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com

ScienceDirect
System 41 (2013) 786e803

www.elsevier.com/locate/system

Global Englishes and English Language Teaching (ELT) e Bridging

the gap between theory and practice in a Japanese context
Nicola Galloway*
Moray House School of Education, The University of Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom
Received 26 November 2012; revised 19 July 2013; accepted 26 July 2013
Available online 4 September 2013

Abstract
The native English speaker episteme continues to dominate in English Language Teaching (ELT) despite a growing body of
research stressing the need for change in the light of the rise of English as a lingua franca. To support the proposed changes, this
study explores what perceptions English learners, as major stakeholders, have in relation to the sociolinguistic realities of English
and how these relate to learning English, as well as their responses to Global Englishes instruction in a Japanese university. 52
participants, divided into a control group (taking a Global Englishes content-based English course) and an experimental group
(taking a Tourism content-based course), were surveyed with pre- and post-course questionnaires (N 52) and interviewed (n 4)
about their attitudes and perceptions over one semester. The participants were found to have had positive attitudes towards native
English, which were influenced by a host of factors including their familiarity with native English, motivation, pedagogical beliefs
and stereotypical beliefs meaning unclear about the English language. The Global Englishes class was also found to have had an
important impact on students attitudes. These findings help bridge the gap between theory and practice by exploring what impact a
Global Englishes orientated approach may have on language English learners in the ELT classroom.
2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: English Language Teaching (ELT); Native English Speaker (NES); Non-native English Speakers (NNESs); World Englishes (WE);
English as a Lingua Franca (ELF); Global Englishes; Expanding circle

1. Introduction
As English is increasingly used for global communication in multilingual contexts these days, Native English
Speakers (NESs) are in the minority in contrast to the rising number of Non-native English Speakers. However, despite
the changing demographics of English speakers around the globe, the Native English Speaker (NES) episteme still
dominates in English Language Teaching (ELT), evident in the continued use of native English as a yardstick of
competence. A number of pedagogical proposals have been put forward for change in ELT practice in relation to the
globalisation of English. These proposals contend for the necessity to expose English learners to the diversity of
English (Matsuda, 2002, 2012a, b; Matsuda and Friedrich, 2012) and raise their awareness of multilingualism and
* Moray House School of Education, The University of Edinburgh, Room 5.06, Charteris Land, Holyrood Road, Edinburgh EH8 8AQ, United
Kingdom. Tel./fax: 44 131 651 6624.
E-mail address: nicola.galloway@ed.ac.uk.
0346-251X/$ - see front matter 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2013.07.019

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issues related to the spread of English (Dewey, 2012; McKay, 2002, 2009, 2012) They emphasize the importance of
helping learners acquire strategies to use ELF successfully (Canagarajah, 2005; Cogo and Dewey, 2012; Dewey, 2012)
and critically consider the cultural content of materials (Baker, 2012a, b). They also problematize current English
teacher hiring practices (Kirkpatrick, 2009, 2011, 2012; Mckay, 2012). In order to support such proposals, there is a
need to examine the attitudes of language learners towards English in general, as well in relation to learning the
language, in light of the changing sociolinguistic realities of English to evaluate current ELT practices. To this end, I
conducted this study positioned within the field of global Englishes, which recognises the diversity of English
speakers worldwide and does not use the NES as a yardstick of competence (Jenkins et al., 2011, p. 283e4).
Global Englishes, a relatively new field, is inclusive in nature, bringing together World Englishes (WE), which
focuses on the identification and codification of national varieties of English, and English as a Lingua Franca (ELF),
which is any use of English among speakers of different first languages for whom English is the communicative
medium of choice, and often the only option (Seidlhofer, 2011, p. 7). Despite differences (c.f. Seidlhofer, 2009; Cogo
and Dewey, 2012), both WE and ELF scholars stress the need to place less emphasis on the NES, emphasis the diversity of English, and the irrelevance of NES norms for ELT. As such global Englishes-related pedagogical concerns
are becoming the subject of a lot of scholarly discussion in the field, and empirical research needs to be conducted on
students attitudes towards English and learning the language in relation to the developments outlined above.
In addition, it was deemed important to investigate students attitudes, one of the main stakeholders in ELT, in order
to gain a deeper understanding and to think critically about English education since curriculum change should not be
made prematurely. Many studies have investigated students attitudes towards English, yet many have failed to capture
the many factors that influence attitudes (Garrett, 2010), few have related their studies to ELT, and even fewer have
examined learners attitudes in contexts where a Global Englishes perspective informations ELT. For these reasons,
the study was intended to bridge this gap between theory and practice in a Japanese context by examining learners
attitudes towards English in relation to ELT. It also aimed to offer insights into what a global Englishes perspective in
an ELT classroom would look like, as well the possible influence it may have on attitudes.
2. Literature review
2.1. Global Englishes research and ELT
Today, English is used all over the world by people of different lingua-cultural backgrounds. Even in countries
where it has no official status, such as in Kachrus (1985, 1992) expanding circle, it is increasingly being used
internally, and English has permeated into the daily lives of people in places such as Japan. Despite problems with
Kachrus classification (c.f. Bruthiaux, 2003; Galloway and Rose, 2014; Jenkins, 2009) of English speakers into the
inner circle, where English is spoken as a native language, the outer circle, where it is spoken as a second language,
and the expanding circle, where it is learnt as a foreign language with no official status, this model has been
influential in raising awareness of the diversity of English. Thus, these terms were adopted in this study. The term
expanding also implies a process of growth.
As a result of this spread, much research has been conducted in the field of WE (c.f. Kachru et al., 2006) documenting the distinctive features of Englishes around the world, and in the field of ELF (c.f. Jenkins et al., 2011;
Seidlhofer, 2011), showing that they are not just errors caused by different first language backgrounds, but common of spoken English. In the past decade, there has been an increased interest in the pedagogic implications of such
research, and entire books have been written on the topic (Alsagoff et al. (Ed)., 2012; Matsuda (Ed.), 2012; Sharifian,
2009). This shows an increasing acknowledgment, amongst scholars in the field at least, that the linguistic, cultural
and functional diversity associated with English today challenges some of the fundamental assumptions of ELT and
requires that we revisit our pedagogical practices, especially in classrooms where English is taught as an international
language (Matsuda and Friedrich, 2012, p. 17). Research findings raise questions about how ELT should be
approached, and as Jenkins et al. (2011, p. 304e5) note, Research findings in ELF have major implications for a
multitude of common beliefs and assumptions about what is sanctioned as good practice by the profession. They
contend for the necessity for language learners to be exposed to the diversity of English to better prepare them to use
English globally (Mckay, 2012). There have also been calls to raise awareness of English as a lingua franca in the
classroom (Seidlhofer, 2004), which would include communication strategies and accommodation skills through a
multilingual approach. Jenkins (2012, p. 492) notes the importance of presenting students with the sociolinguistic

