Heat transfer

This gure shows a calculation for thermal convection in the

Earths mantle. Colors closer to red are hot areas and colors
closer to blue are cold areas. A hot, less-dense lower boundary
layer sends plumes of hot material upwards, and likewise, cold
material from the top moves downwards.

Heat transfer is the exchange of thermal energy between

physical systems. The rate of heat transfer is dependent
on the temperatures of the systems and the properties of
the intervening medium through which the heat is transferred. The three fundamental modes of heat transfer are
conduction, convection and radiation. Heat transfer, the
ow of energy in the form of heat, is a process by which
a systems internal energy is changed, hence is of vital
use in applications of the First Law of Thermodynamics.
Conduction is also known as diusion, not to be confused
with diusion related to the mixing of constituents of a
uid.

Earths longwave thermal radiation intensity, from clouds, atmosphere and surface.

The direction of heat transfer is from a region of high

temperature to another region of lower temperature, and
is governed by the Second Law of Thermodynamics.
Heat transfer changes the internal energy of the systems
from which and to which the energy is transferred. Heat
transfer will occur in a direction that increases the entropy
of the collection of systems.

Thermodynamic and mechanical heat transfer is calculated with the heat transfer coecient, the proportionality
between the heat ux and the thermodynamic driving
force for the ow of heat. Heat ux is a quantitative, vectorial representation of heat-ow through a surface.[2]

Heat is dened in physics as the transfer of thermal

energy across a well-dened boundary around a
thermodynamic system. The thermodynamic free energy
is the amount of work that a thermodynamic system
can perform. Enthalpy is a thermodynamic potential,
designated by the letter H, that is the sum of the
internal energy of the system (U) plus the product of

Thermal engineering concerns the generation, use, conversion, and exchange of heat transfer. As such,
heat transfer is involved in almost every sector of the
economy.[6] Heat transfer is classied into various mechanisms, such as thermal conduction, thermal convection, thermal radiation, and transfer of energy by phase
changes.

pressure (P) and volume (V). Joule is a unit to quantify

energy, work, or the amount of heat.
Heat transfer is a. process function (or path function),
as opposed to functions of state; therefore, the amount of
heat transferred in a thermodynamic process that changes
the state of a system depends on how that process occurs,
not only the net dierence between the initial and nal
states of the process.

In engineering contexts, the term heat is taken as synonymous to thermal energy. This usage has its origin in the
Thermal equilibrium is reached when all involved bod- historical interpretation of heat as a uid (caloric) that
ies and the surroundings reach the same temperature. can be transferred by various causes,[3] and that is also
Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change common in the language of laymen and everyday life.
in volume in response to a change in temperature.[1]
The transport equations for thermal energy (Fouriers
law), mechanical momentum (Newtons law for uids), and mass transfer (Ficks laws of diusion) are
similar,[4][5] and analogies among these three transport
1 Overview
processes have been developed to facilitate prediction of
conversion from any one to the others.[5]
See also: Heat transfer physics

2 MECHANISMS

Mechanisms

Metal rods. Steady state conduction (see Fouriers law)

is a form of conduction that happens when the temperature dierence driving the conduction is constant, so
The fundamental modes of heat transfer are:
that after an equilibration time, the spatial distribution of
temperatures in the conducting object does not change
Advection Advection is the transport mechanism of a
any further.[9] In steady state conduction, the amount of
uid from one location to another, and is dependent
heat entering a section is equal to amount of heat coming
on motion and momentum of that uid.
out.[8]
Conduction or diusion The transfer of energy be- Transient conduction (see Heat equation) occurs when the
tween objects that are in physical contact. Thermal temperature within an object changes as a function of
conductivity is the property of a material to conduct time. Analysis of transient systems is more complex and
heat and evaluated primarily in terms of Fouriers often calls for the application of approximation theories
Law for heat conduction.
or numerical analysis by computer.[8]
Convection The transfer of energy between an object
and its environment, due to uid motion. The average temperature, is a reference for evaluating prop- 2.3
erties related to convective heat transfer.

