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Nuclear Chemistry
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Proton
1
1
H or 11P
Neutron
1
0
Electron
0
-1
Positron
0
1
Gamma photon
0
0
n
e or -01
e or 01
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222
86
218
84
Rn 42 He +
Po
218
84
Po
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Iodine-131 is used in the diagnosis and treatment of thyroid cancer. This isotope decays by
beta emission. What is the product nucleus?
From the periodic table, we find that the atomic number of iodine is 53.
The beta particle symbol is correct as either e or .
131
53
I -01e + AZ X
131
53
I -01 + AZ X
I -01e +
Rn 42 +
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131
54
Xe
131
53
I -01 +
131
54
Xe
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Nuclear Stability
It is reasonable to wonder how a nucleus with
positively charged protons is held together, given
that positively charged particles repel each other.
The stability of the nucleus is due to the strong
nuclear force. The nuclear force acts only at very
short distances, about 10-13 m. At this distance it is
stronger than the electric repulsion.
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Predict which nucleus in each pair should be more stable and explain why.
3.
Positron emission
Emission of a positron particle from an
unstable nucleus. Positron emission is
equivalent to a proton converting to a neutron.
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4.
Alpha emission
Emission of an alpha particle from an unstable
nucleus.
2.
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Electron capture
The decay of an unstable nucleus by capture
of an electron from an inner orbital of the
atom. Electron capture is equivalent to a
proton converting to a neutron.
Beta emission
Emission of a beta particle from an unstable nucleus. Beta
emission is equivalent to a neutron converting to a proton.
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5.
Gamma emission
Emission from an excited nucleus of a gamma
photon, corresponding to radiation with a
wavelength of approximately 10-12 m.
Technetium-99m is an example of a
metastable nucleus; it is in an excited state
and has a lifetime of 10-9 s.
6.
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Spontaneous fission
The spontaneous decay of an unstable
nucleus in which a heavy nucleus of mass
number greater than 89 splits into lighter
nuclei and energy is released.
Nuclides to the left of the band of stability have a neutron-toproton ratio, N/Z, that is too large. They decay by beta emission,
which reduces the N/Z ratio by converting a neutron to a proton.
Nuclides to the right of the band of stability have an N/Z ratio that
is too small. These nuclides decay by either positron emission or
electron capture. Either process increases the N/Z ratio by
converting a proton to a neutron.
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a.
b.
c.
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24
12
Mg + 21H
Abbreviate d notation :
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24
12
22
11
Na + 42 He
Mg(d, )22
11Na
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Radiation Counters
There are two types of devices: ionization counters and
scintillation counters.
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The effect of radiation on a person depends on the dosage and the length of
time of the exposure. A series of small doses have less overall effect than a
large dose given all at once.
A single dose of 500 rems is fatal to most people. Detectable effects are seen
at dosages as low as 30 rems. Background radiation averages about 0.1 rem
per year but varies dramatically by location.
If you are internally exposed to 10 rads of , , and radiation, which
form of radiation will cause the greatest damage?
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Nt = 50.0 10 -6 g
1 mol
6.022 10 23 nuclei
232.04 g
1 mol
disintegra tions
s
Rate = 1.16 Ci
1 Ci
disintegra tions
Rate = 4.292 1010
s
3.700 x 1010
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k=
rate
Nt
disintegrations
s
17
1.298 10 nuclei
4.292 1010
k=
k = 3.31 10 -7 /s
Half-life is the time it takes for one-half of the nuclei in a sample to decay.
Half-life is related to the decay constant by the following equation:
t1 =
2
0.693
k
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t1
2
0.693
k
0.693
2
2.63 10 -6
s
1 min
1h
1 day
= 2.63 10 5 s
60 s 60 min 24 h
t1 =
1
Fraction remaining = ,
2
where n = number of half - lives
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t1 =
t 1 = 3.05 days
2
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N
ln t = - kt
N0
N0 is the original number of nuclei.
Nt
is the fraction of nuclei remaining at time t.
N0
k=
N
ln t = - kt
N0
N
0.601
ln t = 1 week
week
N0
N
ln t = - 0.601
N0
Nt
= 0.548
N0
0.693
t1
2
0.693
1 week
8.07 days
7 day
0.601
k=
week
k=
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Radioactive Dating
Because the rate of radioactive decay is constant, this rate can
serve as a sort of clock for dating objects.
Carbon-14 is part of all living material. While a plant or animal is
living, the fraction of carbon-14 in it remains constant due to
exchange with the atmosphere. Once dead, the fraction of carbon14 and, therefore, the rate of decay decrease. In this way, the
fraction of carbon-14 present in the remains becomes a clock
measuring the time since the plants or animals death.
The half-life of carbon-14 is 5730 years. Living organisms have a
carbon-14 decay rate of 15.3 disintegrations per minute per gram
of total carbon.
The ratio of disintegrations at time t to time 0 is equal to the ratio
of nuclei at time t to time 0.
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=
=
= 0.8366
N0 rate 0 15.3 disintegra tions/min/ g
N
N
ln t
ln t
N
N0 = ln (0.8366 )
t= 0 =
0.693
t1
0.693
2
k
5730 y
t = 1.48 10 3 y
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MassEnergy Calculations
When nuclei decay, they form products of lower energy. The
change of energy is related to changes of mass, according to the
equation derived by Einstein, E = mc2.
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1
0
n+
235
92
Xe +
38
H + 31H 42 He + 01n
Sr + 40 n
139
56
Xe +
94
36
144
55
Xe +
90
37
Kr + 301 n
Rb + 201 n
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Nuclear Fusion
Energy is released when light nuclei combine into a heavier
nucleus in a fusion reaction. These reactions have been observed
in the laboratory using particle accelerators.
For the nuclei to react, the bombarding nuclei must have enough
kinetic energy to overcome the repulsion between positive nuclei.
The energy required is not practically available at this time.
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