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facts of the spread of English around the world before they make their choic on what is relevant to them. Proposals
support the recruitment of more non-native English teachers, or what Kirkpatrick (2009, 2012) calls Multilingual
English Teachers (METs), and also question the suitability of current ELT considering the changing demographics of
English speakers around the world (Cogo and Dewey, 2012).
However, few pedagogical proposals have been tried and tested and there appears to be a theory/practice divide. In
addition, the NES episteme continues to dominate ELT practice, particularly in contexts such as Japan. In Japan, for
example, English may not have official status, but it is increasingly becoming more than a mere foreign language. It
is the only foreign language option in most schools, compulsory in primary schools, the only subject tested on all
university entrance exams and is increasingly being used as the medium of instruction in Japanese universities. It has
been introduced as an official working language in many Japanese companies (e.g. Rakuten and Uniqlo), and the
growing number of foreign residents is creating opportunities for using ELF usage. In 2010, of the 2,134,151
registered foreigners, 1,681,469 were from Asia. In the same year, a total of 8,611,175 foreign tourists visited the
country, and, of these, 6,528, 432 were from Asia. The number of foreign students studying in Japan has also increased
from 38,444 in 1990 to 124, 646 in 2011 (Japan Statistics Yearbook, 2013). Such a changing sociolinguistic landscape
highlights the need for a revaluation of ELT practice.
In Japan, there does appear to be an awareness of the role of English as a lingua franca, and the government Action
Plan recognises that English acts as the common international language, although the same document refers to
NESs, who provide a valuable opportunity to learn English (MEXT, 2003). However, despite the rhetoric of learning
English for international/intercultural communication, students are still presented with an ideology that only NESs
speak good English. Thus, research is crucial to help support such pedagogical proposals.
2.2. Research investigating attitudes towards English and English language teaching
Awareness of learners attitudes can raise awareness of their needs, stereotypes and prejudices, and their overall
attitudes. Increased teacher knowledge of such factors can lead to more effective lesson planning and course
implementation. This is particularly important today in relation to the fact that traditional approaches to ELT are no
longer meeting the needs of many students.
2.2.1. Attitudes towards English and global English?
Researchers have looked at students attitudes towards native English. Van der Haagen (1998) and Bayard et al.
(2001) found positive attitudes towards American English, showing how evaluations can be hierarchical.
Ladegaard and Sachdev (2006) found a preference for Received Pronunciation, despite an awareness of the high
vitality of American culture, indicating that this may not be enough to attract students to a certain variety. Adolphs
(2005) more longitudinal study, also found preferences for native English, although students had a simplistic notion of
native English related to the model used in their home contexts, highlighting the possible influence of pedagogical
beliefs.
Researchers have also looked at attitudes towards both native English and non-native English, the majority
concluding a preference for the former (Crismore et al., 1996; Kirkpatrick and Xu, 2002; McKenzie, 2008a; Matsuura
et al., 1994; Starks and Paltridge, 1994). Matsuura et al. (1994) and Chiba et al. (1995) noted the importance of familiarity and in Beinhoff (2005, cited in Jenkins, 2007, p. 94), stricter attitudes towards speakers from their own
countries, suggesting that this may influence attitudes towards native English, although this wasnt investigated.
Research has been conducted on language learners attitudes within ELT contexts, which reveal positive attitudes
towards native English as the model (Butler, 2007; Dalton-Puffer et al., 1997; Rubin, 1992). Familiarity with native
English and personal experience were influential in Dalton-Puffer et al. (1997), where students were, once again, most
critical of the English spoken in their own country. Race was found to have been important in Rubin and Smiths
(1990) study in America, highlighting that when students believed an instructors accent to be foreign, they also
viewed them to be a poor teacher. The number of courses students had taken with NNES instructors was also found to
be the best predictor of listening comprehension scores, highlighting the importance of familiarity on attitudes.
Rubins (1992) follow up study also shows how people may hear an accent that may not exist, which led to lower
comprehension rates. McKenzie (2008b) identified that factors including gender, self-perceived proficiency in English, exposure to English and evaluations of varieties of Japanese significantly influenced attitudes. Thus, attitudes
are clearly complex structures influenced by a number of different factors.