Convection

Radiation The transfer of energy by the emission of Main article: Convection

electromagnetic radiation.
The ow of uid may be forced by external processes,
or sometimes (in gravitational elds) by buoyancy forces
2.1 Advection
caused when thermal energy expands the uid (for example in a re plume), thus inuencing its own transfer. The
By transferring matter, energyincluding thermal
latter process is often called natural convection. All
energyis moved by the physical transfer of a hot or
convective processes also move heat partly by diusion,
cold object from one place to another.[7] This can be
as well. Another form of convection is forced convection.
as simple as placing hot water in a bottle and heating a
In this case the uid is forced to ow by use of a pump,
bed, or the movement of an iceberg in changing ocean
fan or other mechanical means.
currents. A practical example is thermal hydraulics. This
Convective heat transfer, or convection, is the transfer
can be described by the formula:
of heat from one place to another by the movement of
uids, a process that is essentially the transfer of heat
via mass transfer. Bulk motion of uid enhances heat
Q = vcp T
transfer in many physical situations, such as (for exam[10]
Convecwhere Q is heat ux (W/m), is density (kg/m), cp ple) between a solid surface and the uid.
tion
is
usually
the
dominant
form
of
heat
transfer
in liqis heat capacity at constant pressure (J/kgK), T is the
uids
and
gases.
Although
sometimes
discussed
as
a
third
change in temperature (K), v is velocity (m/s).
method of heat transfer, convection is usually used to describe the combined eects of heat conduction within the
uid (diusion) and heat transference by bulk uid ow
2.2 Conduction
streaming.[11] The process of transport by uid streaming
Main article: Thermal conduction
is known as advection, but pure advection is a term that
is generally associated only with mass transport in uids,
On a microscopic scale, heat conduction occurs as hot, such as advection of pebbles in a river. In the case of heat
rapidly moving or vibrating atoms and molecules inter- transfer in uids, where transport by advection in a uid is
act with neighboring atoms and molecules, transferring always also accompanied by transport via heat diusion
some of their energy (heat) to these neighboring parti- (also known as heat conduction) the process of heat concles. In other words, heat is transferred by conduction vection is understood to refer to the sum of heat transport
when adjacent atoms vibrate against one another, or as by advection and diusion/conduction.
electrons move from one atom to another. Conduction is
the most signicant means of heat transfer within a solid
or between solid objects in thermal contact. Fluids
especially gasesare less conductive. Thermal contact
conductance is the study of heat conduction between solid
bodies in contact.[8] The process of heat transfer from one
place to another place without the movement of particles is called conduction Example:Heat transfer through

Free, or natural, convection occurs when bulk uid motions (streams and currents) are caused by buoyancy
forces that result from density variations due to variations of temperature in the uid. Forced convection is
a term used when the streams and currents in the uid
are induced by external meanssuch as fans, stirrers,
and pumpscreating an articially induced convection
current.[12]

2.5

Radiation

2.3.1

Convection-cooling

The Rayleigh number can be understood as the ratio between the rate of heat transfer by convection to the rate
See also: Nusselt number
of heat transfer by conduction; or, equivalently, the ratio between the corresponding timescales (i.e. conducConvective cooling is sometimes described as Newtons tion timescale divided by convection timescale), up to a
numerical factor. This can be seen as follows, where all
law of cooling:
calculations are up to numerical factors depending on the
geometry of the system.
The rate of heat loss of a body is proporThe buoyancy force driving the convection is roughly
tional to the temperature dierence between the
gL3 , so the corresponding pressure is roughly gL
body and its surroundings.
. In steady state, this is canceled by the shear stress
due to viscosity, and therefore roughly equals V /L =
However, by denition, the validity of Newtons law of /T
conv , where V is the typical uid velocity due to concooling requires that the rate of heat loss from convec- vection and T
conv the order of its timescale. The contion be a linear function of (proportional to) the tem- duction timescale, on the other hand, is of the order of
perature dierence that drives heat transfer, and in con- T
2
cond = L / .
vective cooling this is sometimes not the case. In general,
convection is not linearly dependent on temperature gra- Convection occurs when the Rayleigh number is above
dients, and in some cases is strongly nonlinear. In these 1,0002,000.
cases, Newtons law does not apply.

2.5 Radiation
2.4

Convection vs. conduction

In a body of uid that is heated from underneath its container, conduction and convection can be considered to
compete for dominance. If heat conduction is too great,
uid moving down by convection is heated by conduction so fast that its downward movement will be stopped
due to its buoyancy, while uid moving up by convection
is cooled by conduction so fast that its driving buoyancy
will diminish. On the other hand, if heat conduction is
very low, a large temperature gradient may be formed
and convection might be very strong.
The Rayleigh number ( Ra ) is a measure determining the
relative strength of conduction and convection.

Ra =

gL3
gT L3
=

Red-hot iron object, transferring heat to the surrounding environment primarily through thermal radiation

Thermal radiation occurs through a vacuum or any

transparent medium (solid or uid). It is the transfer
where
of energy by means of photons in electromagnetic waves
governed by the same laws.[13] Earths radiation balance
g is acceleration due to gravity,
depends on the incoming and the outgoing thermal radiation, Earths energy budget. Anthropogenic perturba is the density with being the density dierence
tions in the climate system are responsible for a positive
between the lower and upper ends,
radiative forcing which reduces the net longwave radiation loss to space.
is the dynamic viscosity,
Thermal radiation is energy emitted by matter as electromagnetic waves, due to the pool of thermal energy in
is the volume thermal expansivity (sometimes de- all matter with a temperature above absolute zero. Thermal radiation propagates without the presence of matter
noted elsewhere),
through the vacuum of space.[14]
T is the temperature,
Thermal radiation is a direct result of the random movements of atoms and molecules in matter. Since these
is the kinematic viscosity, and
atoms and molecules are composed of charged particles
L is characteristic length.
(protons and electrons), their movement results in the

is the Thermal diusivity,

PHASE TRANSITION

emission of electromagnetic radiation, which carries energy away from the surface.
The Stefan-Boltzmann equation, which describes the rate
of transfer of radiant energy, is as follows for an object in
a vacuum :

Q = T 4
For radiative transfer between two objects, the equation
is as follows:

Q = (Ta4 Tb4 )
where Q is the heat ux, is the emissivity (unity for a
black body), is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, and T is
the absolute temperature (in Kelvin or Rankine). Radiation is typically only important for very hot objects, or
for objects with a large temperature dierence.
Radiation from the sun, or solar radiation, can be harvested for heat and power.[15] Unlike conductive and
convective forms of heat transfer, thermal radiation can
be concentrated in a small spot by using reecting mirrors, which is exploited in concentrating solar power
generation.[16] For example, the sunlight reected from
mirrors heats the PS10 solar power tower and during the
day it can heat water to 285 C (545 F).

