet.
- One dry bushel is that weight of grain defined by government grain
standards as a standard unit for trading at a specific moisture (e.g. 56 pounds
at 15.5 percent w.b.for number 2 corn).
- A wet bushel is the weight of wet grain which when dried will give one dried
bushel as specified in paragraph above (e.g. 63.5 lb of 25.5 percent w.b. corn).
Casing - The outer enclosure surrounding the entire heat exchanger and
confining the air being heated.
Combustible material Combustible refers to a material or structure, which can
burn. Combustible is a relative term. Many materials, which will burn under
one set of conditions, will not burn under other. For example, structural steel is
not combustible, but fine steel wool is combustible. The term combustible is
not related to any specific ignition temperature.
Crop Processing

PSAE Region IV Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

V-2

Conduction - Transmission through or by means of a conductor, distinguished in the

case of heat from convection and radiation.
Control - Any component of a dryer, or dryer heat source, so
designed to affect or
limit any normal or abnormal condition of the drying operation.
Convection - Transference of heat or electricity by moving masses of matter, as by
currents in gasses and liquids caused by differences in density, or by
electrically charged particles
across a spark gap.
Cooling stage
- The time required to move a cooling zone entirely through the
product mass.
Cooling zone
- That portion of the product mass in storage where the product
temperature of the crop is falling during aeration.
Cubic meters per minute (CFM) Volumetric measure of quantity of flow. (CFM is
the most common customary measure.)
Curing - A form of conditioning as opposed to simple drying in which a chemical
change occurs, such as in tobacco, sweet potatoes, etc., to prepare the crop
for storage or use.
Cycling burner Type of operation wherein application of maximum heat is periodic
such as cycling between high fire and low fire,
cycling between high fire
and constant pilot; and cycling from high fire to off, then restarted to high
fire by constant or intermittent ignition.
Dehydration - The rapid removal of moisture, usually to a very low level.
Depth factor (Df) When drying with air, a depth which would contain enough
product that, if all the theoretical heat
available for drying could be used,
it would all dry to equilibrium in a period of time equal to the time required for
the fully exposed product to dry half-way to equilibrium.
Dryer - A unit which provides the conditions for removing moisture from a product.
Dryer, batch - Any dryer wherein the product to be dried is placed in the dryer, the
complete drying or drying and cooling operation performed, and then
removed for storage or further processing. Usually it is self-contained
comprising a drying compartment, either horizontal or vertical, to contain the
product being dried while heated air is forced or drawn through it from a
central portion usually called a plenum chamber. Cooling is usually carried out
in the same manner. Integral conveying equipment provides for loading and
unloading the dryer. Also included are the AMD, burner, and control system.
Batch dryers are usually portable, but may be stationary.
Dryer, circulating A batch dryer equipped to circulate or mix the product during
the drying and cooling period.
Dryer, concurrent flow A type of continuous flow dryer wherein the product being
dried moves in the same direction as drying air. Sometimes referred to as
parallel flow.
Dryer, continuous-flow - Any dryer wherein the product to be dried is in continuous
movement through the dryer and air movement is continuous, in contrast to
batch operation.
Crop Processing

PSAE Region IV Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

V-3

Dryer, counter-flow A type of continuous-flow dryer wherein the product being

dried moves in one direction and the drying air moves in the opposite
direction.
Dryer, cross-flow A type of dryer wherein the flow of air is transverse to the
direction of the flow of the product being dried.
Dryer, direct-fired Type of dryer in which the products of combustion come into
direct contact with the product being dried.
Dryer, fluidized or spouted bed A dryer where the product is in suspension, or is
moved through the dryer by the drying and/ or the cooling air.
Dryer, indirect-fired Type of dryer in which the products of combustion do not
come in contact with the products being dried.
Dryer, in storage A dryer in which the drying bin or compartment is also used to
store the product after it is dried.
Dryer, self- contained Any dryer manufactured as a package unit consisting of
the drying and cooling chamber, necessary heat or radiation source, all AMDs
and duct work, along with the necessary controls and product handling
equipment. These dryers may be either fixed or portable.
Dryer, tunnel
- A type of dryer wherein the product being dried is conveyed
through a tunnel-like chamber. It may be continuous or batch-type.
Drying
- The removal of moisture from a product, usually to some
predetermined moisture content.
Drying air - The air being passed through the product which is being dried.
Drying air temperature The temperature of the air entering the product being
dried.
Drying front - The divisional layer between dried and undried products
systems.

