Lecture 01 Introduction

CE 2423
Microprocessors & Microcontroller
Instructor:ShahidSJan COE, PAFKiet

e-mail:
shahidjan@pafkiet.edu.pk
WEB page: www.groups.yahoo.com/group/kiet-mmbs-fall2009/
Lecture 1
Introduction to Microprocessors
Computer Codes, & Programming
Stored Program Concept
There are three major parts

The CPU (Central Processing Unit) which acts as the brain coordinating all
activities within the computer
The memory unit where the program instructions and data are temporarily stored
The I/O (Input/Output) devices which allow the computer to input information for
processing and then output the result
Today the CPU circuitry has been reduced to ICs called the microprocessor,
the entire computer with the three parts is called a microcomputer
Several registers (e.g., flip-flops wired in series with each other)
Some are general purpose, the accumulator for example is reserved for
performing complex mathematical operations like multiply and divide, and all I/O
data has to go thru the accumulator
The basic timing of the computer is controlled by a square wave oscillator or

a clock generator circuit.
Synchronization
Determines how fast the program can be fetched from memory and executed
Memory Read or Fetch Cycle

IP: Instruction Pointer
8
Memory unit consists of a large number of storage locations each

with its own address
RAM (Random Access Memory) and its volatility
Typically each memory location is 8 bits wide (byte accessible memory)
ROM (Read Only Memory)
The memory units address selector/decoder circuit examines the

binary number on the address line and selects the proper memory
location to be accessed.
In this example, CPU is reading from memory, it activates its MEMORY
READ control signal
This causes the selected data byte in memory to be placed onto the
data lines and routed to the instruction register in the CPU
Once in the CPU, the instruction is decoded and executed

In this example, instruction has the decimal code 64 which for a 8086
microprocessor is decoded to be INC AX
The ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) is instructed to add 1 to the contents of
the AX
The cycle repeats itself

9
Memory unit consists of a large number of storage locations each

with its own address. As a Prime Memory it can be observed as:
RAM (Random Access Memory) and its volatility. Typically 8 bit wide
ROM (Read Only Memory)
10
Internal Working Of Computers

1- the CPU program counter can have any value between
0000 FFFF H. This one is set to start with 1400
2- the CPU puts out 1400. The memory circuitry finds the
location. Activates the read signal, indicating the memory
location 1400. B0 is put on the bus and brought to the CPU
PC=1400
CPU
Inst Decoder
B0 decode
MEM
Read
B0
3- B0 is decoded internally it now knows it needs to fetch the

next byte!. It brings 21h from 1401. The program counter
automatically increments itself to the next location to fetch the
next data/instruction.
21
General Purpose Microprocessors

Microprocessors lead to versatile products
Data bus
CPU General
Purpose
Microprocessor
RAM
ROM
I/O
Timer
Serial
COM
Port
Address bus
These general microprocessors contain no RAM, ROM, or I/O
ports on the chip itself
Ex. Intels x86 family (8088, 8086, 80386, 80386, 80486,
Pentium)
Motorolas 680x0 family (68000, 68010, 68020, etc)
22
Microcontrollers
Microcontroller
CPU
RAM
ROM
I/O
TIMER
Serial Com
Port
A microcontroller has a CPU in addition to a fixed amount of

RAM, ROM, I/O ports on one single chip; this makes them ideal
for applications in which cost and space are critical
Example: a TV remote control does not need the computing
23
power of a 486
Computer Operating Systems
What happens when the computer is first turned on?

MS-DOS
A startup program in the BIOS is executed
This program in turn accesses the master boot record on the floppy or
hard disk drive
A loader then transfers the system files IO.SYS and MSDOS.SYS from
the disk drive to the main memory
Finally, the command interpreter COMMAND.COM is loaded into
memory which puts the DOS prompt on the screen that gives the user
access to DOSs built-in commands like DIR, COPY, VER.
The 640 K Barrier

DOS was designed to run on the original IBM PC
8088 microprocessor, 1Mbyte of main memory
IBM divided this 1Mb address space into specific blocks
640 K of RAM (user RAM)
384 K reserved for ROM functions (control programs for the video system,
hard drive controller, and the basic input/output system)
47
Memory Map
48
MS-DOS Functions and BIOS Services
Program Support
BIOS: usually stored in ROM these routines provide access to the
hardware of the PC
Access to the BIOS is done through the software interrupt instruction
Int n
For example, the BIOS keyboard services are accessed using the
instruction INT 16h
In addition to BIOS services DOS also provides higher level
functions
INT 21h
More details later
49
Microprocessors
An Intel Pentium II
Heart of a computer Central Processing Unit