Lightning is a highly visible form of energy transfer and is an example of plasma present at Earths surface. Typically, lightning
discharges 30,000 amperes at up to 100 million volts, and emits
light, radio waves, X-rays and even gamma rays.[17] Plasma temperatures in lightning can approach 28,000 Kelvin (27,726.85
C) (49,940.33 F) and electron densities may exceed 1024 m3 .

Phase transition

See also: Phase transition

Phase transition or phase change, takes place in a
thermodynamic system from one phase or state of matter
to another one by heat transfer. Phase change examples
are the melting of ice or the boiling of water. The Mason
equation explains the growth of a water droplet based on
the eects of heat transport on evaporation and condensation.
Types of phase transition occurring in the four fundamental states of matter, include:

Nucleate boiling of water.

which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the pressure

[18][19]
and the liquid evaporates re Solid - Deposition, freezing and solid to solid trans- surrounding the liquid
sulting in an abrupt change in vapor volume.
formation.
Gas - Boiling / evaporation, recombination / Saturation temperature means boiling point. The saturation temperature is the temperature for a corresponding
deionization, and sublimation.
saturation pressure at which a liquid boils into its vapor
phase. The liquid can be said to be saturated with ther Liquid - Condensation and melting / fusion.
mal energy. Any addition of thermal energy results in a
Plasma - Ionization.
phase transition.
At standard atmospheric pressure and low temperatures,
no boiling occurs and the heat transfer rate is controlled
by the usual single-phase mechanisms. As the surface
Main article: Boiling
temperature is increased, local boiling occurs and vapor
The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at bubbles nucleate, grow into the surrounding cooler uid,

3.1

Boiling

3.3

Melting

and collapse. This is sub-cooled nucleate boiling, and is 3.3 Melting

a very ecient heat transfer mechanism. At high bubble
generation rates, the bubbles begin to interfere and the Main article: Melting
heat ux no longer increases rapidly with surface tem- Melting is a physical process that results in the phase
perature (this is the departure from nucleate boiling, or
DNB).
At similar standard atmospheric pressure and high temperatures, the hydrodynamically-quieter regime of lm
boiling is reached. Heat uxes across the stable vapor layers are low, but rise slowly with temperature. Any contact
between uid and the surface that may be seen probably
leads to the extremely rapid nucleation of a fresh vapor
layer (spontaneous nucleation"). At higher temperatures
still, a maximum in the heat ux is reached (the critical
heat ux, or CHF).
The Leidenfrost Eect demonstrates how nucleate boiling slows heat transfer due to gas bubbles on the heaters
surface. As mentioned, gas-phase thermal conductivity
is much lower than liquid-phase thermal conductivity, so
the outcome is a kind of gas thermal barrier.

3.2

Condensation

Main article: Condensation

Condensation occurs when a vapor is cooled and changes
its phase to a liquid. During condensation, the latent heat
of vaporization must be released. The amount of the heat
is the same as that absorbed during vaporization at the
same uid pressure.
There are several types of condensation:
Homogeneous condensation, as during a formation Ice melting
of fog.
Condensation in direct contact with subcooled liq- transition of a substance from a solid to a liquid. The
internal energy of a substance is increased, typically by
uid.
the application of heat or pressure, resulting in a rise of
Condensation on direct contact with a cooling wall its temperature to the melting point, at which the orderof a heat exchanger: This is the most common mode ing of ionic or molecular entities in the solid breaks down
to a less ordered state and the solid liquees. An object
used in industry:
that has melted completely is molten. Substances in the
Filmwise condensation is when a liquid lm is molten state generally have reduced viscosity with eleformed on the subcooled surface, and usually vated temperature; an exception to this maxim is the element sulfur, whose viscosity increases to a point due to
occurs when the liquid wets the surface.
polymerization and then decreases with higher tempera Dropwise condensation is when liquid drops tures in its molten state.[20]
are formed on the subcooled surface, and usually occurs when the liquid does not wet the
surface.
Dropwise condensation is dicult to sustain
reliably; therefore, industrial equipment is normally designed to operate in lmwise condensation mode.

4 Modeling approaches
Heat transfer can be modeled in the following ways.

4.1

5 ENGINEERING

Climate models

Climate models study the radiant heat transfer by using

quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the
atmosphere, oceans, land surface, and ice.

4.2

Heat equation

The heat equation is an important partial dierential

equation that describes the distribution of heat (or variation in temperature) in a given region over time. In some
cases, exact solutions of the equation are available;[21] in
Heat exposure as part of a re test for restop products
other cases the equation must be solved numerically using
computational methods.

