Aircraft Hardware SR

AA Form TO-18
B-6b Aircraft Hardware

Part-66 Subject
Student Resource
Subject B-6b:
Aircraft Hardware
Copyright 2008 Aviation Australia

All rights reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced,
transferred, sold, or otherwise disposed of, without the written permission
of Aviation Australia.
B6.10 Control Cables

Issue B: January 2008
Revision 2
This Page Intentionally Left Blank
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
CONTENTS
Definitions
Study Resources
Introduction
Aircraft Fastening Devices
6.5-1
Springs
6.7-1
Bearings
6.8-1
Transmissions
6.9-1
Control Cables
6.10-1
Revision 2
Page 1
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
This Page Intentionally Left Blank
DEFINITIONS
Define x
To describe the nature or basic
qualities of.
x To state the precise meaning of (a word or sense of a word).
State x
Specify in words or
writing. x
To set forth
in words; declare.
Identify x
To establish the
identity of.
List
x Itemise.
Describe x
Represent in words enabling hearer or reader to form an idea of an
object or process.
Revision 2
Page 2
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
x To tell the facts, details, or particulars of something verbally or in writing.

Explain x
x
Make known in detail.
Offer reason for cause and
effect.
Revision 2
Page 3
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
STUDY RESOURCES
Jeppesen General
Jeppesen Airframe
AC 43.13-1B/ AC 43.13-2A Combined Aircraft Inspection and Repair
B-6b Student Handout
Dale Crane Aviation Mechanic Handbook
Revision 2
Page 4
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this subject is to familiarise you with aircraft hardware, fastening
and locking devices, gears, bearing an transmissions..
On completion of the following topics you will be able to:
Topic 6.5.1 Fasteners - Screw Threads
List types of standard screw threads used in aircraft and identify their
thread forms, dimensions and tolerances.
Describe measuring of screw threads.
Topic 6.5.2
Fasteners - Bolts, Studs and Screws

Identify various types of aircraft bolts and machine screws by
specification, markings and international standards.
Identify and describe the following nut types:
x self
locking x
anchor x
standard
Identify types of studs and describe their uses and methods of insertion
and removal.
Identify types of self tapping screws.
State the purpose of dowels and describe their application.
Topic 6.5.3
Fasteners - Locking Devices
Identify and state the purpose of the following locking devices:
x tab and spring washers x
locking plates x split pins x
pal-nuts x wire locking x
quick release fasteners x
keys, circlips and cotter
pins.
Topic 6.7
Springs
Identify various types of springs and list materials used in their
construction.
State characteristics of springs and list their applications.
Topic 6.8
Bearings
Identify various bearings types and state their purpose.
Revision 2
Page 5
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
Define bearing application, loads and materials used in their construction.

Part-66 Subject
Topic 6.9
Transmissions
Identify gear types and list their application
State the purpose of the following x Gear
Ratios. x Reduction and multiplication
gear systems. x Driven and driving
gears. x Idler gears. x Mesh patterns.
Identify belts, pulleys, chains and sprockets and describe their application.
Topic 6.10
Control Cables
Identify cable types and define the purpose of the following associated components:
x End fittings, turnbuckles and compensation devises.
x Pulleys and cable systems
x Bowden cable and flexible control systems
Revision 2
Page 6
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
B: January 2008
Revision
Page 6
TOPIC 6.5.2 FASTENERS BOLTS, STUDS AND SCREWS

THREADED FASTENERS IN AIRCRAFT
Threaded fasteners allow parts to be fastened together with all of the strength
unthreaded fasteners provide. However, unlike rivets, threaded fasteners may
be disassembled and reassembled an almost infinite number of times.
THREAD TYPE AND FITS

Most bolts used in aircraft structures are either general-purpose, internalwrenching, or closetolerance AN, NAS, or MS bolts. Aircraft bolts, screws, and
nuts are threaded in either the American National Coarse (NC), the American
National Fine (NF), the American Standard Unified Coarse (UNC), or the
American Standard Unified Fine (UNF) series.
In addition to being identified as either coarse or fine, threads are also
designated by class of fit from one to five:
Revision 2
Page 1
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
DESIGNATION CODES
An aircraft bolt is given a part code indicating its diameter in 1/16 inch
increments and its length in 1/8 inch increments. For example, an AN4-7
identifies a bolt that measures 4/16 or 1/4 inch in diameter and 7/8 inch in
length.
For bolts that are longer than 7/8 inch, the code changes. For example, a 1 inch
bolt is identified by a -10 representing 1 inch and no fraction. In other words,
there are no -8 or -9 lengths. Dash numbers go from -7 to -10, from -17 to -20,
and from -27 to - 30. Therefore, a
Revision 2
Page 2
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
STANDARD AIRCRAFT BOLTS

A bolt is designed to hold two or more items together. Bolts that are typically
used for air frame structural applications have hex heads and range in size
from AN3 to AN2O.
Revision 2
Page 3
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
Bolts are identified by their diameter and length. A diameter represents the
shank diameter while the length represents the distance from the bottom of
the head to the end of the bolt.
A bolts grip length is the length of the unthreaded portion as shown. If the grip
length is slightly longer than this thickness, washers must be added to ensure
that the nut can provide the proper amount of pressure when it is tightened. If
the grip length is substantially less than the thickness of the materials the bolts
threads will extend into the material, resulting in a weaker joint.
When joining two pieces of material, their combined thickness determines the
correct length of bolt to use.
The diameter of a bolt is indicated by the number immediately following the

prefix such as AN. The dash number of standard bolts indicates length in 1/8 of
an inch increment.
AN3-6A:
x
AN = Air Force / Navy. x
3 = Diameter in
1/16 inch x -6 = Length in 1/8 inch x A = Not

drilled for split pin (No letter = Drilled for split pin).
STANDARD AIRFRAME BOLTS