in

drying

Drying time maximum permissible The maximum elapsed time that may be
used to complete the drying of any portion of the product without undesirable
change in quality.
Drying zone - The band or layer of product in which most of the drying is occurring
at any instant.
Electrical induction Act or process by which an electric conductor becomes
electrified when near a charged body.
Equilibrium moisture content The moisture content of a product when it is in
equilibrium with the surrounding
atmosphere.
Equilibrium relative humidity The relative humidity of air surrounding
the
product in equilibrium with given moisture content. The air and product are at
the same temperature.
Fail-safe control A control designed so that a malfunction of any of its
components will stop the operation of the device or equipment controlled by
it.
Crop Processing

PSAE Region IV Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

V-4

Fuel train - The fuel train, mounted on the grain dryer structure and connected to
the gas burner, includes all piping components of fuel flow control and safety
shut-off valves.
Heat exchanger A device used to transfer heat from one fluid stream to another
without intermixing.
Heating-air drying Use of forced ventilation with the addition of heat for removing
moisture.
Heated-air unit - Basic heated-air-producing unit including AMD, burner system,
and electrical system. It is usually coupled to
drying structure by means
of a flexible duct. It may have
transport
chassis
and
wheels
for
portability.
Insulating fitting- A type of fitting designed to prevent galvanic current flow when
used between two dissimilar metals.
Joule (BTU) - A measure of quantity of heat. One joule will raise the temperature of
one gram of water one degree Celsius. (One
BTU
will
raise
the
temperature of one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit.)
Line pressure

- The pressure of the fuel in the supply line to the dryer.

LP-gas
- A mixture of gaseous petroleum products normally stored and
transported as a liquid under pressure. The principal constituents are propane
and butane.
Modulate (as applied to crop drying in reference to regulation of fuel in
continuous flow) Automatically governing the rate of fuel flow by a control which
is temperature-sensitive in order to maintain a constant temperature at the location
of the sensing device.
Moisture content (dry basis) For products, expressed as percentage, by weight,
of water in the product divided by dry matter.
Weight of water in product
Moisture content, percent = (100) x ------------------------------------Weight of dry matter

Moisture content (wet basis) For agricultural producers, usually expressed as

percentage, by weight, of water in the product, wet basis.
Weight of water in product
Moisture content, percent = (100) x -------------------------------------Weight of dry matter + water

Natural gas - A gaseous hydrocarbon, odorless and flammable, found in its natural
state in particular geologic formation as a product of decomposition of organic
matter. The composition is chiefly of the methane series with varying amounts
of other components such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and helium often
being present.
Orifice - The opening through which gas is admitted to the burner.
Pascal (psi pounds per square inch or inches of water column) A measure of
pressure or stress. Assumed to be gage pressure unless followed by the term
absolute.

Crop Processing

PSAE Region IV Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

V-5

Pilot- continuous The pilot remains lit during the time power is supplied to the
burner.
Pilot- interruptible The pilot is lit during the time combustion is being
established. When combustion is established the pilot is de-energized.
Pilot-standing - The pilot is manually lit and remains lit until manually shut off.
Plenum - An air chamber maintained under pressure (positive or negative) usually
connected to one or more distributing ducts in a drying or aeration system.
The term is also used to designate the air chamber under the perforated floor
in a grain bin and the pressure chamber between grain columns in some types
of batch or continuous dryers.
Pressure regulator A mechanical device which reduces the fluid (liquid or gas)
pressure to a relatively constant delivery pressure while the inlet pressure
may vary and while the volume of gas may also vary.
Pressure system Method of air movement in which air is forced through the
product with the air duct or ducts at a pressure above atmospheric pressure. It
is called a pushing or forcing system of air movement.
Pre- ventilation As applied to crop dryers, the term refers to clearing or purging
the plenum chamber or duct of any
volatile
gases
prior
to
ignition of the burner. It is usually accomplished by a device which insures
that the fan must operate for a certain period of time before ignition will be
permitted.
Radiation - The process by which energy is emitted from molecules and atoms
owing to the internal changes. Also the combined process of emission,
transmission, and absorption of radiant energy.
Recirculation
- As applied to crop dryers, the term refers to the return of the
portion of the exhaust air to the air intake of the dryer, or to the return of
underdried grain to the dryer or container from which it was removed.
Relative humidity A measure of the moisture content of air expressed
as
a
percentage. It is the ratio of the weight of water vapor in a given volume of
air at a given temperature to the maximum quantity of water vapor which the
same volume of air could hold at the same temperature.
Static pressure A measure of air pressure usually expressed in pascals [inches of
water column (WC)].
Steady state- Condition when the operation or process reaches equilibrium.
Suction system Method of air movement in which the air is moved through
the
product with the air duct or ducts at a
pressure lower than atmospheric. It
is also called an exhaust system of air movement.
Supervision - Continuous monitoring to react automatically to flame failure so as to
shut off gas flow to the unit.
Supplemental heat - Any heat added to that already present in the atmosphere to
obtain a limited temperature rise, usually less than 11C (20F), to accomplish
drying within the maximum permissible drying time to prevent spoilage.