5.1 Insulation, radiance and resistance

Thermal insulators are materials specically designed to
reduce the ow of heat by limiting conduction, convection, or both. Thermal resistance is a heat property and
Lumped system analysis often reduces the complexity of the measurement by which an object or material resists
the equations to one rst-order linear dierential equa- to heat ow (heat per time unit or thermal resistance) to
tion, in which case heating and cooling are described by a temperature dierence.
simple exponential solution, often referred to as Newtons
Radiance or spectral radiance are measures of the quanlaw of cooling.
tity of radiation that passes through or is emitted. Radiant
System analysis by the lumped capacitance model is a barriers are materials that reect radiation, and therefore
common approximation in transient conduction that may reduce the ow of heat from radiation sources. Good inbe used whenever heat conduction within an object is sulators are not necessarily good radiant barriers, and vice
much faster than heat conduction across the boundary versa. Metal, for instance, is an excellent reector and a
of the object. This is a method of approximation that poor insulator.
reduces one aspect of the transient conduction system
that within the objectto an equivalent steady state sys- The eectiveness of a radiant barrier is indicated by its
tem. That is, the method assumes that the tempera- reectivity, which is the fraction of radiation reected.
ture within the object is completely uniform, although its A material with a high reectivity (at a given wavelength)
has a low emissivity (at that same wavelength), and vice
value may be changing in time.
versa. At any specic wavelength, reectivity = 1 - emisIn this method, the ratio of the conductive heat resistance sivity. An ideal radiant barrier would have a reectivity
within the object to the convective heat transfer resistance of 1, and would therefore reect 100 percent of incoming
across the objects boundary, known as the Biot number, radiation. Vacuum asks, or Dewars, are silvered to apis calculated. For small Biot numbers, the approximation proach this ideal. In the vacuum of space, satellites use
of spatially uniform temperature within the object can be multi-layer insulation, which consists of many layers of
used: it can be presumed that heat transferred into the aluminized (shiny) Mylar to greatly reduce radiation heat
object has time to uniformly distribute itself, due to the transfer and control satellite temperature.
lower resistance to doing so, as compared with the resistance to heat entering the object.

4.3

Lumped system analysis

5.2 Devices

Engineering

Heat transfer has broad application to the functioning of

numerous devices and systems. Heat-transfer principles
may be used to preserve, increase, or decrease temperature in a wide variety of circumstances. Heat transfer methods are used in numerous disciplines, such as
automotive engineering, thermal management of electronic devices and systems, climate control, insulation,
materials processing, and power station engineering.

Heat engine is a system that performs the conversion of heat or thermal energy to mechanical
energy which can then be used to do mechanical
work.[22][23]
Thermocouple is a temperature-measuring device
and widely used type of temperature sensor for measurement and control, and can also be used to convert heat into electric power.
Thermoelectric cooler is a solid state electronic device that pumps (transfers) heat from one side of the

6 Examples
6.1 Architecture
Ecient energy use is the goal to reduce the amount
of energy required in heating or cooling. In architecture, condensation and air currents can cause cosmetic or
structural damage. An energy audit can help to assess
the implementation of recommended corrective procedures. For instance, insulation improvements, air sealing of structural leaks or the addition of energy-ecient
windows and doors.[24]
Smart meter is a device that records electric energy
consumption in intervals.

Heat engine diagram

device to the other when electric current is passed

through it. It is based on the Peltier eect.
Thermal diode or thermal rectier is a device that
causes heat to ow preferentially in one direction.

Thermal transmittance is the rate of transfer of heat

through a structure divided by the dierence in temperature across the structure. It is expressed in
watts per square meter per kelvin, or W/mK. Wellinsulated parts of a building have a low thermal
transmittance, whereas poorly-insulated parts of a
building have a high thermal transmittance.
Thermostat is a device to monitor and control temperature.

6.2 Climate engineering

5.2.1

Heat exchangers

Main article: Heat exchanger

See also: Anthropogenic heat

Climate engineering consists of carbon dioxide removal

A heat exchanger is used for more ecient heat transfer

or to dissipate heat. Heat exchangers are widely used in
refrigeration, air conditioning, space heating, power generation, and chemical processing. One common example
of a heat exchanger is a cars radiator, in which the hot
coolant uid is cooled by the ow of air over the radiators surface.
Common types of heat exchanger ows include parallel
ow, counter ow, and cross ow. In parallel ow, both
uids move in the same direction while transferring heat;
in counter ow, the uids move in opposite directions;
and in cross ow, the uids move at right angles to each
other. Common constructions for heat exchanger include An example application in climate engineering includes the creshell and tube, double pipe, extruded nned pipe, spiral ation of Biochar through the pyrolysis process. Thus, storing
greenhouse gases in carbon reduces the radiative forcing capacity
n pipe, u-tube, and stacked plate.
A heat sink is a component that transfers heat generated
within a solid material to a uid medium, such as air or
a liquid. Examples of heat sinks are the heat exchangers
used in refrigeration and air conditioning systems or the
radiator in a car. A heat pipe is another heat-transfer device that combines thermal conductivity and phase transition to eciently transfer heat between two solid interfaces.

in the atmosphere, causing more long-wave (infrared) radiation

out to Space.

and solar radiation management. Since the amount of

carbon dioxide determines the radiative balance of Earth
atmosphere, carbon dioxide removal techniques can be
applied to reduce the radiative forcing. Solar radiation
management is the attempt to absorb less solar radiation
to oset the eects of greenhouse gases.