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Studies have looked at teachers attitudes towards the role of global Englishes, but only a few of them have looked
specifically at students attitudes, which, once more, show similar preferences for native English (Erling, 2005; Grau,
2005; Kuo, 2006; Matsuda, 2003; Timmis, 2002). Timmis (2002) concluded that such a preference, and desire to
sound like NESs, means it is inappropriate to offer students a target which manifestly does not meet their aspirations
(ibid, p. 249). This is unlike Matsuda (2003) who, despite finding similar preferences for NE, concludes that more WE
exposure is needed to raise students awareness of the diversity of English. Kuos (2006) participants also preferred
NESs over NNESs, which she argues supports Timmiss (2002) findings. Graus study (2005) revealed that students
were open towards incorporating a global Englishes perspective into ELT and the majority agreed on the priority of
intelligibility, yet they still prefer native English. However, little information is given on the course that participants
were taking, which may have influenced their attitudes.
Despite the proposals outlined above, there has been little research on the examination of what an ELT course that
incorporates a global Englishes perspective would look like, or the possible influence it may have on learners attitudes. A limited number of studies have been conducted (e.g. Derwing et al., 2002; Kubota, 2001; Shim, 2002). Two
of these involved NESs, and Shims (2002) study, which investigated the influence of global Englishes instruction on
NNESs attitudes, and none of them provided a detailed overview of how to incorporate a GE perspective into the
classroom. Moreover, Shim (2002) gives little account of the course, students backgrounds, motivations for learning
English, future goals, and current uses, all of which may influence learners attitudes. There is clearly a gap in
research, yet interest in this topic is growing and some recent studies showcase the development of global Englishes
courses and global Englishes-orientated curricula in expanding circle contexts (Baker, 2012b; Galloway and Rose,
2013). However, there is a clear lack of research investigating the attitudes of learners towards English and ELT in
relation to global Englishes. Furthermore, the lack of research investigating the incorporation of a global Englishes
perceptive into the ELT classroom, as well as the possible influence this may have on learners attitudes is problematic, given the growing importance attributed to the pedagogy in the field of global Englishes at the theoretical
level.
2.2.2. Attitudes towards English teachers
Research has also been conducted on the respective capacities of NNESTs and NESTs, and attitudes towards
them. Mahboob (2004) involved teachers with different mother tongues, but most studies have involved NNESTs
that share the same mother tongue as the students and all reveal positive attitudes towards NESTs (Cook, 2005;
Lasagabaster and Sierra, 2005; Medgyes, 1994). Although students think both types of teachers have different
capabilities, NESTs are favoured for speaking and pronunciation skills (Barratt and Kontra, 2000; Benke and
Medgyes, 2005; Cook, 2005; Lasagabaster and Sierra, 2005; Medgyes, 1994). However, the possible influence
of students proficiency on attitudes was raised in Benke and Medgyes (2005) and Lasagabaster and Sierra
(2005).
Thus, previous research suggests that most language learners highly value native English and prefer to follow a
NES model. It must be noted that these studies utilised verbal and matched guise techniques, questionnaires, interviews, classroom observations, personal experiences and narratives. While verbal and matched guise techniques
elicit useful data, they reveal little about what influences attitudes. Therefore, there is a need to conduct further investigations about the factors that may influence language learners attitudes, particularly in relation to the influence
awareness-raising of global Englishes instruction may have on English learners attitudes.
3. An investigation into English learners attitudes towards English in relation to Global Englishes
3.1. Research questions
The aim of the study was to investigate attitudes towards English and ELT, and to what extent global Englishes
instruction influences these perceptions. This generated three research questions:
1. What are English learners attitudes towards English?
2. How do these attitudes relate to learning English?
3. To what extent does Global Englishes instruction influence these perceptions?

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3.2. Setting
The study utilised a questionnaire with 52 English learners (23 global Englishes and 29 non global Englishes), and
interviews with 4 English learners at a private university in Japan, with 3rd and 4th year English majors. 6 global
Englishes participants were removed for not fully completing the questionnaire. Participants had an average Test of
English for International Communication (TOEIC) score of 7071 and 78.2% were female and in their 3rd year. Japan is
a member of the expanding circle, where research is important. The university was chosen due to the researchers
previous position as a lecturer, making it possible to design and teach two classes. Although participants were English
majors, the increasing number of English medium instruction courses in Japanese universities means that comparisons
can be drawn with other universities.
The two content-based classes were taught by the researcher twice a week for one semester (13 weeks). The first
focused on tourism and the second on global Englishes, both followed similar formats, and were taught and assessed in
similar ways. The global Englishes curriculum (Table 1) was based on the pedagogical proposals put forward in the
literature and the aim was to raise awareness of the concept of global Englishes and their confidence as speakers of an
international language. They also kept a listening journal each, where they listened to speakers from different
countries and participated in, and reflected on, ELF exchanges (Table 2).
3.3. Data collection
A pre- and post-questionnaire (open and closed) was administered at the start and end of semester. Section one
covered background information; two and three focused on attitudes towards English and ELT. Questions related to
attitudes towards English included past and present experiences using the language with NESs and NNESs, and attitudes towards such experiences; perceived future usage of English; varieties of English they regard as attractive and
those they would like to imitate. Questions related to ELT included attitudes on the proficiency of NESTs and
NNESTs; motivation for learning the language; countries they would like to have English teachers from; the Englishes
and speakers represented in ELT materials; their ultimate goal and preferable skills for English teachers. Participants
could use English or Japanese, and it was administered via surveymonkey.com. 2 interviewees from both courses were
randomly selected from class lists to conduct interviews in week 13. The use of qualitative methods helped minimise
the limitations of the number of participants and single setting of the study. After explaining the purpose of the study,
addressing terms of confidentiality and explaining the format, the interviewees were invited to talk freely about their
English language learning history, motivation and teachers of English. The second part of the interview employed a
semi-structured approach to ensure coverage of the main themes and consistency between interviews.
It should be noted that the researcher, as, not only a western NEST, but also the class teacher, may have influenced
the data. However, familiarity with the setting and the research context ensured that the researcher was more readily
accepted than an unknown researcher may have been. Additionally, efforts were made to integrate data collection as
unobtrusively as possible. Teaching behaviour remaining consistent throughout the semester, regardless of whether or
not data was being collected. A neutral position was also adopted during class activities and discussions on global
Englishes-related topics and issues.
3.4. Data analysis
Quantitative analysis was conducted using PASW 18.0. To investigate the factors influencing attitudes, independent
samples t-tests were conducted; paired t-tests were conducted to test for statistically significant differences; cross
tabulations were used to further show the distributions, and chi-squares were also conducted. Paired t-tests were used
to investigate any differences between the global Englishes and non-global Englishes participants. Mixed analysis of
variance (ANOVA), used to compute more than two groups, were used to investigate the influence of global Englishes
instruction on the participants attitudes.
Qualitative data analysis was conducted using NVivo 7. The interview transcription conventions are shown in
Appendix A and the interviewee profiles in Appendix B. Data analysis involved six stages. The first stage was
1
The highest possible score on the test is 990. TOEIC is the most common English proficiency test used in Japan, used by most Japanese firms
and many universities to measure English ability.

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familiarisation of the data to get a sense of the data as a whole. The next step was the identification of prominent topics
or ideas, or first-level coding. Through careful scrutiny of key words, several prominent concepts, themes, events, and
topical markers were evident. Firstly, free nodes (codes) were created through a mixture of concept-driven coding and
data-driven coding and short descriptions were produced. After initial coding, the frequency of each prominent topic
was documented to gain insights and see topic frequency as well as which ones occurred together. After initial coding,
various patterns emerged making it possible to group together certain topics. The initial codes, i.e. emerged prominent
topics, were then categorised under a smaller number of themes into coding hierarchies. Basic descriptions were then

Table 1
The global Englishes course timetable.
Module

Class

Topic

Homework

The spread of
English

Topic: Introduction
Activities: research questionnaire.

Topic: Introduction
Activities: Class overview, Listening journal, pre-reading.