Aircraft bolts are available in cadmium-plated nickel steel, corrosion resistant
steel, and in 2024 aluminium alloy.
Revision 2
Page 4
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
Unless specified, a bolt is made of cadmium-plated nickel steel. A corrosion

resistant bolt, on the other hand, is identified by the letter C inserted
between the diameter and length designations. Aluminium alloy bolts are
identified by the letters DD. For example, a bolt that is 1/4 inch in diameter,
3/4 inch long, and made of cadmium-plated nickel steel is identified by the
code AN4-6. However, if the same bolt is made of corrosion resistant steel it
carries the code AN4C6, whereas an aluminium alloy bolt would be AN4DD6.
In addition to the designation code, most aircraft bolts have a marking on their
head identifying what the bolt is made of and, in many cases, the
manufacturer. For example, AN standard steel bolts are marked with either a
raised dash or asterisk in the centre of its manufactured head, corrosionresistant steel is marked by a single dash, and AN aluminumalloy bolts are
marked with two raised dashes.
Revision 2
Page 5
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
The FAA forbids the use of aluminium alloy bolts and alloy steel bolts smaller
than AN3 on structural components. Furthermore, since repeated tightening
and loosening of aluminium alloy bolts eventually ruins their threads, they are
not used in areas where they must be removed and installed frequently.
Aluminium alloy nuts can be used with cadmium-plated steel bolts loaded in
shear, but only on land aircraft, not be used on seaplanes.
When hardware was first standardized, almost all nuts were locked onto a bolt
with a cotter pin and, therefore, all bolts had holes drilled near the end of their
shank to accommodate a cotter pin. However, when self-locking nuts became
popular, many standard AN bolts were made without a drilled shank. To help
you identify whether or not a bolt has a hole drilled through it, the letter A is
used in the part code.
For example, if an A appears immediately after the dash number the bolt
does not have a hole, However, the absence of an A indicates a hole exists in
the shank. As an example, an AN6C-12A bolt is 3/8 inch in diameter, made of
corrosion-resistant steel, 1 1/4 inches long, and has an undrilled shank.
Some AN bolts, such as those used to fasten a propeller into a flanged shaft,
must be safetied by passing safety wire through holes drilled through the bolts
head. A bolt drilled for this type of safetying has the letter H following the
number indicating its diameter. For example, the part number AN6H-34A
identifies a bolt that is 3/8 inch in diameter, made of nickel-steel, has a drilled
head, is 3 1/2 inches long, and has an undrilled shank.
Revision 2
Page 6
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
CLEVIS BOLTS: AN21 TO AN36

To be loaded in shear only. For example, a control cable must be attached to a
control horn with a bolt that is loose enough to allow the cable to pivot freely
as the control surface moves, but not so loose that excess play exists. For
these applications a clevis bolt is used.
The AN21 through AN36 clevis bolt has a domed head that is typically slotted
or recessed to accept a screwdriver. A unique feature of a clevis bolt is that
only a short portion of the shank is threaded, and there is a small notch
between the threads and the shank. This results in a long grip length which
increases the bolts shear strength and allows the bolt to rotate more freely in
its hole.
Revision 2
Page 7
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
Revision 2
Page 8
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
CLOSE TOLERANCE BOLTS: AN173 to AN186

Close tolerance bolts are designated AN173 to AN186 and are ground to a
tolerance of +0.0000.0005 inch. This is much tighter then standard AN3
through AN14 bolts which are manufactured with a tolerance of +0.000
0.0025, or AN16 through AN2O bolts which are manufactured with a tolerance
of +0.000 0.0055 inch. Close tolerance bolts must be used in areas that are
subject to pounding loads or in a structure that is required to be both riveted
and bolted.
Close tolerance bolts carry a triangle mark on their heads and are ground to a
much tighter
Revision 2
Page 9
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
tolerance than standard bolts.
INTERNAL WRENCHING BOLTS (MS20004 TO MS20024)

MS20004 through MS20024 internal wrenching bolts are high-strength steel
bolts used primarily in areas that are subjected to high tensile loads. A sixsided hole is machined into the center of their heads to accept an Allen wrench
of the proper size. These bolts have a radius between the head and shank and,
when installed in steel parts, the hole must be counterbored to accommodate
this radius. When an internal wrenching bolt is installed in an aluminum alloy
structure, a MS20002C washer mist he used under the head to provide the
needed bearing area.
The strength of interim wrenching bolts is much higher than that of a standard
steel AN bolt and, for this reason, an AN bolt must never be substituted for an
internal wrenching type.
Revision 2
Page 10
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
PRECISION AIRFRAME BOLTS

NAS: National Aerospace Standards (Aerospace Industries Association)
Developed and updated by the National Aerospace Standards Committee
Aerospace Standards include many standards on precision fasteners as well as
other aerospace hardware.
x Even Dash number indicate the standard issue length in 1/8 inch
Increments. x
Grip length is measured from under the head end of
the thread.
Revision 2
Page 11
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
different sizes, plating material, drilling specifications, etc.

It is necessary to refer to a specific NAS page in the Standards book for the
legend.
MS: Military Standard

All aircraft bolts, except AN bolts, are measured by their grip length, not by
their overall length.
Standard issue bolts have even dash numbers, in most applications these bolts
will do but where the grip length is critical and a (standard) grip is either too
long or too short a ODD Dash number bolt is available.
Aircraft bolts must be fitted correctly, just any length bolt will not do. The load
must be on the shank and not on the thread. Tensile strength of 160,000 psi to
Revision 2
Page 12
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
180,000 and a shear strength of 95,000 psi to 108,000 depending on the type
of bolt
STANDARD AIRFRAME BOLTS: NATO Standardisation Agency