Crop Processing

PSAE Region IV Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

V-6

Temperature rise As applied to crop drying, the term refers to the difference
between ambient temperature and the temperature and the temperature of
the drying air resulting from the addition of heat by the dryer burner.
Tempering - Equilization of moisture or temperature throughout the product.
Bringing a product to a desired moisture content or temperature for
processing.
Time of drying - The elapsed time from the start of the drying process to the
instant the drying front arrives at any point or place in the product.
Time of one-half response Time required to dry fully exposed products halfway
to equilibrium.
Turning - The process of moving a product through the air within a bin or storage
structure, or from one bin or storage structure to another.
Valve, excess-flow A check valve which permits flow of fluid in either direction but
which limits excessive flow in one direction. If the designated flow is
exceeded, the valve automatically closes.
Valve, pressure relief A valve designated as a safety device to open, and remain
open, to discharge a fluid whenever the fluid pressure reaches the start-todischarge setting of the valve. When the fluid pressure drops below this
setting, the relief valve automatically closes.
Valve, quick-acting A manually operated valve specially designed to accomplish
rapid shut-off to fuel flow to dryer.
Valve, solenoid A valve which is opened or closed by a solenoid (electromagnet).
In the normally closed type, for example, the valve is opened by the solenoid
but closed by a return spring and held closed by the fluid pressure upstream
from the valve.
Vapor pressure (fuel) Commonly taken to mean saturated vapor pressure which
is the vapor pressure of a vapor in contact with its liquid form. An example is
the pressure in an LP-gas storage tank. The term is also used for the pressure
of the vaporized fuel being fed to the burner orifice.
Vaporizer - In an LP-gas system, the vaporizer is a heat exchanger wherein heat is
supplied to change the liquid fuel to vapor, ready for combustion. The
vaporizer may be integral with the burner so that part of the heat of
combustion is used for vaporization.
Vaporizer-burner An integral vaporizer-burner unit, dependent upon the heat
generated by the burner as the source of heat to vaporize the liquid fuel.
Velocity of air flow for conditioning:
Apparent velocity in meters per minute (feet per minute) The rate of air flow
determined by dividing the quantity of air flow in cfm by the cross-sectional
area.
Average velocity The rate of air travel through product void space. It is
determined by dividing the apparent velocity by the product void space
expressed as a decimal. The average velocity is always greater than the
apparent velocity.
Crop Processing

PSAE Region IV Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

V-7

Traverse time The in-product travel time of air from entrance to any point, usually
in seconds.
Ventilation - Air movement through space.
Ventilation front The locus of all points of equal traverse time in the product
being conditioned.
Void space - The space between particles in a bulk of stored crop, usually
expressed as percent of total volume.
Weatherproof So constructed or protected that exposure to the weather will not
interfere with safe operation.