6.3

6 EXAMPLES

Greenhouse eect

A representation of the exchanges of energy between the source

(the Sun), the Earths surface, the Earths atmosphere, and the ultimate sink outer space. The ability of the atmosphere to capture
and recycle energy emitted by the Earth surface is the dening
characteristic of the greenhouse eect.

surroundings is signicantly less than the normal body

temperature. This concept explains why a person feels
cold when not enough covering is worn when exposed
to a cold environment. Clothing can be considered an
insulator which provides thermal resistance to heat ow
over the covered portion of the body.[27] This thermal
resistance causes the temperature on the surface of the
clothing to be less than the temperature on the surface
of the skin. This smaller temperature gradient between
the surface temperature and the ambient temperature will
cause a lower rate of heat transfer than if the skin were
not covered.
In order to ensure that one portion of the body is not signicantly hotter than another portion, heat must be distributed evenly through the bodily tissues. Blood owing
through blood vessels acts as a convective uid and helps
to prevent any buildup of excess heat inside the tissues of
the body. This ow of blood through the vessels can be
modeled as pipe ow in an engineering system. The heat
carried by the blood is determined by the temperature of
the surrounding tissue, the diameter of the blood vessel,
the thickness of the uid, velocity of the ow, and the
heat transfer coecient of the blood. The velocity, blood
vessel diameter, and the uid thickness can all be related
with the Reynolds Number, a dimensionless number used
in uid mechanics to characterize the ow of uids.

The greenhouse eect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases, and is re-radiated in all directions. Since part of this re-radiation is back towards the
surface and the lower atmosphere, it results in an elevation
of the average surface temperature above what it would Latent heat loss, also known as evaporative heat loss, acbe in the absence of the gases.
counts for a large fraction of heat loss from the body.
When the core temperature of the body increases, the
body triggers sweat glands in the skin to bring additional
6.4 Heat transfer in the human body
moisture to the surface of the skin. The liquid is then
transformed into vapor which removes heat from the surSee also: Wet-bulb temperature
face of the body.[28] The rate of evaporation heat loss is
directly related to the vapor pressure at the skin surface
[26]
The principles of heat transfer in engineering systems can and the amount of moisture present on the skin. Therebe applied to the human body in order to determine how fore, the maximum of heat transfer will occur when the
the body transfers heat. Heat is produced in the body by skin is completely wet. The body continuously loses wathe continuous metabolism of nutrients which provides ter by evaporation but the most signicant amount of heat
energy for the systems of the body.[25] The human body loss occurs during periods of increased physical activity.
must maintain a consistent internal temperature in order
to maintain healthy bodily functions. Therefore, excess
heat must be dissipated from the body to keep it from
overheating. When a person engages in elevated levels of
physical activity, the body requires additional fuel which
increases the metabolic rate and the rate of heat production. The body must then use additional methods to remove the additional heat produced in order to keep the
internal temperature at a healthy level.
Heat transfer by convection is driven by the movement of
uids over the surface of the body. This convective uid
can be either a liquid or a gas. For heat transfer from
the outer surface of the body, the convection mechanism
is dependent on the surface area of the body, the velocity of the air, and the temperature gradient between the
surface of the skin and the ambient air.[26] The normal
temperature of the body is approximately 37 C. Heat
transfer occurs more readily when the temperature of the

6.5 Cooling techniques

6.5.1 Evaporative cooling
Evaporative cooling happens when water vapor is added
to the surrounding air. The energy needed to evaporate
the water is taken from the air in the form of sensible
heat and converted into latent heat, while the air remains
at a constant enthalpy. Latent heat describes the amount
of heat that is needed to evaporate the liquid; this heat
comes from the liquid itself and the surrounding gas and
surfaces. The greater the dierence between the two
temperatures, the greater the evaporative cooling eect.
When the temperatures are the same, no net evaporation
of water in air occurs; thus, there is no cooling eect.

6.6

Thermal energy storage

9
6.5.4 Radiative cooling
Radiative cooling is the process by which a body loses
heat by radiation. Outgoing energy is an important eect
in the Earths energy budget. In the case of the Earthatmosphere system, it refers to the process by which longwave (infrared) radiation is emitted to balance the absorption of short-wave (visible) energy from the Sun. Convective transport of heat and evaporative transport of latent
heat both remove heat from the surface and redistribute
it in the atmosphere.

6.6 Thermal energy storage

Thermal energy storage refers to technologies used to collect and store energy for later use. They can be employed
to balance energy demand between day and nighttime.
The thermal reservoir may be maintained at a temperature above (hotter) or below (colder) than that of the
ambient environment. Applications include later use in
space heating, domestic or process hot water, or to generate electricity.
A traditional air cooler in Mirzapur, Uttar Pradesh, India

6.5.2

Laser cooling

In Quantum Physics laser cooling is used to achieve temperatures of near absolute zero (273.15 C, 459.67
F) of atomic and molecular samples, to observe unique
quantum eects that can only occur at this heat level.
Doppler cooling is the most common method of
laser cooling.
Sympathetic cooling is a process in which particles
of one type cool particles of another type. Typically,
atomic ions that can be directly laser-cooled are used
to cool nearby ions or atoms. This technique allows
cooling of ions and atoms that cannot be laser cooled
directly.