The European NSA bolts should not be confused with the American NAS Bolt.
Always refer to the aircraft illustrated parts catalogue when purchasing
fasteners, often bolts may look the same but they are not.
NSA Specification is a FOUR digit number identifying the type of bolt eg
NSA5022
The first Dash numbers is the diameter in 1/16 inch eg - 4
The second dash number is the grip length in 1/16 inch eg -22
Example: NSA5022-4-22 is a 1/4 x 1 3/8 Hex head bolt
NOTE: To prevent dangerous cross use between metric and imperial sizes, all
western aerospace bolts are manufactured to imperial specifications.
Revision 2
Page 13
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
NUTS
All nuts used in aircraft construction must have some sort of locking device to
prevent them from loosening and falling off.
There are two basic types of nuts, self-locking and non self-locking. As the
name implies, a self-locking nut locks onto a bolt on its own while a nonselflocking nut relies on either a cotter pin, check nut, or lock washer to hold it in
place.
SELF-LOCKING NUTS
Self-locking nuts, or lock nuts, employ a locking device in their design to keep
them from coming loose. The two general types of self-locking nuts used in
aviation are the fiber, or nylon type (Low Temperature), and the all metal type.
Revision 2
Page 14
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
A self-locking nut must be screwed onto a bolt until all of the chamfer on the
bolts end protrudes through the insert. If the bolt is not chamfered, at least
one thread but not more than three threads should protrude through the nut. If
more than three threads are exposed, you risk the danger of bottoming out
the nut and undertorqueing the assembly, thus creating a stress point that
could fail. If more than three threads are exposed, either replace the bolt with
one of the correct length or install a washer.
A self-locking nuts dash number specifies both diameter and number of
threads per inch. For example, a -524 represents a self-locking nut that fits a
5/16 inch fine thread bolt with 24 threads per inch.
LOW-TEMPERATURE SELF-LOCKING NUTS
Nylon self-locking nuts should not be used in any location where the
temperature could exceed 250F. However, you may use them on engines in
those locations specified by the engine manufacturer.
AN365 self-locking nuts are used on bolts and machine screws and are held in
position by a nylon insert above the threads. This insert has a hole slightly
smaller than the thread diameter on which it fits. The nuts Class 3 fit allows it
to run down on a bolts threads easily until the bolt enters the insert.
AN364 nuts resemble the AN365 self locking nut, but they are thin and are
approved only for shear loads, not to be used in tension. AN364 nuts are
typically made to be used on clevis bolts that do not have drilled shanks.
METAL SELF-LOCKING NUTS

In applications where temperatures exceed 250F, all-metal lock nuts, such as
the AN363, are used. Some of these nuts have a portion of their end slot ted
Revision 2
Page 15
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
and the slots swaged together. This gives the end of the nut a slightly smaller
diameter than its body allowing the threads to grip the bolt. Others have the
end of the nut squeezed into a slightly oval shape, and as the bolt screws up
through the threads it must make the hole round, creating a gripping action.
STANDARD NUTS
AN310 CASTLE NUT
These fine-thread nuts are designed to fit on a standard airframe bolt with a
Class 3 fit, and are used when the bolt is subjected to either shear or tensile
loads. The size of a nut is indicated in the part code by a dash number which
denotes the size of the bolt it fits. For example, an AN31O-6 nut fits an AN6
bolt which has a diameter of 3/8 inch.
Castle nuts are available in cadmium-plated nickel steel, corrosion-resistant
steel, and2024 aluminum alloy. Unless specified, a castle nut is made of
cadmium-plated nickel steel. A corrosion resistant nut, on the other hand, is
identified by the letter C inserted before the dash number in the part code.
Aluminum alloy nuts are identified by the letter U. For example, the part
code AN31OD-6 identifies an aluminum alloy nut that has an inside diameter
of6/16 (3/8) inch.
Revision 2
Page 16
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
AN320 SHEAR CASTLE NUT
The AN320 shear castle nut is made of the same material and has the same type of
as a AN31O nut. However, shear castle nuts are much thinner than standard castle nu
therefore, are used only for shear loads on clevis bolts. An AN320-6 nut is a shear cas
that is used on an AN26 clevis bolt. An aluminum alloy (2024) nut is identified as an A
AN315 PLAIN NUT

The AN315 plain nut has no castellations and, therefore, cannot be held in
place using a cotter pin. Since these fine-thread nuts have no locking
provisions, a spring-type lock washer must be used in combination with the
nut. The lock washer applies a spring force to prevent the nut from shaking
loose. AN315 nuts are used with either tensile or shear loads and are made of
either nickel steel, corrosion-resistant steel, and aluminum alloy. The type of
material used is indicated in the designation code in the same way it is for
bolts. In other words, the absence of an additional letter identifies nickel steel,
whereas the letter C preceding the dash number identifies corrosion resistant
steel, and a U identifies 2024 aluminum alloy. Furthermore, plain nuts are
made with both right and left-hand threads. For example, an AN315-7R is a
nickel steel nut with right hand threads that fits an AN7 bolt. An AN315C-4L, on
the other hand, is a 1/4 inch diameter corrosion-resistant steel plain nut with
left-hand Threads.
AN316 CHECK NUT
Revision 2
Page 17
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
In some instances a plain nut is locked in place using a check nut. A check nut
is simply a second nut that is tightened against the primary nut so it cannot
turn off. An AN316 check nut is made of cadmium-plated steel and is available
in both right-and left-hand threads. An AN316-4R is a right-hand check nut that
fits a quarter-inch thread, while an AN316-4L has a left-hand thread.
AN340 AND AN345 (LIGHT HEX NUTS):
These nuts are used in non-structural applications requiring light tension.
Like theAN315 and AN335, they require a locking device to secure them.
AN355 SLO ENGINE NUT
This nut is designed for use on an aircraft engine and is not approved for
airframe use. It is made of heat-treated steel and has national fine threads that
produce a Class 3 fit. It is available in sizes from AN355-3 (3/16 inch) to AN35512 (3/4 inch) and has slots cut in it for a cotter pin.
AN360 PLAIN ENGINE NUT
This engine nut is similar to the AN355 in that it is approved for use on engines
only. However, an AN360 differs from an AN355 in that it does not have cotter
pin slots and has a black rustproof finish. An AN360-7 is a plain engine nut that
fits a 7/16 inch bolt.
AN350 WING NUT
Wing nuts are used when it is necessary to remove a part frequently without
the use of tools. Aircraft wing nuts are made of either cadmium-plated steel or
brass and are available in sizes to fit number (gauge) six machine screws up to
1/2 inch bolts. All of these nuts have national fine threads that produce a Class
2 fit. Nuts for machine screw sizes are designated by the series number.
However, nuts used on bolts have a bolt size given in 1/16 inch increments
followed by the number 16. For example, with an AN3SO-616 wing nut, the -6
indicates that the nut will fit a 3/8 (6/16) inch bolt.
ANCHOR NUT
Anchor nuts are permanently mounted nut plates that enable inspection plates
and access doors to be easily removed and installed. To make the installation
of an access door easier where there are a great number of screws, a floating
Revision 2
Page 18
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
anchor nut is often used. With a floating anchor nut the nut fits loosely into a
small bracket which is riveted to the skin.
Since the nut is free to move within the bracket it aligns itself with a screw. To
speed the production of aircraft, ganged anchor nuts are installed around
inspection plate openings.
These are floating-type anchor nuts that are installed in a channel that is
riveted to the structure. Each nut floats in the channel with enough play so
that a screw can move the nut enough to align it.
TINNERMAN NUTS
Tinnerman nuts are cost-economical nuts that are stamped out of sheet metal.
Because of their semirigid construction, tinnerman nuts can be adapted for use
in many situations. For example, tinnerman nuts are commonly used on light
aircraft to mount instruments to the instrument panel as well as attach
inspection panels and cowlings.
Revision 2
Page 19
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
Tinnerman nuts used to mount instruments can either be installed in an