Small integrated circuit with many transistors
Programmable
Be able to compute (arithmetic, logic, etc.)
Work with I/O peripherals & memory
Revised on 2001/9/10 1:15 PM
ELE3230A Microprocessor & Computer Systems

Lecture on 10 September 2001
Early history
1969 - 70
Intel 4004, the first microprocessor, 4-bit

Intel 4040, faster then 4004
1971
Intel 8008, a 8-bit version of 4004
1973
Intel 8080, 10 times faster than 8008

(Similar products: Motorola MC6800, Zilog Z80)
1974
MITS Altair 8800, the first microcomputer

programmed with BASIC developed by Bill Gates and Paul Allen
1977
Apple II, the first popular home computer

Intel 8085, the last 8-bit microprocessor
1978
Intel 8086, 16-bit microprocessor, much faster
1979
Intel 8088
Revised on 2001/9/10 1:15 PM

1980s
1980
Motorola 68000
1981
IBM PC with Intel 8088, running at 4.77 MHz with a 160K floppy
disk drive & MS-DOS 1.0/1.1
1982
Intel 80286
1984
Apple Macintosh, with Motorola 68000
1985
Intel 80386
1987
Macintosh II
1989
Intel 80486 at 25 MHz or higher speed
Revised on 2001/9/10 1:15 PM

More recently
1990
Microsoft Windows 3.0 released

Motorola 68040 developed
1991
Apple and IBM formed a partnership to investigate RISC
1992
Microsoft Windows 3.1 became the standard for PCs.
1993
Intel Pentium (80586) released, MMX technology provided later
1995
Microsoft Windows 95
1995
Intel Pentium Pro (P6)
1997
Intel Pentium II
1998
Intel Pentium II Xeon
1999
Intel Pentium III
2001
Intel Pentium IV
Revised on 2001/9/10 1:15 PM

Growth of capability: the Intel family

Addressable
Memory
640 Bytes
Clock Speed
(MHz)
0.108
MIPs
4004
No. of
transistors
2,300
8008
3,500
16 KBytes
0.2
0.06
8080
6,000
64 KBytes
2 3.1
0.64 1
8086
29 K
1 MBytes
5 10
0.33 0.75
8088
29 K
1 MBytes
5 10
0.33 0.68
80186
29 K
1 MBytes
8 12
1.2 1.66
80286
134 K
16 MBytes
8 12
1.2 1.66
80386SX
275 K
16 MBytes
16 33
2.5 5
80386DX
275 K
4 GBytes
16 33
6 12
80486DX
3,200 K
4 GBytes
25 100
20 80
Pentium
3,200 K
4 GBytes
60 133
100 200
Pentium Pro
5,500 K
64 GBytes
150 200
~ 250
Pentium II (Klamatch)
7,500 K
64 GBytes
233 500
???
Pentium III (Katmai)
9,500 K
64 GBytes
up to 1,200
???
???
???
???
???
Pentium IV
Revised on 2001/9/10 1:15 PM

0.06
Other processors
Intel-compatible:
AMD (e.g. K6, k7 series)
Cyrix
IDT
Other general-purpose CPUs:

Motorola 68K series (Apple Macintosh)
IBM PowerPC
DEC Alpha
SunMicros UltraSPARC, MAJC (for Java Computing)
Special-purpose processors
Microcontroller: e.g. Intel 8051,
Digital Signal Processors: e.g. TMS320C series
For handheld products: Intel StrongArm
Revised on 2001/9/10 1:15 PM

Microprocessor-based computer
Revised on 2001/9/10 1:15 PM

Bus, memory & I/O

Bus:
a set of connections
carry the same type of information
binary
Memory: ICs that store programs & data

I/O:
Input/output devices via which the

microprocessor communicates with outside world
Revised on 2001/9/10 1:15 PM

Bit & byte

Information is generated, transmitted and stored in binary format.
Bit is the basic unit of binary information. It takes the value 1 or 0.
In digital computers, a data bit is transmitted via a dedicated electrical
connection and stored in a memory cell.
Byte is a larger unit: 1 byte = 8 bits.
Binary
Decimal (unsigned integer)
1 bit
01
1 byte
0 255
2 bytes
0 65,535
4 bytes
0 4,294,967,295
Revised on 2001/9/10 1:15 PM