Topic: Module 1 reading discussion

Reading topics: The History of English; pidgins and creoles;
English speakers around the world; standard language
ideology
Activities: 10 min discussions on each reading using worksheet
(article summary, opinion, discussion questions, debate topic).
Topic: Module 1 listening
Activities: Listen to different speakers and ELF exchanges on
the spread of English (note-taking, discussions and debate).
Listening topics: The rise of the worlds lingua franca;
categorising English speakers; variation and change;
ownership and identity
Topic: Module 1 debate
Discussion and Debate topics: Advantages and disadvantages
of the spread of English; the politics of English e linguistic
imperialism.
Topic: Module 1 writing
Activities: Read and discuss essays related to Module 1, write a
descriptive/argumentative essay based on module 1.
Topic: Module 2 introduction
Activities: Module 2 brainstorming and pre-reading.

Listening journal (10 min e

student choice)
Reflection: Key Concepts
Listening journal
Reflection
Read module 1 article
Listening journal
Reflection

6&7

World Englishes

10,

11

12&13

Topic: Module 2 reading discussion

Reading topics: English in the Inner Circle, English in the
Outer Circle; English in the Expanding Circle; World
Englishes research
Activities: 10 min discussions on each reading (article
summary, opinion, discussion questions, debate topic).
Topic: Module 2 listening
Activities: Listen to different speakers from different countries
talk about English (note-taking, discussions and debate).
Listening topics: English and power; Standard English?;
the New Englishes: social and political issues
Topic: Module 2 debate
Discussion and Debate topics: the status of New Englishes;
the ever-rising expanding circle; English in China: a new
powerful variety?; English in Europe
Topic: Classmate introduction to WE
Activities: Listen to and give a 10 min individual presentation
on Module 1/2.

Listening journal
Reflection

Listening journal
Reflection

Listening journal
Reflection
Listening journal
Reflection Read module 2
article
Listening journal
Reflection

Listening journal
Reflection

Listening journal
Reflection

Listening journal
Reflection
(continued on next page)

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792
Table 1 (continued )
Module

Class

Topic

Homework

English as a
Lingua Franca

14

Topic: Module 3 introduction

Activities: Module 3 brainstorming and pre-reading

15

Topic: Module 3 reading discussion

Reading topics: Definitions and common misconceptions;
ELF research; pragmatics; international communication;
language and culture
Activities: 10 min discussions on each reading (article
summary, opinion, discussion questions, debate topic).
Topic: Module 3 listening
Activities: Listen to different speakers talk about ELF and
listen to ELF interactions (note-taking, discussions and debate).
Listening topics: ELF and grammar; ELF and pragmatics;
ELF and pronunciation
Topic: Module 3 debate
Discussion and debate topics: ELF and Japan;
misunderstandings of ELF and criticisms; ELF research
and the VOICE corpus
Topic: Module 3 writing
Activities: read and discuss essays related to Module 3, write a
descriptive/argumentative essay based on module 3.
Topic: Module 4 introduction
Activities: Module 4 brainstorming and pre-reading.

Listening journal
Reflection
Read module article
Listening journal
Reflection

16

17&18

19&20

Learning
English

21

22

23

24&25

26

Topic: Module 4 reading discussion

Activities: 10 min discussions on each reading (article
summary, opinion, discussion questions, debate topic).
Reading Topics: native speakerism and English language
teaching; principles of Global Englishes language teaching;
English teachers and teacher education; norms, models and
assessing English proficiency
Topic: Module 4 listening
Activities: Listen to different speakers talk about ELT (notetaking, discussions and debate).
Listening topics: ELT in Japan; English teachers; assessing
English proficiency
Topic: Presentations (student choice)
Activity: Prepare to give a group, research-based presentation
related to module 1,2,3 or 4.
Topic: Class summary
Activity: Research questionnaire

Listening journal
Reflection

Listening journal
Reflection

Listening journal
Reflection
Listening journal
Reflection
Read module article
Listening journal
Reflection

Listening journal
Reflection

Listening journal
Reflection

Table 2
Listening Journal Guidelines.
Date and time
(Minimum 10 min)

Speakers name
and nationality

Reason for choice

(3e4 sentences)

Comments
(6e10 sentences)
(observations in grammar,
vocabulary, pronunciation,
pragmatics, (un)intelligibility.
Also try to think of possible reasons
for your reactions/attitude, e.g. stereotypes,
(un)familiarity, etc.

The Listening Journal should be completed once a week. You should spend 10 min listening to a speaker (s) from a particular country or area, or
an ELF exchange. Ideas for sources you could use are listed in your textbook.

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Fig. 1. Students current use of English.

revised and re-written to provide an overall coding framework. Final coding was then undertaken. The last stage
involved meaning condensation and interpretation, and an attempt was made to analyse the quotes and the relationship
between them and the data as a whole.
3.5. Participant overview
Nearly every student in the study studies another language and 81% have been abroad, although for the majority,
this was short and only 9.6% have been to a NNES country. 26.9% have studied in the US, and in addition to
classmates, participants use English mostly with NESs (Fig. 1).

Fig. 2. Students perceived future English use.

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N. Galloway / System 41 (2013) 786e803

However, they use English with both NESs and NNESs, with 75.9% having spoken English with a NNES and 81%
with a NES outside of school. The results also showed a dominance of inner circle English teachers, mostly from
America (96.2%), The UK (92.3%) and Australia (73.1%).
4. Results
The pre-course questionnaire results are presented first, followed by the post-course results in relation to the influence of the global Englishes class. Results are presented around the three main research questions:
1. What are English learners attitudes towards English?
2. How do these attitudes relate to learning English?
3. To what extent does global Englishes instruction influence these perceptions?
4.1. What are English learners attitudes towards English?
More participants reported wanting to learn English to communicate with NESs (78.8%), compared with NNESs
(61.5%). Future predictions for English use also reveal a NES bias (Fig. 2), although there is awareness of ELF use.
76.9% want to sound like a NES, with 25.0% strongly agreeing. This is similar to attitudes towards attractive
varieties, particularly American (selected 27 times), Canadian (19) and British English (17). However, Japanese was
also chosen four times and was in the top five 22 times, and participants also chose outer circle and expanding circle
varieties. Similar selections were made for preferred models of English to imitate (Fig. 3) and they clearly prefer
native English, particularly American English (51.9%).
In the open-ended questionnaire, comments relating to NES ownership (correctness, ownership, etc.) were noted in
57 references, compared with 41 relating to global Englishes awareness (non-native English, ELF awareness, etc.).
The term Lingua franca was only used twice, only one referred to English as a common language, native English
was described as correct and standard and non-native English as imperfect, wrong and untrustful.