instrument panel or in the instrument case itself. To reduce the chance of
magnetic interference, the nuts are made of brass and the cage that holds the
nut is constructed of phosphor bronze. If the instrument is rear mounted, the
legs of the nut are long enough to pass through the instrument case. If the
instrument is front mounted, the nut fastens into the screw hole in the
instrument panel.
Anchor type tinnerman nuts are riveted to a structure to hold screws used to
secure inspection plates.
The cowlings on some light aircraft are held on with self-tapping sheet metal
screws. To prevent the sheet metal screws from enlarging the holes in the
cowling by repeated insertion and extraction, a U-type Tinnerman nut is
slipped over the edge of the inside cowling so that it straddles the screw hole.
When a screw is tightened into the nut, the spring action of the nut holds the
screw tight.
RIVNUTS
Goodrich Rivnuts were developed by the BE Goodrich Company to attach
rubber de-icer boots to aircraft wing and tail surfaces. To install a rivnut, a hole
is drilled in the skin to accommodate the Rivnut, and a special cutter is used to
cut a small notch in the circumference of the hole. This notch locks the Rivnut
into the skin to prevent it from tuning when it is used as a nut. A Rivnut of the
proper grip length is then screwed onto the puller and inserted into the hole
with its key aligned with the keyway cut in the hole. When the handle of the
puller is squeezed, the hollow shank of the Rivnut upsets and grips the skin.
The tool is then unscrewed from the Rivnut, leaving a threaded hole that
Revision 2
Page 20
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
accepts machine screws for attaching a de-icer boot. Rivnuts are now used in
many areas on aircraft and the automotive industry.
STUDS
A stud is a shaft that is threaded at both ends.
They have a short thread on one end and a long thread on the other. The short
thread is a coarse thread and a much tighter fit than the long thread so the
stud will remain in place when the nut on the long end is undone.
Where joints have to be broken frequently, studs are used in place of bolts or
screws to prevent damage to the tapped holes.
Aircraft maintenance manual will give methods of stud removal and
installation.
SCREWS
Screws are probably the most commonly used threaded fastener in aircraft.
They differ from bolts in that they are generally made of lower strength
Revision 2
Page 21
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
materials but not always. Screws are typically installed with a loose-fitting
thread, and the head shapes are made to engage a screwdriver or wrench.
Some screws have a clearly defined grip length while others are threaded
along their entire length.
There are three basic classifications of screws used in aircraft construction:

x machine screws, which are the most widely used;
x structural screws, which have the same strength as bolts; and
x self-tapping screws, which are typically used to join light
weight materials.
MACHINE SCREWS
Machine screws are used extensively for attaching fairings, inspection plates,
fluid line clamps and other light structural parts. The main difference between
aircraft bolts and machine screws is that the threads of a machine screw usually
run
the
full
length
of
the
shank,
Revision 2
Page 22
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
whereas bolts have an unthreaded grip length.
Structural screws are made of alloy steel, are heat treated, and can be used as
structural bolts. They have a definite grip and the same shear strength as a
bolt of the same size. Shank tolerances are similar to AN hex-head bolts, and
Revision 2
Page 23
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
the threads are National Fine. Structural screws are available with fillister, flat,
or washer heads.
These head types are NOT interchangeable with each other. The correct
screwdriver must be used to avoid damage to the screw head, especially to
titanium screws.
Never use a Philips screwdriver on a Torq-set screw, nor a slotted screwdriver
on a HiTorque screw.
SELF-TAPPING SCREWS
Self-tapping screws have coarse-threads and are used to hold thin sheets of
metal, plastic, or plywood together. The type-A screw has a gimlet (sharp)
point, and the type B has a blunt point with threads that are slightly finer than
those of a type-A screw.
There are four types of heads available on self-tap-ping screws:

x Round
head,
Truss
head,
Revision 2
Page 24
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
x Counter sunk head, which is flat on

top, and x
Counter-sunk oval screw.
The truss-head is rounded, similar to the round head screw, but is considerably
thinner.
WASHERS
Washers provide a bearing surface area for nuts, and act as spacers or shims
to obtain the proper grip
PLAIN WASHERS
All AN washers are in the 900 series. AN960 plain washer provides a smooth
surface between a nut and the material being clamped These washers are
made of cadmium-plated steel, commercial brass (B), corrosion-resistant steel
(C), and 2024 aluminium alloy (D). They are available in sizes that range from
those that fit a number two machine screw to those that fit a one-inch bolt.
Revision 2
Page 25
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
If a thin washer is needed, a light series washer that is one-half the thickness
of a regular washer is available. An example of where a light series washer
should be used is if the castellations of an AN31O nut do not line up with a
cotter pin hole
when the nut is properly torqued. In this situation a light series washer can be
substituted for the regular washer to align the holes. A light series washer is
identified by the letter 1 added to the code. For example, the code ANO6OL
identifies a light series washer.
When working with wood or composite structures, washers with a large surface
area are used to spread the fastener load over a wider area. These large area
washers carry the code of AN970 and are all made of cadmium-plated steel
with inside diameters from 3116 to 1/2 inch.
LOCK WASHERS
In some instances it is not convenient to use self-locking nuts or cotter pins on
bolts. For these applications, a lock washer is often used between the nut and
joint surface if the joint is not structurally critical. Lock washers are made of
steel and are twisted so that when a nut is tightened against it, the spring
action of the washer creates a strong friction force between the bolt threads
and those in the nut.
Two types of lock washers are used in aircraft construction. The most common
is the AN935 split lockwasher. These washers are available in sizes that fit from
a number four machine screw to a 1/2 inch bolt. The second type of lock
washer is the thinner AN936 shakeproof lock washer which is available with
both internal and external teeth.
SPECIAL WASHERS
Some high-strength internal wrenching bolts have a radius between their shaft
and the underside of the bolt head. To provide a tight mating surface,
MS20002C countersunk washers are used under the heads of internal
wrenching bolts. These washers have a countersunk edge to accommodate the
radius on the bolt head. Countersunk washers are made of heat-treated steel
and are cadmium plated.
Finishing washers are often used in aircraft interiors to secure upholstery and
trim. These washers have a countersunk face to accommodate flush screws.
Finishing washers bear against a large area to avoid damaging fragile interior
components.
Revision 2
Page 26
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
In many instances, keyed washers can be used as a safety device. Keyed