Memory & address

Computer memory is organized on per byte basis: data are stored in
groups of 8 bits.
The location of a data byte is represented by an address in the
memory system. Each address points to a 8-bit data.
The address is also a binary number.
Address
Revised on 2001/9/10 1:15 PM
111
10000100
110
01010010
101
10000000
100
00000000
011
11001011
010
11110001
001
01110100
000
11001111

Data in memory
10
Address bits & address bus

1-bit address can point to only two memory locations.
8-bit address can index 28 = 256 memory locations.
The number of address bits is referred to as the width of address bus.
Intel 8086/8088 uses 20-bit address bus. Thus the address range is
0000 0000 0000 0000 0000
1111 1111 1111 1111 1111
or in hexadecimal
00000H FFFFFH
The number of memory locations is 220 = 1,048,576

210 = 1,024 = 1 K
230 = 1 K 1 M = 1 G
220 = 1 K 1 K = 1 M
Question: How many address bits are required to fully access the RAM
in your home computer ?
Revised on 2001/9/10 1:15 PM

11
I/O space
I/O space is organized and addressed in the same way as the memory
space. Each I/O address corresponds to an 8-bit I/O port.
For Intel 8088, 64K (65,536) I/O ports are addressed. This requires only
16 address lines.
For memory space addressing, all 20 address lines are used.
The I/O and memory share the same address bus. A separate control
signal is needed to indicate whether the bus is carrying I/O address or
memory address.
Revised on 2001/9/10 1:15 PM

12
8088 based microcomputer
Revised on 2001/9/10 1:15 PM

13
Microprocessor operation
There is little memory inside a microprocessor (
P). This internal
memory is referred as register.
The P has to load data and program from outside into its
internal registers
Both data and program are binary
Program is often stored in the memory
Program is divided into many tiny steps. Each step is performed
by an instruction
Typically an instruction is several bytes long
Data are either loaded from the memory or supplied by the I/O
Revised on 2001/9/10 1:15 PM

14
Fetch-decode-execution cycle
Fetch
load an instruction from memory

into an internal register
Decode
interpret the fetched instruction
Execution
execute the instruction

e.g. read/write data, arithmetic
computation on loaded data
During the fetch-decode-execution cycle, the P may receive an

interrupt signal via the control bus
Upon the interrupt request, the P will finish the execution of current
instruction and then responds to the interrupt
Revised on 2001/9/10 1:15 PM

15
Programming the microprocessor

An instruction is a simple command telling the P what to do
Each model of microprocessor has its own instruction set
Intel 8088 has 90 basic instructions.
The P understands binary numbers only. Any instruction is nothing
but a string of 0s and 1s, which is called machine language.
Each instruction may occupy multiple bytes:
Op code
indicating
what to do
Revised on 2001/9/10 1:15 PM
Operand
... ...
Operand
data (or the addresses

where data are stored)

16
Machine language
Binary code
1st instruction
2nd instruction
Action
B8 23 01
[Move the value 0123H to AX]
05 25 00
[Add the value 0025H to AX]
8B D8
[Move the content of AX to BX]
03 D8
[Add the content of AX to BX]
8B CB
[Move the content of BX to CX]
2B C8
[Subtract the content of AX from CX]
2B C0
[Subtract the content of AX from AX]
C3
[Return to system]
AX, BX, CX, etc. are the internal
registers in the P.
0123H means hexadecimal value 0123,
i.e. 0000 0001 0010 0011
Revised on 2001/9/10 1:15 PM

17
Assembly language
Programming directly with machine codes is neither desirable nor
feasible. It is very difficult to debug.
Assembly language is represented by word-like terms that are
much more comprehensible than binary number.
B8 23 01
MOV AX,0123H
[Move the value 0123H to AX]
05 25 00
ADD AX,25H
[Add the value 0025H to AX]
8B D8
MOV BX,AX
[Move the content of AX to BX]
03 D8
ADD BX,AX
[Add the content of AX to BX]
8B CB
MOV CX,BX
[Move the content of BX to CX]
2B C8
SUB CX,AX
[Subtract the content of AX from CX]
2B C0
SUB AX,AX
[Subtract the content of AX from AX]
C3
RET
[Return to system]
Revised on 2001/9/10 1:15 PM