II. Conversion Factors

Quantity

SI to English

Density

1 m2 = 10.764 ft2
= 1550.0 in2
1 kg/ m3 = 0.06243 lbm/ ft3

Energy

1 J = 9.4787 x 10-4 Btu

Energy per unit mass

Force

1 J/kg = 4.2995 x 10-4 Btu/ lbm

1 N = 0.2248 lbf

Heat flux

1 W/ m2 = 0.3171 Btu/ (h.ft2)

Heat generation per

unit volume
Heat
transfer
coefficient

1 W/ m3 = 0.09665 Btu/ (h.ft3)

Heat transfer rate

Length

1 W = 3.4123 Btu/ h
1 m = 3.2808 ft
= 39.370 in
1 kg = 2.2046 lbm

Area

Mass
Mass flow rate
Power

Pressure and stress

Quantity
Specific heat
Surface tension
Temperature

Thermal diffusivity
Thermal resistance
Velocity

Crop Processing

1 W/ (m2.K) = 0.17612 Btu/ (h.ft 2.F)

1 kg/ s = 7936.6 lbm/ h

= 2.2046 lbm/ s
1 W = 3.4123 Btu/ h

1 N/ m2 = 0.020886 lbf/ ft2

= 1.4504 x 10-4 lbf/ in2
= 4.015 x 10-3 in water
= 2.953 x 10-4 in Hg

SI to English

English to SI
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

ft2 = 0.0929 m2
in2 = 6.452 x 10-4 m2
lbm/ ft3 = 16.018 kg/ m3
slug/ ft3 = 515.379 kg/ m3
Btu = 1055.056 J
cal = 4.1868 J
lbf.ft = 1.3558 J
hp.h = 2.685 x 106 J
Btu/ lbm = 2326 J/kg
lbf = 4.448 N
pdl = 0.1382 N
Btu/ (h.ft2) = 3.1525 W/ m2
kcal/ (h.m2) = 1.163 W/ m2
cal/ (s.cm2) = 41.870 x 103 W/ m2
Btu/ (h.ft3) = 10.343 W/ m3

1 Btu/ (h.ft2.F) = 5.678 W/ (m2.K)

1 kcal/ (h.m2.C) = 1.163 W/ (m2.K)
1 cal/ (s.cm2.C) = 41.870 x 103 W/
(m2.K)
1 Btu/ h = 0.2931 W
1 ft = 0.3048m
1 in = 2.54 cm = 0.0254 m
1 lbm = 0.4536 kg
1 slug = 14.594 kg
1 lbm/ h = 0.000126 kg/s
1 lbm/ s = 0.4536 kg/s
1 Btu/ h = 0.2931 W
1 Btu/ s = 1055.1 W
1 lbf.ft/s = 1.3558 W
1 hp = 745.7 W
1 lbf/ ft2 = 47.88 N/ m2
1 lbf/ in2 = 6894.8 N/ m2
1 psi = 1lbf/ in2 = 6894.8 N/ m2
1 std atmosphere = 1.0133 x 105 N/ m2
1 bar = 1 x 105 N/ m2

English to SI

1 J/ (kg.K) = 2.3886x10-4 Btu/ (lbm.F) 1 Btu/ (lbm.F) = 4187 J/ (kg.K)

1 N/ m = 0.06852 lbf/ ft
1 lbf/ ft = 14.594 N/ m
1 dyn/ cm = 1 x 10-3 N/ m
T(K) = T(C) + 273.15
T(R) = 1.8 T(K)
= T(R)/ 1.8
= T(F) + 459.67
= [T(F) + 459.67]/ 1.8
T(F) = 1.8 T(C) + 32
T(C) = [T(F) 32] / 1.8
= 1.8 [T(K) 273.15] + 32
1 m2/ s = 10.7639 ft2/ s
1 ft2/ s = 0.0929 m2/ s
1 ft2/ h = 2.581 x 10-5 m2/ s
1 K/ W = 0.52750F.h/ Btu
1 F.h/ Btu = 1.8958 K/ W
1 m/ s = 3.2808 ft/ s
1 ft/ s = 0.3048 m/ s

PSAE Region IV Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

2

Viscosity (dynamic)

1 N.s/ m = 0.672 lbm/ (ft.s)

= 2419.1 lbm/ (ft.h)
= 5.8016 x 10-6 lbf.h/ ft2

Viscosity (kinematic)

1 m2/ s = 10.7639 ft2/ s

Volume

1 m3 = 35.3134 ft3

Volume flow rate

1 m3/ s = 35.3134 ft3/ s

= 1.2713 ft3/ h

V-8
2

1 lbm/ (ft.s) = 1.4881 N.s/ m

1 lbm/ (ft.h) = 4.133 x 10-4 N.s/ m2
1 centipoise = 10-2 poise = 1x10-3 N.s/
m2
1 ft2/ s = 0.0929 m2/ s
1 ft2/ h = 2.581 x 10-5 m2/ s
1 ft3 = 0.02832 m3
1 in3 = 1.6387 x 10-5 m3
1 gal (US liq.) = 0.003785 m3
1 gal (UK liq.) = 0.004546 m3
1 ft3/ h = 7.8658 x 10-6 m3/ s
1 ft3/ s = 2.8317 x 10-2 m3/ s
1 gal (US liq.)/ min. = 6.309 x 10 -5 m3/
s

IV. References
Hall, C.W. 1980. Drying and Storage of Agricultural Crops. AVI Publishing
Co., Inc.

Crop Processing