washers have small keys or protrusions to engage slots cut into bolts or panels.
DOWELS
A dowel is a solid cylindrical rod, usually made of wood, plastic or metal. In its
original manufactured form, dowel is called dowel rod. Dowel rod is often cut
into short lengths called dowel pins.
Dowels are used where the precision alignment and correct orientation of two
mating surfaces is required.
There are following types of dowels used in aircraft:
Smooth solid dowels
Hollow dowels
Threaded dowels
Split hollow dowels

Smooth solid dowels: usually steel dowel pins, are made with high quality of metallic p
ensuring the smooth surface finishing and high performance.
Hollow dowels
Revision 2
Page 27
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
DOWEL PIN APPLICATION

Split hollow dowels in some instances are used not only to maintain alignment
but also act as bushings for rotating components.
Smooth sided dowels are press fit installed.
Revision 2
Page 28
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
- End of this Topic
This Page intentionally left blank
Revision 2
Page 29
AA Form TO-
18
Part-66 Subject
TOPIC 6.5.3 FASTENERS LOCKING DEVICES

SAFETYING and LOCKING MEDIUMS
Vibration is always present during aircraft operation. Consequently there must be
provision for safetying or locking all fasteners to prevent them vibrating loose in
flight.
There are various methods of safetying and locking. The most widely used
methods are
Fasteners-Locking Devices
Revision 2
1 of 12
AA Form TO-
18
Part-66 Subject
The AN935 lock washer may be used between the nut and the surface if the joint
is not structurally critical.
The AN936 shake proof washer is thinner than the AN935 lock washer and is
available with both internal and external teeth.
B-6b.5.3 Fasteners-Locking Devices

Revision 2
2 of 12
AA Form TO-
18
Part-66 Subject
LOCKWIRE
Because aircraft vibrate, there must be some provision for safetying or locking all
fasteners to keep them from vibrating loose. Self-locking nuts are used for the
vast majority of applications in modern aircraft construction, but there are still
places where lockwire or split pins are needed. For example, drilled-head bolts
are often used in vibration-prone areas and are safety wired together.
Lockwiring is a means of securing hardware and components and is a safety
method employed in aircraft maintenance procedures.
The type of lock wire most commonly used is made of stainless steel.
When installing lockwire, the wire should pull the bolt head in the direction of
tightening and should be twisted evenly to the next bolt. After the end of the wire
is passed through the head of the second bolt it is again twisted, this time for
about three or four turns. Once this is done, the excess is cut off and the ends of
the wire are bent back where they cannot cut anyone who passes their hand over
the bolts.
Revision 2
3 of 12
AA Form TO-
18
Part-66 Subject
Lock wiring is often used in critical areas, where inspection intervals may be infrequen
LOCK WIRING METHODS - HAND

Double twist is the most commonly used method as shown above.
the safety wire tight enough to be effective.

Single wire method is used on screws, bolts and nuts in a closely-spaced or
closedgeometrical pattern such as a triangle, square, rectangle or circle. May
also be used on electrical systems and on parts that are difficult to reach.
LOCK WIRING METHODS - WIRE TWISTERS

Wire Twisters make lock wiring easy but they can damage the lockwire therefore,
they must be used with care.
Revision 2
4 of 12
AA Form TO-
18
Part-66 Subject
B-6b.5.3
They can twist wire in one direction only when the knob is pulled. To twist in the
other direction, lock the pliers and rotate manually.
PAL NUTS
Pal nuts are used with plain nuts to lock them in place
Commonly used to lock piston engine cylinder base nuts
Used in many aircraft applications

Revision 2
5 of 12
AA Form TO-
18
Part-66 Subject
Made from light pressed alloy steel
GRUB SCREWS
Grub screws used as a method of locking two threaded components together

Revision 2
6 of 12
AA Form TO-
18
Part-66 Subject
Benefits:
x -Locking and unlocking the fastener only requires a quarter turn or a push.
x -Fasteners can be locked and unlocked in a matter of seconds - saving time
and reducing costs.
x -Vibration resistant - performs well in even the most intensive applications.

Revision 2
7 of 12
AA Form TO-
18
Part-66 Subject
ROLL Pin
Roll pins are often used to provide locking for a joint where the pin is not likely to
be removed or to lock something onto a shaft such as a handle or lever. A roll pin
is made of flat spring steel that is rolled into a cylinder but the two ends are not
Joined. This allows the pin to compress when it is pressed into a hole and create a
Revision 2
8 of 12
AA Form TO-
18
Part-66 Subject
spring action that holds the pin tight against the edge of the hole. To remove a
roll pin, it must be driven from a hole with a proper size pin punch.
SPLIT PINS
Castellated nuts are locked onto drilled bolts by passing a split pin through the
hole and nut castellations and then spreading the ends of the split pin. They are
made of either cadmiumplated carbon steel or corrosion-resistant steel.
There are two methods of securing split pins that are generally acceptable. In the
preferred method, one leg of the split pin is bent up over the end of the bolt, and
the other leg is bent down over one of the flats of the nut. With the second
method, the split pin is rotated 90 degrees and the legs wrapped

Revision 2
9 of 12
AA Form TO-
18
Part-66 Subject
KEYS
Keys are hardened pieces of metal that fit into cut outs (keyways) in wheels,
discs, sprockets
WOODRUFF KEY
12
Revision 2
10 of
AA Form TO-
18
Part-66 Subject
The advantage of a woodruff key is once it is placed in the part it won't move.
SQUARE KEY
Square Keys have a tendency to move out of their slot unless retained by a
locking device.
PRATT AND WHITNEY KEY

The Pratt and Whitney key is another key type that once it is placed in the part it
won't move.