18
8088/8086 internal architecture

Registers: small, fast
memory that store data or
addresses temporarily.
Execution unit (EU)

Arithmetic
& logic unit
EU register
set
16 bit
data
bus
In a 8086/8088, there are

ten 16-bit EU registers and
another four 16-bit segment
registers.
Bus interface unit (EU)

Segment
registers
Instruction
queue
Revised on 2001/9/10 1:15 PM
Data (16 bit in 8086,

bus 8 bit in 8088)
Bus
control
unit
Address (20 bit)

bus
Control
bus

19
Internal registers
8 bit
8 bit
8 bit
16 bit
Flag register
16 bit
Revised on 2001/9/10 1:15 PM
16 bit

20
Segment and offset

8086/8088 uses a 20-bit address bus
However, all of its internal registers are 16 bit. How are these registers
used to store the 20 bit address ?
16-bit segment
address
15
20-bit physical
address
15
11
15
11
+)
16-bit offset address
19
11
shift by 4 bit
The offset address can specify up to 216 = 64 KBytes of memory.

The segment address gives the beginning of such a 64 K block.
Revised on 2001/9/10 1:15 PM

21
Segment and offset (continued)

CS is a segment register, holding the
value A000H.
IP holds the offset address 5F00H.
The physical address is A5F00H
Exercises:
CS = 2300H and IP = 1000H
23000H + 01000H = 24000H
CS = 1A00H and IP = B000H
1A000H + 0B000H = 25000H
Revised on 2001/9/10 1:15 PM

22

Lecture 01 Introduction

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CE 2423

Microprocessors & Microcontroller

Instructor:ShahidSJan COE, PAFKiet

WEB page: www.groups.yahoo.com/group/kiet-mmbs-fall2009/

Stored Program Concept

Stored Program Concept

There are three major parts

The basic timing of the computer is controlled by a square wave oscillator or

Memory Read or Fetch Cycle

Stored Program Concept

Memory unit consists of a large number of storage locations each

ROM (Read Only Memory)

The memory units address selector/decoder circuit examines the

Once in the CPU, the instruction is decoded and executed

The cycle repeats itself

Stored Program Concept

Memory unit consists of a large number of storage locations each

Internal Working Of Computers

3- B0 is decoded internally it now knows it needs to fetch the

General Purpose Microprocessors

A microcontroller has a CPU in addition to a fixed amount of

Computer Operating Systems

What happens when the computer is first turned on?

The 640 K Barrier

MS-DOS Functions and BIOS Services

Heart of a computer Central Processing Unit

ELE3230A Microprocessor & Computer Systems

Intel 4004, the first microprocessor, 4-bit

Intel 8008, a 8-bit version of 4004

Intel 8080, 10 times faster than 8008

MITS Altair 8800, the first microcomputer

Apple II, the first popular home computer

Intel 8086, 16-bit microprocessor, much faster

Revised on 2001/9/10 1:15 PM

ELE3230A Microprocessor & Computer Systems

Apple Macintosh, with Motorola 68000

Intel 80486 at 25 MHz or higher speed

Revised on 2001/9/10 1:15 PM

ELE3230A Microprocessor & Computer Systems

Microsoft Windows 3.0 released

Apple and IBM formed a partnership to investigate RISC

Microsoft Windows 3.1 became the standard for PCs.

Intel Pentium (80586) released, MMX technology provided later

Intel Pentium Pro (P6)

Intel Pentium II Xeon

Intel Pentium III

Revised on 2001/9/10 1:15 PM

ELE3230A Microprocessor & Computer Systems

Growth of capability: the Intel family

Pentium III (Katmai)

ELE3230A Microprocessor & Computer Systems

Other general-purpose CPUs:

ELE3230A Microprocessor & Computer Systems

Revised on 2001/9/10 1:15 PM

ELE3230A Microprocessor & Computer Systems

Bus, memory & I/O

Memory: ICs that store programs & data

Input/output devices via which the

Revised on 2001/9/10 1:15 PM

ELE3230A Microprocessor & Computer Systems

Bit & byte

Decimal (unsigned integer)

Revised on 2001/9/10 1:15 PM

ELE3230A Microprocessor & Computer Systems