7 See also
Combined forced and natural convection
Heat capacity
Heat transfer physics
StefanBoltzmann law
Thermal contact conductance
Thermal physics
Thermal resistance in electronics
Thermal science
Heat transfer enhancement

8 References
6.5.3

Magnetic cooling

Main articles: Magnetic refrigeration and Magnetic

evaporative cooling
Magnetic evaporative cooling is a process for lowering
the temperature of a group of atoms, after pre-cooled
by methods such as laser cooling. Magnetic refrigeration
cools below 0.3K, by making use of the magnetocaloric
eect.

[1] Paul A., Tipler; Gene Mosca (2008). Physics for Scientists
and Engineers, Volume 1 (6th ed.). New York, NY: Worth
Publishers. pp. 666670. ISBN 1-4292-0132-0.
[2] New Jersey Institute of Technology, Chemical Engineering Dept. B.S. Chemical Engineering. NJIT. Retrieved
9 April 2011.
[3] Lienhard, John H.,V; Lienhard, John H., V (2008). A
Heat Transfer Textbook (3rd ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Phlogiston Press. ISBN 978-0-9713835-3-1.
OCLC 230956959.

10

[4] Welty, James R.; Wicks, Charles E.; Wilson, Robert Elliott (1976). Fundamentals of momentum, heat, and mass
transfer (2 ed.). New York: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-47193354-0. OCLC 2213384.
[5] Faghri, Amir; Zhang, Yuwen; Howell, John (2010). Advanced Heat and Mass Transfer. Columbia, MO: Global
Digital Press. ISBN 978-0-9842760-0-4.
[6] Taylor, R.A. (2012).
Socioeconomic impacts of
heat transfer research. International Communications
in Heat and Mass Transfer. 39 (10): 14671473.
doi:10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2012.09.007.
[7] Thermal-FluidsPedia | Mass transfer
[8] Abbott, J.M. Smith, H.C. Van Ness, M.M. (2005). Introduction to chemical engineering thermodynamics (7th ed.).
Boston ; Montreal: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-310445-0.
[9] Thermal-FluidsPedia | Heat conduction.
[10] engel, Yunus (2003). Heat Transfer: a practical approach. McGraw-Hill series in mechanical engineering. (2nd ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07245893-0. OCLC 300472921. Retrieved 2009-04-20.

EXTERNAL LINKS

[22] Fundamentals of Classical Thermodynamics, 3rd ed. p.

159, (1985) by G. J. Van Wylen and R. E. Sonntag: A
heat engine may be dened as a device that operates in a
thermodynamic cycle and does a certain amount of net
positive work as a result of heat transfer from a hightemperature body and to a low-temperature body. Often
the term heat engine is used in a broader sense to include
all devices that produce work, either through heat transfer
or combustion, even though the device does not operate in
a thermodynamic cycle. The internal-combustion engine
and the gas turbine are examples of such devices, and calling these heat engines is an acceptable use of the term.
[23] Mechanical eciency of heat engines, p. 1 (2007) by
James R. Senf: Heat engines are made to provide mechanical energy from thermal energy.
[24] EnergySavers: Tips on Saving Money & Energy at
Home (PDF). U.S. Department of Energy. Retrieved
March 2, 2012.
[25] Hartman,Carl and Bibb, Lewis. The Human body and
its enemies: a textbook of physiology hygiene and sanitation, World Book Co., 1913, p.232.

[11] Thermal-FluidsPedia | Convective heat transfer

[26] Cengel, Yunus A. and Ghajar, Afshin J. Heat and Mass

Transfer: Fundamentals and Applications. , McGrawHill, 4th Edition, 2010.

[12] Convection Heat Transfer. Engineers Edge. Engineers Edge. Retrieved 2009-04-20.

[27] Tao, Xiaoming. Smart bres, fabrics, and clothing ,

Woodhead Publishing, 2001

[13] Geankoplis, Christie John (2003). Transport processes

and separation process principles : (includes unit operations) (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall
Professional Technical Reference. ISBN 0-13-101367X.

[28] Wilmore, Jack H.; Costill, David L.; Kenney, Larry.

Physiology of sport and exercise. Human Kinetics.
2008: 256.

[14] Thermal-FluidsPedia | Radiation

9 External links

[15] Mojiri, A (2013). Spectral beam splitting for ecient conversion of solar energyA review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 28: 654663.
doi:10.1016/j.rser.2013.08.026.

A Heat Transfer Textbook - (free download).

[16] Taylor, R.A., Applicability of Nanouids in High Flux Solar Collectors JOURNAL OF RENEWABLE AND SUSTAINABLE ENERGY 3, 023104, 2011

Hyperphysics Article on Heat Transfer - Overview

[17] See Flashes in the Sky: Earths Gamma-Ray Bursts Triggered by Lightning
[18] David.E. Goldberg (1988). 3,000 Solved Problems in
Chemistry (1st ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-0236844. Section 17.43, page 321
[19] Louis Theodore, R. Ryan Dupont and Kumar Ganesan
(Editors) (1999). Pollution Prevention: The Waste Management Approach to the 21st Century. CRC Press. ISBN
1-56670-495-2. Section 27, page 15
[20] C.Michael Hogan (2011) Sulfur, Encyclopedia of Earth,
eds. A.Jorgensen and C.J.Cleveland, National Council for
Science and the environment, Washington DC
[21] Wendl, MC (2012). Theoretical Foundations of Conduction and Convection Heat Transfer. Wendl Foundation.