Fig. 3. Students preferred model of English to imitate.

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795

Interview results revealed similar attitudes. A word frequency query in NVivo, conducted to reveal salient topics,
highlighted that native was documented 75 times, compared with non-native 44 times. Native English was
coded in 35 data segments, compared with non-native English in 18. Everyone referred to NES Ownership, most
referred to native English as familiar and non-native English as unfamiliar. Everyone listed native English as
attractive and wanted to sound like a NES, and native English was described as real and correct, unlike nonnative English, which was seen as difficult and incorrect. Moreover, when discussing perceived future uses of
English, everyone referred to NESs and only a few discussed NNESs. American English was most frequently
discussed, and, English speaker appears to be synonymous with American. For example, when asked where the
customers in the hotel she works at come from, Yuka responded, MANY MANY countries I think, but OF
COURSE AMERICA.
However, every student also referred to the sufficiency of being intelligible, and referred to NNESs when talking
about future English use. In the interviews, Nanae notes she was impressed at how ELF is used between people from
60 different countries when she visited New Zealand, and Saori, who has NES and NNES friends, discussed future
ELF use. However, they have mixed opinions about NNE and made vague and contradictory comments. For example,
after being reminded that she noted liking Hong Kong English, Yukiko replied, Eh. No No No, I dont, I didnt say I
liked Hong Kongs accent, I mean I like the difference of accents, but then added that it is very easy to listen,
indicating that intelligibility of NNE should not be confused with her attachment to native English. Later, she said, I
think EUROPEAN PEOPLE can speak WELL, but wants to copy native English, but is unable to explain why,
commenting, Why? (.) eh (3) I like Canada.
4.2. Factors influencing English learners attitudes
A number of factors influence English learners attitudes including the use of native English as a yardstick, investment in native English, motivation, familiarity, ELF experiences, stereotypes, future goal and previous experiences using the language.
The open-ended questionnaire highlighted that desire for NES proficiency is related to its use as a yardstick, their
investment in it and because it equates to successful communication, e.g. it is more useful to communicate than bad
English. However, some are also aware of the difficulty of this goal.
Independent t-tests showed that those who wanted to study English to communicate with NESs were significantly
more likely to want to sound like one (t(50) 2.950, p .005).
Those who used English with NESs in their free time, or who hoped to work/study in an NES country in the future,
were also more likely to want to sound like one (t(50) 1.878, p .066 and t(50) 949, p .050 respectively).
Chi-square results also showed that 80% of participants with experience studying abroad in the UK want to imitate
British English, whereas only 18.8% of those who did not study in the UK want to (c2(1, N 52) 8.23, p .004).
38.5% of participants learning English because English is a useful language also want to imitate British English and
61.5% chose American. The chi-square test showed that this was significant (c2(1, N 52) 5.798, p .016).
Interviewees are also familiar with native English, particularly American English, which influences their attitudes.
For Saori, exposure through TV and movies makes it more intelligible, and her desire to speak American English is
also related to her experience studying there. However, familiarity with American English was also noted to hinder
comprehension of non-native English, and create a false stereotype of English. Yuka was unable to understand an
Indian English speaker, because she was used to like (.) NATIVE English, American, and her first encounter with
British English was surprising and difficult for the same reason.
ELF experiences were also discussed by everyone, which also influence attitudes. Saoris experience in Vietnam
raised her awareness that continued exposure to global Englishes can increase intelligibility. Communication was
difficult initially, but she got used to hearing their accent.
An ambiguity in attitudes was also revealed in the interviews and interviewees were often unable to offer clear
reasons why they prefer native English. Saori linked her attitude to her stereotypes when asked to explain her preference
for native English, she replied, Ah:, AH: (.), I dunno but (.) maybe my, kind of like stereotypes, like learning English
from native speaker is better. Japanese teachers have a good knowledge of English, but its my stereotype @@.
Desire to live in a NES country and cultural preferences were also important. Yukiko, who prefers Canadian
English, plans to study in Canada in the future, and, in addition to a preference for American culture, Nanae thinks
many students want to be American, Saori thinks it is the MOST POPULAR because,

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N. Galloway / System 41 (2013) 786e803

EVERYTHING is from the United States so maybe people think that American English is THE ENGLISH, @@ so
maybe people think American English is the strong, not strongest English no @@, mm people think many of the
English speakers speak American English so @@ mm (.), yeah.
All interviewees also revealed ambivalent attitudes towards the English spoken in Japan. Negative comments were
made several times about the English spoken in Japan. Yukiko was unhappy when she was recognised as being
Japanese, and referred to Japanese English as too CLEAR, too clear and too flat. For her, a native English accent is
a sign of proficiency. These negative attitudes were also linked to preferences for native English. Saori wants to sound
like a NES, because Japanese English isnt FLUENT English, but when asked why, she replied,
@@ I cant think that is fluent English so (2), mm: (2), yeah (.), so: I (2). WHY, WHY? But mm: (.) its difficult to
answer it (2) but like (4) mm, ah, @@ why? Mm, maybe its from my images, like my FLUENT ENGLISH IMAGES
is from like AMERICAN PEOPLE or BRITISH PEOPLE, not from like, Japanese people (.).
Despite complex attitudes towards non-native English, all four feel that communication is easier and, perhaps,
more enjoyable with NNESs. Nanae feels a little bit nervous and no confidence with NESs, but with NNESs, she can
be more calmer and relaxed somehow. Nevertheless, she still desires NES proficiency. Similarly, in the questionnaire,
14 negative encounters with NESs were reported, compared to 4 positive ones. Positive encounters were described as
being good opportunities to practice to speak with native-speakers, unlike positive encounters with NNESs, which
were related to raised ELF awareness, the mutual support offered by NNESs and the relaxed atmosphere. However,
participants had mixed feelings about the benefits, with low proficiency and accent unfamiliarity noted as reasons for
negative experiences. 14 negative experiences with NESs were noted, which related to speed, comprehension
problems and low self-confidence.
4.3. How do these attitudes relate to learning English?
In relation to preferable English teachers, there was an inner circle bias, particularly for American (73.1%), British
(67.3) and Canadian (73.1) teachers (Fig. 4). However, 9.6% chose Japanese English teachers, and other outer circle
and expanding circle varieties were also chosen. Nevertheless, participants have mixed feelings about the proficiency
of Japanese teachers (Table 3) and are more positive about NESTs.

Fig. 4. Students preferred English teachers.