12
Revision 2
11 of
AA Form TO-
18
Part-66 Subject
GIB HEAD KEY
Gib Head key is tapered and is driven in place when installed.

The Tang governs insertion depth and allows removal. Requires retention in
critical applications.
- End of this Topic

12
Revision 2
12 of
AA Form TO-
18
Part-66 Subject
This Page intentionally left blank

12
Revision 2
13 of
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
TOPIC 6.5.1 AIRCRAFT FASTENING DEVICES

Aircraft hardware is the term used to describe various types of fasteners and
miscellaneous small items used in the manufacture and repair of aircraft. The
safe and efficient operation of any aircraft is greatly dependent upon the correct
selection and use of aircraft hardware.
Vibration is always present during aircraft operation. Consequently there must be
provision for safe tying or locking of fasteners to prevent them from vibrating
loose in flight, and anyone involved in aircraft maintenance must be familiar with
the methods used.
Aircraft hardware standards

There are various standards used for hardware specifications in the aircraft
industry.
The most common standards you will encounter are:
American Standards: x
Navy) x
AN (Airforce
MS (Military Standards) x
NAS (National Aerospace Standards).

European or French standards x NSA
(NATO Standardisation Agency)
Aircraft manufacturers' standards
x
BAC (Boeing Aircraft
Corporation) x
FON (Fokker)
x AMS (Aeronautical Materials Specifications)

Standard hardware, which is available from aviation suppliers, is identified by a
specification number. Special fasteners must be replaced with those having the
same part number and not with similar looking standard hardware. Often the
difference between a standard and a special part is the material used to
manufacture it or the closer tolerance in its manufacture or it may be a more
critical inspection of the part.
AN fasteners can be replaced by NAS and MS equivalent fasteners. NAS and MS
standard hardware must not be replaced by AN standard hardware.
Bolts and screws

Various types of fastening devices allow quick dismantling of aircraft parts that
must be taken apart and put back together at frequent intervals. Riveting or
welding these parts each time they are serviced would soon weaken or ruin the
joint. Furthermore, some joints require greater tensile strength and stiffness than
rivets can provide. Bolts and screws are two types of fastening devices which
give the required security of attachment and rigidity. Generally, bolts are used
when great strength is required, and screws are used where strength is not the
deciding factor.
B-6b.5.1 Screw Threads Issue B: January 2008
Revision 2
1 of 4
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
Bolts and screws are similar in many ways. They are both used for fastening or
holding, and each has a head on one end and a screw thread on the other.
Regardless of these similarities, there are several distinct differences between the
two types of fasteners. The threaded end of a bolt is always blunt, while that of a
screw may be either blunt or pointed.
The threaded end of a bolt usually has a nut secured to it to complete the
assembly. The threaded end of a screw may fit into a female receptacle, or it
may fit directly into the material being secured. A bolt has a fairly short thread
section and a comparatively long grip length or unthreaded portion; whereas a
screw has a longer threaded section and may have a clearly defined grip length.
A bolt assembly is generally tightened by turning the nut on the bolt: the head of
the bolt may or may not be designed for turning. A screw is always tightened by
turning its head.
When it becomes necessary to replace aircraft fasteners, a duplicate of the
original fastener should always be used.
Classification of threads
Aircraft bolts, screws and nuts are threaded in either the:
American Standard
x
ANC
Coarse) x
(American
ANF
National
(American
National Fine)
x ANEF (American National Extra Fine)
Figure 5.1
ANP (American National Pipe
Unified Standard
x
UNC (Unified National
Coarse) x
UNF (Unified National
Fine) x
UNEF (Unified National
Extra Fine)
Revision 2
2 of 4
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
Figure 5.2
British Standard
x
BSW (British Standard
Whitworth) x
BSB (British
Standard Brass) x BSP (British

Standard Pipe) x
BSPT (British
Standard Pipe Taper)
Figure 5.3
SI Metric
The SI Metric system of threads is generally used on equipment manufactured in
Europe. All metric threads will have the thread form as illustrated
Figure 5.4
Class of fit
Threads are also designated by class of fit. The class of fit of a thread indicates
the tolerance allowed in manufacturing: x
Class 1 is a loose fit. x
Class 2 is
Revision 2
3 of 4
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
a free fit. x
Class 3 is a medium fit. x Class 4 is a close fit. x
Class 5 is a
tight fit
NOTE:
Aircraft bolts are almost always manufactured in a Class 3, medium fit.
A Class 4 fit requires a wrench to turn a nut on to a bolt, whereas a Class 1 fit
can easily be turned with the fingers.
Generally, aircraft screws are manufactured with a Class 2 thread fit for ease of
assembly.
Revision 2
4 of 4
AA Form TO-18
TOPIC 6.7 SPRINGS