Thermal-FluidsPedia - An online thermal uids encyclopedia.

Interseasonal Heat Transfer - a practical example of

how heat transfer is used to heat buildings without
burning fossil fuels.
Aspects of Heat Transfer, Cambridge University
Thermal-Fluids Central
Energy2D: Interactive Heat Transfer Simulations for
Everyone

11

10
10.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Heat transfer Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_transfer?oldid=746009178 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Mav, Rjstott, Andre Engels, Peterlin~enwiki, Jdpipe, Jaknouse, Stevertigo, Ubiquity, Patrick, Michael Hardy, Ahoerstemeier, Stevenj, William M. Connolley,
Patricktibbits, Glenn, Nikai, Samw, Surfer97301, Omegatron, Robbot, Schusch, Smither, Hadal, Xanzzibar, Rossgk, Buster2058, Giftlite,
Tom harrison, Ido50, Macrakis, Harisingh, Andycjp, Karol Langner, Fanghong~enwiki, Zro, Mormegil, R, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, TedPavlic, Vsmith, Paul August, Bender235, Neko-chan, Bobo192, Pearle, QuantumEleven, Linuxlad, Alansohn, AnnaP, Gotalora,
Velella, RainbowOfLight, Gene Nygaard, Brainvoid, Kenyob, Jetru, Firsfron, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Commander Keane, Tabletop,
CiTrusD, Cbdorsett, Plrk, Zzyzx11, HolgerM, Magister Mathematicae, BD2412, Canderson7, Tlroche, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, MZMcBride,
Primeq, Darkside2010, Gurch, DavideAndrea, Kolbasz, Srleer, Silivrenion, Bornhj, Wavelength, Hukseux, Thane, Wiki alf, Anetode,
Dhollm, Prolineserver, Kkmurray, Archeryguru2000, 21655, Jnow5369, E Wing, Pb30, KGasso, Allens, Plober, Eenu, ChemGardener,
SmackBot, InverseHypercube, Akako, KnowledgeOfSelf, Jab843, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Betacommand, ERcheck, Andy M. Wang, Master of Puppets, Nbarth, Sbharris, Darth Panda, Rheostatik, Rrburke, Aldaron, Hoof Hearted, Sadi Carnot, Kukini, Ishuta, Euchiasmus,
JorisvS, Minna Sora no Shita, IronGargoyle, CyrilB, 16@r, InedibleHulk, TastyPoutine, Ryulong, Dan Gluck, Tawkerbot2, JForget, RSido,
Mikiemike, CmdrObot, Mhatrep, MrZap, Dgw, Juhachi, McVities, Jorach, Grein, Sutekh.destroyer, Jac16888, Cydebot, Aodhdubh, Unclenuclear, MC10, Rieman 82, Gogo Dodo, Corpx, Dancter, Tawkerbot4, Adam P S, Wisebridge, Omicron7E, Epbr123, Barticus88,
Norman Yarvin, N5iln, Headbomb, Pjvpjv, Marek69, John254, James086, Sturm55, Dawnseeker2000, Mentisto, Porqin, AntiVandalBot,
Seaphoto, R5w, Jj137, me Errante, Zedla, Gkhan, Canadian-Bacon, JAnDbot, Husond, MER-C, Fetchcomms, Hamsterlopithecus, Hut
8.5, GurchBot, Soroush83, Doctorhawkes, MSBOT, Bencherlite, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Oliver.nissen, JNW, Albmont, Sarahj2107,
WODUP, Bubba hotep, User A1, Jacobko, Dan Pangburn, Instru, Geniescience, Ibcj, Genghiskhanviet, Rettetast, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, The Anonymous One, Jsmith86, J.delanoy, Captain panda, Kjp993, Uncle Dick, TheDog, Lcaretto, Salih, Stan J Klimas, McSly,
Rachitsinghkushwaha, Mathew Roberson, Bob, Juliancolton, Fiske, Ja 62, Inwind, Useight, BoJosley, Busha5a5a5, VolkovBot, Fences and
windows, LeilaniLad, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Liyuan0611, Agricola44, Someguy1221, Sloggerbum, Isolm, Amaher, Martin451, BwDraco, Dinobobicus, Jalo, Falcon8765, RaseaC, Spinningspark, Phmoreno, Kbrose, Biscuittin, SieBot, Tresiden, AquaDTRS,
WereSpielChequers, Gknor, Yintan, Flyer22 Reborn, Faradayplank, Nuttycoconut, Lightmouse, Tombomp, Jaemokoo, B1157, Joshschr,
Efe, Denisarona, Escape Orbit, Explicit, TheCatalyst31, Atif.t2, Vanished user qkqknjitkcse45u3, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, Aznskyhawk24,
Snigbrook, The Thing That Should Not Be, Ariadacapo, Arakunem, Mild Bill Hiccup, Biglama, Ayushikalyani, 718 Bot, Commander
Penetrant, Rundus, Excirial, Jusdafax, Encyclopedia77, Erebus Morgaine, Lartoven, NuclearWarfare, Samuria9, Juanmlleras, Joeythewhale, Taranet, Acabashi, Versus22, SoxBot III, Jonbarzel, XLinkBot, Rror, Feinoha, Another-sailor, Noctibus, WikiDao, The Ninja
Creeper, Airplaneman, Osarius, Kbdankbot, Atreidis, Addbot, Mr0t1633, Willking1979, Tcncv, Download, Chamal N, Glane23, 5 albert
square, Shakiestone, Tide rolls, Krano, Luckas Blade, Gail, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, TaBOT-zerem, Sanyi4, SUNIL.PATEL007,
THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Aboalbiss, AnomieBOT, 4e to 4e, Daniele Pugliesi, Jim1138, Pyrrhus16, Piano non troppo, AdjustShift,
Fahadsadah, Ulric1313, Materialscientist, Frankenpuppy, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, EPwiki, The Banner, Capricorn42, TechBot, Jeffrey Mall, Katyhu, Ched, AbigailAbernathy, This is ECS, Dawei20, SassoBot, N419BH, JonDePlume, Coltonsaunt 1, A. di M., Le
Deluge, DeepHeat, Grinofwales, GT5162, LucienBOT, Pepper, Lyama 16845, Dger, Cdog5902, Jebo0975, Bupepuppy, 49ersfanforlife,
Craig Pemberton, Clarekatz, Kwiki, Taweetham, Thoughtful Goose, Er.arundhiman, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, HRoestBot, Hustla25, Roballer25, CommanderDJ, RedBot, Rohitphy, Chenzhipeng, Merlion444, Jauhienij, Gryllida, Vrenator, Nemesis of Reason, Zink
Dawg, Canuckian89, Ivanvector, Brian the Editor, Derild4921, Car333son, Difu Wu, Whisky drinker, Spacejulien, Dbddutta, Forenti,
Skamecrazy123, Nyxaus, Mr. Anon515, EmausBot, Sunilshamnur, Techguy78, GoingBatty, Marco Guzman, Jr, Elmoswrold, Sskatte,
Tommy2010, Mmeijeri, Wikipelli, Dcirovic, Sqwert123, K6ka, Gertdam, Lamb99, JSquish, ZroBot, Charizard rider 11, Cmo050487,
Stovl, SporkBot, Wmayner, OnePt618, Staszek Lem, , L Kensington, Donner60, Autoerrant, Macwhiz, DASHBotAV, Krishnu, ClueBot NG, Smtchahal, MelbourneStar, Coastwise, Matt Smith4, Armviolin, Satcap, Ianspittle, Braincricket, JohnLakhicharran-NJITWILL,
Mechengdave, Lax124life, Widr, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Nestik, Titodutta, BG19bot, MusikAnimal, DeathMetalParrot, Arunsteal,
Zedshort, Glacialfox, , Achowat, Aisteco, Berziky, BattyBot, David.moreno72, Pratyya Ghosh, Polupolu890, The Illusive
Man, ChrisGualtieri, Shushmuckle, La marts boys, Arcandam, Ssscienccce, Frosty, Matheus Faria, JustAMuggle, Reatlas, David F John,
Avemis, Jackson101101, Prokaryotes, Jsmb2, Ginsuloft, Galobtter, Ratdz70095, Dfouks, JaconaFrere, Monkbot, Jaronie, Horseless Headman, SkateTier, Douglas Cotton, Einsteinandstringtheory, Pauly15, Rayna Jaymes, Gladamas, KasparBot, Valeche, Xjschx, Qzd, Jeano,
R8etgj8er9threth888ht, Gulumeemee, Marvellous Spider-Man, Trydude, Xuzsagon and Anonymous: 817