N. Galloway / System 41 (2013) 786e803

797

Table 3
Students attitudes towards their English teachers.
Item

Mean

Standard dev

Strongly disagree%

My Japanese teachers have been/are proficient English teachers

Pre:
2.48
.641
3.8
My native English teachers have been/are proficient English teachers
Pre:
3.27
.598
0

Disagree%

Agree%

Strongly agree%

Total

48.1

44.2

3.8

100

7.7

57.7

34.6

100

There was a significant difference in the paired samples t -test scores for Japanese teachers (M 2.48, SD .641)
and NESTs (M 3.27, SD .598) conditions; t (52) 6.216, p < .001) and participants were significantly less
likely to think that their Japanese teachers were proficient than their NEST.
Students also prefer ELT materials that involve NESs and NNESs, although more than twice as many prefer
materials that involve only NESs than only NNESs (Table 4). Furthermore, in relation to their English teachers, 53.8%
prefer both, although 46.2% prefer only NESTs, and nobody chose only NNESTs.
Participants see NESs as more useful for ELT, and, in the questionnaire, NESs were discussed in relation to being
helpful for learning 25 times. They want to learn English through real English, the NES model is the yardstick, NESs
provide opportunities to use English in class and have good teaching styles. However, 15 positive references were
made about NNESTs, and comments referred to shared experiences as language learners, shared mother tongue,
ability to teach grammar and teaching styles.
In the questionnaires, global Englishes awareness was related to ELT materials and English teachers, and participants noted the need to study about both, because there are many English speaker who came from not standard
English country all over the world now. However, non-native English is not helpful for learning because we might
get another English accent and that might make our English harder to be comprehended.
In the interviews, several references were made to NES ownership and pedagogical beliefs and all four referred to
experiences with NESs as helpful learning experiences. Accent is important and Yukiko wants British, American,
Canadian and Australian teachers because New Zealand people have very strong accent. Thus, regardless of preferences for native English, an accent hierarchy exists.
4.3.1. Factors influencing English learners attitudes
Once again, several factors influenced participants attitudes towards English in relation to ELT including future
goals, motivation, pedagogical beliefs, stereotypes, negative attitudes towards NNESTs, dominance of the NES
model, familiarity and ELF experiences.
52.3% of participants who plan to use English in their job in the future with NESs prefer their English teachers to be
both NESs and NNESs and 47.7% prefer only NESs and the chi-square test (c2(1, N 52) .65, p .011) shows that
this was significant. Furthermore, 63% of participants who study English because they are interested in it agree and
28.3% strongly agree that their NESTs are proficient and the chi-square test, (c2(1, N 52) 7.15, p .028) found
that this was significant.
Interviews revealed that native English is beneficial for learning, because it is real and standard. When asked
why she wants to learn native English, Yukiko noted that, Why? (4) Mm: yeah. Ah, I know many Asian countries (2)
ah (.) have English as official language, but I THINK its not their mother tongue, pauses suggesting she is unsure.
She prefers NESs Because theyve USED English since they were born, so English is very connected with their life.
Nanaes pedagogical beliefs are also related to stereotypes; American English should be the model because it is
important to have a boss English and Japanese English teachers should spend four or five years in a NES country,
Table 4
Students attitudes in relation to ELT.
Item

Mean

Standard deviation

NESs

NNESs

Both

Total

Do you prefer to use materials in class that involve only native speakers of English, only non-native speakers of English, or both?
Pre:
3.00
.741
13.5
5.8
80.8
100
Do you prefer your English teachers to be native speakers, non-native speakers, or both?
Pre:
2.08
1.007
46.2
0
53.8
100

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N. Galloway / System 41 (2013) 786e803

although when asked where they should be recruited from, she was unsure, answering, Ah (1), mm: (1) ahm (1),
maybe their nationality is not really important I think, so (1) ahm (1). Saori also notes that her desire to learn from
NESTs is related to her stereotypes.
Positive orientations towards native English and NESTs are also related to negative attitudes towards NNESTs.
Japanese English teachers were referred to negatively, particularly in relation to pronunciation. Nanae thinks their
pronunciation should, at least, be better than hers and Australian, British and American teachers should also be
employed, because they are the three biggest English speaking countries. She also thinks that NNESTs have
pronunciation or accent that is far away from the REAL accent like American or British or a native accent, which is
not really helpful. Similarly, Saori described difficulty understanding her Korean NNESTs accent, who was a really
good English teacher, but not ideal to improve our (.) pronunciation. However, when reminded that she also
described Australian English as unfamiliar, she once again referred to her stereotype.
When discussing ELT, all four described the dominance of American teachers and American English negatively,
further highlighting their contradictory views. Saori noted that it hindered their understanding of NESTs from other
countries at university and Yuka noted that, since Japanese English learners are taught only AMERICAN English, so
if they, you know, hear very strong English, accent English, then ITS NOT ENGLISH, I think. She added that,
although English is not spoken as a mother tongue in Singapore, it is important to know the difference of accent and
respect them.
Several participants also noted a desire to learn non-native English and many positive comments were made about
NNESTs. However, attitudes towards non-native English are complex and often contradictory, as noted earlier. As
noted, Saori liked her Korean English teacher, but was unsure of her pronunciation. When reminded that English is
used as a lingua franca, she gave a lengthy response, noting that exposure to non-native English is good for students
for their future jobs.
ELF experiences also influenced attitudes. Yuka thinks that American and British English is important, but English
learners should also listen to Indian and Chinese English, as she found these difficult when in Australia. However, she
added that American English should be the model in Japan, due to the relationship between the two countries.
Nevertheless, she noted that it should be learnt first, and, thus, did not completely disregard her earlier statement.
4.4. To what extent does global Englishes instruction influence these perceptions?
To investigate the influence of the global Englishes class, the pre and post-course questionnaire data was used.
Although the class did not have a statistically significant influence on attitudes, observations can be made. In the
questionnaire, participants had clear preferences for native English, but some clear differences between the global
Englishes and non- global Englishes class are evident. Regarding attractive varieties of English, Japanese English was
only a fifth choice once in the pre-course questionnaire, but featured seven times in the post-course questionnaire.
Moreover, 6 of these 7 responses came from global Englishes participants. Additionally, outer circle and expanding
circle Englishes were only chosen 7 times in the pre-course questionnaire, but 19 times in the post-course questionnaire, and these were made by global Englishes participants. However, cross-tabulations for motivation did not
reveal significant relationships between global Englishes participation and wanting to Communicate with Non-Native
Speakers of English when asked about their future uses of English. Furthermore, participants desire to sound like a
NES did not vary significantly over time and Mixed ANOVAs didnt reveal any relationship with the global Englishes
course.
Similarly, in the post-course questionnaire, when choosing countries to recruit English teachers from, 19.2% chose
Japanese teachers, compared with only 9.6% in the pre-course questionnaire, and 80% of these were taking the global
Englishes class. At the end of semester, there was also a decline in preference for inner circle teachers and preference
for American teachers dropped by almost 20%. Additionally, a greater number of participants chose English teachers
from other outer circle countries, including Jamaica, Singapore and India, and the selection of Indian teachers almost
doubled from 17.3 to 32.7%, in the post-course questionnaire. ANOVA results, revealed that while participants
indicated that the proficiency level of their Japanese teachers increased significantly over time (F (1, 50) 6.671,
p .013), the GE course did not influence attitudes (Table 5).
However, in the open-ended section of the post-course questionnaire, global Englishes awareness more than
doubled, two thirds of these references made by global Englishes participants; fewer references to NNESs were coded
as incorrect, and were all made by non-global Englishes participants. Non-global Englishes participants also referred

