EMBRYOLOGY LECTURE 11

DEVELOPMENT OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

The skeletal system is derived from mesoderm germ layer which is formed
in the third week of development. The somites formed differentiate into
sclerotome
By the end of 4th week, mesenchymal cells or embryonic connective tissue
arise from sclerotome cells.
The mesenchymal cells migrate and differentiate into osteoblasts,
chondroblasts and fibroblasts
Apart from sclerotome, other sources of mesenchymal cells are: Somatic
mesoderm of the body wall where ribs are formed; neural crest cells in the
head differentiate into mesenchymal cells and contribute to the formation
of bones of the face

Methods of bone formation

1. Membraneous ossification. Mesenchyme gets ossified directly into bone

2. Endochodral ossification. Cartilage formed first, then gets ossified

SKULL
The skull is divided into two

Neurocranium- the bones forming the case around the brain

Viscerocranium- the bones of the facial skeleton

Neurocranium
It consists of;
(1) membraneous part which is made up of flat bones which surrounds brain as
a vault
(2) Cartilagenous part which are the bones forming the base of the skull

Membraneous neurocranium

Develop from the mesenchyme investing the brain and undergo

ossification

The membraneous bones enlarge by the apposition of new layers on the

outer surface and the concurrent osteoclastic resorption from the inside

Cartilagenous neurocranium

Forms the base of the skull

Cartilages form, fuse and then undergo endochondral ossification

Newborn skull

At birth, flat bones are separated from each other by sutures. Where more
than two bones meet, the sutures are wide and are known as fontanelles.

The sutures and fontanelles allow bones of the skull to overlap each other
during birth in a process called molding. After birth, the flat bones resume
their original position. The sutures and fontanelles also allow the growth of
bones

Some sutures and fontanelles remain membraneous (unossified) for a

considerable period of time after birth. Some sutures remains open until
adulthood.

Visceralcranium

Consists of the facial bones

They are mainly formed by the first two pharyngeal arches. The 1 st ach
give rise to: (1) the maxillary process which give rise to the maxilla,
zygomatic bone and part of the temporal bone; (2) the mandibular process
(Meckels cartilage). The mesenchyme around Meckels cartilage
condenses and ossifies by membraneous ossification to give rise to the
mandible.

The 2nd arch gives rise to incus, malleus and stapes. Their ossification
begins in the fourth month, making them the first bones to become fully
ossified.

Skull abnormalities

Cranioschisis. This refers to very large defects of the skull. Children with
severe skull defects are not viable

Craniostenosis. Are caused by premature closure of the sutures.

Premature closure of saggital suture= long and narrow
skull==scaphocephaly. Premature closure of coronal suture= short, high
skull==acrocephaly.

Microcephaly= brain fails to grow and therefore the skull fails to expand.
They have severe mental retardation.

LIMBS

The limb buds appears in the 5th week. The ectoderm covering the tip of
the bud induces the bud mesenchyme to grow and differentiate which
results in the terminal portion of the bud flattened= hand and foot
plates

As the morphology of the limbs is getting established, the limb bud

mesencyhme begins to condense and by the sixth week, hyaline cartilage
is formed. By the end of embryonic period, endochodral ossification takes
place

At birth, the shaft of the long bone is completely ossified, but the two
extremities- the epiphyses are still cartilaginous. Shortly ossification
centres arise in the epiphyses

Between the shaft and epiphyses, a cartilage known as epiphyseal plate

temporarily remains. The plate plays an important role in bone growth.
Endochondral ossification proceeds on both sides of the plate. When the
bone has acquired full length, the epiphyseal plate disappears and
epiphysis fuse with the shaft.

Abnormalities of the limb

Amelia= absence of limbs

Micromelia= All limb segments are present but are abnormally short

Meromelia= Either hand or foot attached to the trunk by a small,

irregular shaped bone

Polydactyly= presence of extra finger or toe

Syndactyly= Fusion of fingers or toes

Vertebral column

Formed during the fourth week. Cells of the sclerotome shift their position
and surround the spinal cord and the notochord. The mesenchyme cells
proliferate and forms the vertebral column

Some mesenchymes do not proliferate but fills the gap between the
adjacent vertebrae bodies. They contribute to the formation of
intervertebral disc. The notochord contributes to the intervetebral disc as
nucleous pulposus.

General skeletal abnormalities

Dwarfism: Is caused by disturbance of endocondrial ossification in the

epiphyseal plates of the long bones= Achondroplasia. It is a hereditary
condition

Acromegaly: Caused by hyperpituitarism and characterised by

disproportional enlargement of the face, hands and feet.