Springs
A spring is an elastic machine component which can be pressed, stretched or
twisted by a force and then return to its original shape when the distorting force
is removed. It therefore stores energy as a function of displacement. Although
springs are normally made in an alloy of steel, often termed spring steel,
materials such as rubber or plastic may be used.
A spring is used in a mechanism to exert a force, to store, or to absorb energy.
Familiar uses of springs include:
x
Supplying motive power, for instance in toy mechanisms, watches
and clocks. Also to close piston engine valves x
As a counterbalance,
such as a door closing device, and to a certain extent in car suspension
x
As a shock absorber, for instance, in flexible couplings x For
vibration control, in engine mounts and instrument vibration pads x
Force measurement, such as the calibrated springs in weighing
machines and instruments
x Retention, for instance as retaining rings, circlips or spring washers
Spring Steel
Spring Steel is a special classification of steel that has great hardness, strength
and elasticity Additional alloying elements are used in spring steel include:
x
Manganese x
Chromium
Silicon x
Vanadium x
Molybdenum
Common Applications of spring steel
include: x
x
Springs
Spring and shake-proof
washers x
Steel rules x
Measuring tapes x
Feeler gauges
Spring Varieties
The variety of spring configurations can be classified under five main types:
x
flat
or leaf x
helical x
Training Material Only
Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
1 of 8
AA Form TO-18
spiral
x
torsion x
disk.
Flat or leaf spring
A leaf spring is a flat beam designed to deflect under load; one end is usually
firmly anchored, while the other is linked by a moveable shackle to the moving
machine part. Loads can be applied in either tension or compression (push or
pull); this is one of the main advantages of the design, illustrated in Figure 7.1.
Another advantage is the relatively large amount of energy the spring can absorb
in a small space.
Figure 7.1
The leaf spring type is most commonly seen in automotive rear suspension, as
shown in
Figure 7.2. They are also seen as the undercarriage legs of some light aircraft.
The stress

Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
2 of 8
AA Form TO-18
Figure 7.3
Helical spring
Sometimes termed a coil spring, this is probably the most common spring type; it
is what usually comes to mind when you talk of springs. Common applications
include automotive suspension (coil over shock), engine valve control and
supplying actuating force in a clutch. The spring is essentially a wire or bar
wound into a helix. The ends may be modified or ground flat so compression can
be evenly applied to the spring, or the ends could be shaped into hooks or eyes
so that tension can be applied. These can be seen in Figure 7.4. The coil spring
is designed to act under compression, or tension, rarely both, which would be
detrimental to the spring's life.
Figure 7.4
Compression spring
Compression springs fall into the following general categories based on their
overall shape:
x
Cylindrical, Straight or Standard - All coils are the same diameter.

These are the most common and least expensive compression springs.
The ends can be either open or closed and they can be ground flat,
although grinding significantly increases the cost and is often
unnecessary for small wire sizes.
Conical (Tapered) - Coil diameter decreases from one end of the spring
to other. These springs are often used when there is not enough room
for a cylindrical spring. They can be made so that the smaller coils
telescope down into the larger coils as the spring is compressed so that
the spring compression springs.
Barrel (Convex) - Tapered so that both ends are smaller than the
middle. These springs can have some of the same advantages as a
conical spring with the added advantage that they are symmetrical.
Hourglass or Concave - Tapered so that both ends are larger than the
middle. These springs can have some of the same advantages as a
conical spring with the added advantage that they are symmetrical.
Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
3 of 8
AA Form TO-18
The enlarged end coils may also help keep the spring centred on a
larger diameter hole.
Figure 7.5
Spiral spring
Spiral springs are commonly seen in two main shapes, both shown in Figure 7.6.
The first is a flat spiral termed an Archimedes spiral, and the other is a conical
form which is a modification of the helical spring.

Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
4 of 8
AA Form TO-18
Figure 7.6
The advantage of the spiral spring is its ability to be deflected in a combination
of ways. The flat spiral can absorb force at a tangent to its axis; that is, it can be
wound up to close the space between its coils. This is the spring providing
motive energy in clocks and clockwork engines. The conical form can be
compressed or stretched, and also reacts to forces at right angles to its axis.
Torsion bar
The torsion bar spring is essentially a shaft of uniform cross-section that stores
energy when twisted. Some cars use torsion bar suspension, or they are added
as after-market accessories to change the suspension characteristics. The
Torsion Bar torque wrench utilises this principle. The drive square in the torque
wrench acts as a torsion bar spring, which activates gears to show torque on a
dial indicator. Figure 7.7 illustrates a simple example of torsion bar.
Figure 7.7
Disk springs
This classification of springs includes a large family of similar spring types, such
as:
Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
5 of 8
AA Form TO-18
x Single disk x
Multiple disk
x Bellville
spring x Lock
washer x
Diaphragm
Disk springs may be used where space is limited and large forces are present;
however, they tend to be difficult to design and manufacture. The single disk
handles small deflections. A stack or multiple disk spring, such as that illustrated
in Figure 7.8, is used for greater deflection.
Figure 7.8
Well-known disk spring applications include the diaphragm spring in the
automotive clutch, illustrated in Figure 7.9.
Figure 7.9
Another common disk spring variety are the finger washers, wave spring washers
and the shake proof washers shown in Figure 7.10, which provide light locking of
nuts and bolts.

Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
6 of 8
AA Form TO-18
Figure 7.10
Construction
To understand spring construction, you need to understand some common terms.
These terms are listed below and are shown in Figure 7.11.
x Coils x
Free
length x Ground
section x
Inside diameter x
Length inside
hooks x Length
over coil x
Mean diameter x
Outside diameter
x Pitch x
Wire
diameter
Figure 7.11
AA Form T

Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
7 of 8
AA Form TO-18
Compression springs can have closed and ground ends to sit square on surfaces
to apply pressure evenly, or the ends can be open as shown in Figure 7.12.
Figure 7.12

Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
8 of 8
AA Form TO-18
B: January 2008
TOPIC 6.8 BEARINGS

Broadly speaking, bearings can be divided into two major groups:
1. Plain bearings, which have no moving parts and are comprised of a plain cylinder
or flat washer surface, of a material generally softer than the shaft it supports.
2. Rolling element bearings, which are an assembly consisting of hardened rolling
components enclosed in inner and outer cases, called races, between which they
roll.
These are further sub-divided into another two major categories:
ball bearings
roller bearings
Characteristics
A good bearing has two characteristics:
It must be made of a material that is strong enough to withstand the pressures

imposed on it, and yet permit the other surface to move with a minimum of wear
and friction.
The parts must be held in position within very close tolerances to provide quiet
and efficient operation, and at the same time permit freedom of motion.
Design and selection of a bearing and the material of its composition depends on
the size of the forces acting on it, whether they are constant or intermittent
forces, the type of lubrication available and the environment in which it will
operate. When used in rotating parts, the forces the bearing may cope with are:
axial
radial
A Bearing is any surface that provides support for, or is supported by, another
surface. It is a part in which a journal, pivot, pin, shaft, or similar device turns,
revolves, or slides. The Bearings in aircraft components are designed to produce
a minimum of friction and a maximum of wear resistance.
Gears are used in conjunction with bearings and shafts to transmit power, change
drive directions, and increase or decrease rotational speed.
Bearing Loads and Their Effects Axial Loads