N. Galloway / System 41 (2013) 786e803

799

Table 5
Mixed ANOVA Results for Proficiency Ratings of Japanese Teachers.
Variable
Between groups
World Englishes
Error
Within groups
Time (pre-test vs. post-test)
Time  Global Englishes
Error

Df

Sig.

h2

1
52

.067

.796

.001

1
1
52

6.671
1.529

.013
.222

.118
.030

to NES ownership of English more than twice as, and many global Englishes participants made references to intelligibility, e.g. Japanese accent is also good as its our character, indicating that the course not only raised their
awareness of global Englishes, but also increased their confidence as English speakers. Ten more global Englishes
awareness related references were made in relation to ELT materials in the post-course questionnaire and five more in
relation to teachers. Participants commented on how the class changed their attitudes about English teachers and
references to NNESTs doubled for global Englishes participants, e.g. since English has become a global language, I
think English teachers dont have to be native English teachers any longer. Many referred to global Englishes
awareness as important and 23 referred to a change in attitude, referring to the class. It also raised their awareness of
global Englishes and their interest in it, e.g. After I took this class, I became to be interested in Global English
more!!!! I want to know about it after finished this class! and influenced their attitudes towards English, e.g. Before I
take this course, Ive thought that only American or British English is standard and worth to learn, but now I think I
want to understand more variety of English.
The class was also discussed in relation to ELT, and many noted that since English has become a global language,
teachers no longer need to be NESTs. However, while they recognise the importance of being exposed to the diversity
of English, they prefer NESTs, to ensure that their English doesnt become untrustful. ELF exchanges are OK when
we communicate with people as friends, but when we want to use English for business, we have to learn formal
English and there is a belief that native English should be learnt first.
The interviews revealed that both the two global Englishes and the two non- global Englishes participants made a
similar number of references to NES ownership, desire to sound like a NES, native English and non-native English.
The two non- global Englishes students, Yukiko and Saori, discussed non-native English, and Saori showed great
awareness of ELF. Saori also wants to sound like a NES and thinks NESTs are more beneficial, but changed her mind
in the interview, commenting that, since Japanese students will use ELF in the future, they need exposure to different
varieties of English. However, both global Englishes participants, Yuka and Nanae, made more references to global
Englishes awareness and related their comments directly to the class. Yuka described how the class raised her
awareness of non-native English and, before taking the class, she had NEVER thought about THAT KIND of English
and thinks that it would be useful for Japanese English learners to take a similar class to raise awareness that NOW
MANY countries, MANY PEOPLE from all over the world USE ENGLISH, which she was unaware of previously.
Nanae also noted that, Maybe my opinions have been changed and that her Japanese accent is one of the future. She
is aware of ELF, but wants a native English accent. The complexity of her attitude is demonstrated by reference to an
ELF experience with a Polish girl, where she re-states that it is acceptable for English speakers to retain their own
accent and points out that she was really interested in the GE class, which gave her the opportunity to learn about
non-native English and also to realise that English is like some common language thing in the world, which was
completely different as I thought. However, she ended with, but Im very interested in the (.), in native countries,
suggesting she is struggling with what she is used to and a new concept of global Englishes.
5. Discussion
5.1. Overall attitudes towards English and ELT
In this study, English belongs to NESs, the mostly likely target interlocutors. Native English is correct and nonnative English is incorrect, supporting Matsudas (2003) conclusion that Japanese English learners consider NESs to

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N. Galloway / System 41 (2013) 786e803