10.2

Images

File:Air_cooler.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Air_cooler.jpg License: CC BY-SA 1.0 Contributors:

Own work Original artist: User:Utkarshsingh.1992
File:Biochar.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Biochar.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own
work Original artist: K.salo.85
File:Convection-snapshot.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Convection-snapshot.png License: CCBY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from de.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Harroschmeling at German
Wikipedia
File:Erbe.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Erbe.gif License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Heat_engine.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a2/Heat_engine.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Hot_metalwork.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Hot_metalwork.jpg License:
Contributors: Own work Original artist:
r0002 | agstaotos.com.au

GFDL 1.2

12

10

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Kochendes_wasser02.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Kochendes_wasser02.jpg License: CCBY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: user:Markus Schweiss
File:Lightning_in_Arlington.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Lightning_in_Arlington.jpg License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Digital photo taken by User:Postdlf Original artist: Postdlf
File:Melting_icecubes.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Melting_icecubes.gif License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Moussa
File:Nelson_tulsa_test.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Nelson_tulsa_test.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Achim Hering
File:PlatformHolly.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/PlatformHolly.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/oil-gas/Petroleum/projects/EP/ResChar/15127Venoco.htm -- U.S. Department of Energy
Original artist: employee of the U.S. government: public domain
File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:The_green_house_effect.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/The_green_house_effect.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: ZooFari

10.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0