be the owners of English. Furthermore, with over three quarters wanting to sound like a NES, the results support
previous findings (Timmis, 2002). Despite positive attitudes towards native English in general, the study confirms that
hierarchies do exist, and American English is at the top (Bayard et al., 2001). However, there is also an awareness of
global Englishes and future ELF usage, and experiences using English with NNESs were noted to be more positive,
which is promising for pedagogical proposals for change. However, as with Bakers (2012b) participants, despite such
awareness, the notion of standard English still dominates. However, participants are also aware of the difficulty and
impossibility of the NES model, and many referred to the importance of intelligibility (Grau, 2005), which is
promising.
Regarding ELT, similar preferences for NESTs were found, as with previous studies (Cook, 2005; Lasagabaster and
Sierra, 2005; Medgyes, 1994). As in previous research (Butler, 2007), there was a preference for American NESTs,
and more than twice as many prefer materials that involve only NESs. However, participants see both types of teachers
as having different skills (Barratt and Kontra, 2000; Benke and Medgyes, 2005; Lasagabaster and Sierra, 2005;
Mahboob, 2004) and, similar to Graus (2005) participants, there is a slight openness about the position global Englishes should have in ELT, which is promising.
5.2. Factors influencing attitudes
Despite supporting the findings of many previous studies that English learners do in fact favour native English, and
this favourable attitudes extends towards ELT, this study has also shown that this is not so straightforward. Both the
questionnaire and the interviews, particularly the latter, revealed that many factors influence English learners
attitudes.
Favourable attitudes towards native English may be explained by the fact that nearly 70% of the participants
have been to a NES country, and only 9.6% have been to a NNES one. Additionally, participants use English
more with NESs and there is a dominance of inner circle NESTs and, thus, exposure to native English. Familiarity is also related to the nationality of participants NESTs, and the participants are most familiar with
native English, particularly American, as in previous studies (Matsuura et al., 1994; Chiba et al., 1995). This can
explain why they find native English easier to understand and can, therefore, at least in part, explain their selection of particular native English varieties as teaching models. This suggests that favourable attitudes towards
native English may come from the dominance of native English ideology, creating and perpetuating a false
stereotype that acquisition of NE equates successful communication. This supports pedagogical proposals that
stress the need to increase English learners exposure to the diversity of English and eradicate this false view that
NE is superior.
As in Dalton-Puffer et al.s (1997) study, personal experience was also found to be important, and s with experience
studying abroad in the UK were significantly more likely to choose UK English as their preferred model. Attitudes are
also linked to motivation. More are learning English to communicate with NESs than with NNESs, and those who
wanted to study English to communicate with NESs were significantly more likely to want to sound like one. Participants who plan to use English in their job in the future with NESs were also found to be more likely to prefer their
English teachers to be both NESs and NNESs, or only NESs, and those participants who study English because they
are interested in it are more likely to think their NESTs are proficient.
Results also support the influence of pedagogical beliefs about how languages should be learnt (Adolphs,
2005) and participants want to sound like a NES because of its use as a yardstick, their familiarity with it
and because it equates to successful communication worldwide. As in Kuos (2006) study, they do not see
communication with an NNES as a good learning opportunity and, despite negativity towards NESs interlocutors,
it is a necessary way to improve English because of the formers phonological and grammatical inaccuracy
(ibid, p. 218).
These pedagogical beliefs are also based on previous experiences. Some have negative experiences using
English with NESs abroad and another noted that Japanese English is unintelligible, which may explain their
desire to sound like a NES. Thus, as argued at the theoretical level, English learners need exposure to the diversity of English, including increased opportunities to practice ELF to instill confidence that, as a majority
speaker, English is now a global language that does not belong to NESs. It is no longer relevant for comparisons
to be made with NESs, or to view NNESs as failed natives. Approaches to ELT should emancipate future ELF
users from NES norms and instil confidence in them that as bilinguals, and often multilinguals. English learners

N. Galloway / System 41 (2013) 786e803

801

awareness should be raised of the advantages of being an ELF speaker. They should be encouraged to see the
value of their first language and culture as a resource, not a hindrance, and see successful ELF users as role
models.
In this study, NESs are held in high esteem. However, this does not make the dominance of NE acceptable. This
study also aimed to investigate global Englishes instruction and the influence on attitudes. Here, more participants
chose the English spoken in Japan as an attractive variety of English in the post-course questionnaire and the selection
of outer circle and expanding circle varieties almost tripled, with most of these selections made by global Englishes
participants. No global Englishes participants made references to NNESs as incorrect in the post-course questionnaire
and NES ownership was referred to more than twice as much by non-global Englishes participants. Similarly, in the
interviews, the global Englishes participants made more references to global Englishes awareness and related these
comments directly to the global Englishes class. This was also reflected in attitudes towards ELT; more global Englishes participants chose Japanese teachers in the post-course questionnaire, global Englishes participants showed a
decline in preference for NESTs and it is clear that the global Englishes participants see the need for ELT materials to
be more inclusive of different Englishes and cultures around the world. The global Englishes course also raised
awareness of non-native English, the English spoken in Japan, confidence as speakers of a recognisable variety of
English and overall global Englishes awareness. Furthermore, global Englishes participants noted an increased
awareness of global Englishes, a new interest in further study and changed perceptions of English and ELT. Interviewees also noted a change in opinion. Thus, while there may be preference for native English, supporting previous research, the global Englishes participants enjoyed the course and it raised their awareness of global Englishes
overall.
6. Conclusion
Despite being conducted in one country, this study highlights the need for more research into the needs, interests,
attitudes and goals of English learners today, as well as further investigations into the development of ELT courses
with a global Englishes focus. Several factors influence English learners attitudes towards English, and preferences
for native English are clearly linked to familiarity and stereotypes. Teachers are urged to build on these findings in
line with the pedagogical proposals in the literature, tailor their English classes to the global ownership of English.
This study highlights the need to make English learners aware of the fact that future target interlocutors are likely to
be ELF users, as well as NESs. Additionally, to eradicate stereotypes, multilingual English teachers, preferably with
ELF experience, should be recruited from around the world to increase English learners familiarity with someone
other than native English. Future ELF users need increased exposure, need to learn strategies to interact with people
from many different backgrounds and learn that their aim should be mutual intelligibility, not native-like
proficiency.
This study calls for further investigations into the creation of a global Englishes curriculum that builds on the
research findings of this study. From this study, it is clear that, in the Japanese context, the NES is still placed
firmly on a pedestal, and it is clearly time for them to stand aside and let the experienced and successful ELF user
shine.

Appendix A. Interview transcription conventions

[Inaudible segment]
(Overlapping)
CAPS
(.)
(3)
:
@
...

Inaudible portion
Overlapping speech
Emphatic stress (I and acronyms are underlined)
Pause of less than a second
Approximate length of pause in seconds
Length (repeated to show greater length)
Laughter
Authors gaps

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802

Appendix B. Interviewee profiles

Name

English education

Experience abroad

English use

ELF
experience

Future goal

Saori

Singapore (3 years)
Conversation school
School
English major
Mothers friends
(she can speak English)
Conversation school
School
English major
English pre-school
(from 3 years old).
Conversation school
School
English major
Conversation school
School
English major

England (study 1 month)

Vietnam (Volunteer)

Friends (NESs and NNES)

Korean NNEST

Yes

Use English in
future job

England (study 3 months)

France, UK, Canada, Australia,
Hong Kong, America (Holiday)

Mothers friends
(NESs & NNESs)

Yes

Work/holiday Canada
Work in Japan
Travel Agent

Hawaii (Holiday)
New Zealand (Study 1 year)

Part-time job at Disneyland

(Chinese & Indian tourists)
Friend (German)

Yes

Work in Japan
using English

Canada (holiday)
Australia (study 1 month)

Part-time job in a hotel

(German & American tourists)

Yes

Work in Japan
using English

Yukiko

Nanae

Yuka

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Nicola Galloway is a lecturer in education (TESOL) at The University of Edinburgh, where she teaches on the MSc TESOL program. Before that,
she worked in Japan for over ten years as an English teacher. Upcoming book publications include an academic text on Global Englishes with
Routledge.