Axial, or thrust loads, act along the shaft being supported, e.g.: pulling or pushing
the shaft,

Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
9 of 8
AA Form TO-18
as shown in Figure 8.1.
Figure 8.1
Radial Loads
horizontal
shaft.
Radial or journal loads
This
is
represented
in
Figure
8.2.
, act at right angles to the shaft, e.g. vertical (hanging) weight on
Figure 8.2

Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
10 of 8
AA Form TO-18
Combination Loads
Figure 8.3
Bearing Supports
A bearing is mounted in a structure; obviously that structure must be adequate to
support the bearing rigidly and withstand all the loading the bearing itself is
subjected to. In many cases it also carries oil galleries to supply the bearing.
The machined seat in which the bearing is held must be cut precisely to hold the
bearing to the required tolerance of fit, and not place unnecessary stress on the
bearing by being out of round. In some cases the seat area may provide a
means of locating the bearing, such as a cutout for a tang on a bearing shell, as
shown in Figure 8.4, or a groove for a locating ring.
Figure 8.4
Bearing Types
Bearings are manufactured in many different forms, shapes and sizes to cater for
various loads and requirements. A car is a source of numerous bearing types,
from the plain bearings on the engine crankshaft, the ball bearings in
accessories, the rollers and needles in the gearbox, to taper bearings in the
wheel hubs. The bearing types that will be covered in this topic are:
Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
11 of 8
AA Form TO-18
x plain bearings (sleeve or sliding bearings), which includes bushes

x anti-friction bearings (rolling or rolling element bearings), which are ball, roller
and needle bearings
Plain Bearings
In a plain bearing, the most obvious motion between surfaces is one of sliding.
A plain bearing is a broad cylindrical component, of a material softer than the
journal of the shaft it supports. The softer material is often layered onto a steel
Figure 8.5
A plain bearing is usually designed to take radial loads, sometimes also called journal loads,
backing, or it may be machined into the parent metal of the supporting
component, as is the case with items like camshafts running in aluminium alloy
casings.
A cylindrical plain bearing is illustrated in Figure 8.5. which you will
recall are those acting at right angles to the axis of the shaft, as shown in Figure
8.6.
Figure 8.6

Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
12 of 8
AA Form TO-18
A split bearing is usually termed a shell bearing; the most common are the big
end bearings and crankshaft bearings of piston engines. These split bearings
may be of composite construction, to meet the requirements of a surface
material that will be self lubricating to take the load at start-up before oil is
pumped into the shell, and sufficiently rigid to stand high radial loads.
A lining material is superimposed onto a steel backing, as illustrated in Figure
8.8. The lining material could include metals such as:
white metal silver lead
Babbitt
Some plain bearings may

be flanged to take
thrust and radial load
combinations,
such as that shown in
Figure 8.10 (A);
Figure 8.8
special plain bearings may
act purely to bear
thrust loads. An example of a plain thrust bearing is the thrust washer, shown in
Figure 8.10 (B). Thrust washers are often used to take side loads in gearboxes,
behind gears and on the end of shafts
Figure 8.10
Bushings
Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
13 of 8
AA Form TO-18
Comparatively small removable plain bearings, of a one piece cylindrical sleeve

construction, may be termed a bush or bushing. They may be used to support
the smaller shafts of some engine accessories, the ends of control shafts and
rods, or supporting the trunnions of various systems.
Self lubricating bearings such as the Oilite bush shown in Figure 8.11 (A), fall
into this category. These are made from sintered metal, that is, powdered metal
which is pressed and heated to fuse it into a strong solid material with a sponge-
like structure. Lubricant can be impregnated into the metal to make up almost
30% of its volume. Another impregnated metal bush variety has grooves and
channels cut in it, into which Teflon plastic, Poly-Tetra-Fluro-Ethylene (PTFE) is
packed. This is shown in Figure 8.11 (B).
Figure 8.11
Bushes may also be made entirely of PTFE which is self lubricating, for
applications where oil or grease is dangerous, such as in oxygen systems, or in
corrosive environments where PTFE is chemically stable.
In areas where the temperature is too high for conventional lubricants, a carbongraphite bush can be used, but they are brittle and easily chipped or broken.
They are used in gas turbine engine hot-ends or in food processing machinery
where non-toxic materials are essential.

Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
14 of 8
AA Form TO-18
Plain Bearing Diametrical Clearance
Figure 8.12
Diametrical clearance is minimal in aircraft bearings, and rarely exceeds 0.003
thousandths of an inch, dependent on bearing size and use.
Within the
clearance, a film of lubricant is maintained while the shaft is moving. The film is
designed to completely separate the moving surfaces to ensure friction is
reduced to only that present in the lubricant itself, and also to cushion shock
loadings.
During start-up of an engine, the journal surface may rest on the bearing metal
and friction will be relatively high. This should be the only time that wear occurs
in the bearing. Anti-friction Bearings
Commonly called rolling element bearings, roller and ball bearings are grouped
as antifriction bearings due to their ability to almost entirely eliminate friction.
These bearings are produced in a variety of forms for various uses. Rolling
element bearings offer a number of advantages over plain bearings as follows: x
they have very low starting friction x they carry heavy loads x they are suitable
where reversing or oscillating movements occur x they run cooler than plain
bearings
They create much less friction than a plain bearing.
Standard types of rolling element bearings you may expect to see on aircraft are:
x
roller
ball
These are pictured in Figure 8.13 (A) and (B) respectively.

Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
15 of 8
AA Form TO-18
Figure 8.13
Ball Bearings
In this type of bearing, finely machined balls of surface hardened steel roll within
inner and outer rings. The clearance is closely controlled and a cage (retainer)
may be used to separate the balls.
As seen in Figure 8.14, the major components of a standard ball bearing are the:
x
outer ring, or
race x
inner
ring, or race
x rolling elements, in this case, balls
Figure 8.14
Figure 8.15
The outer ring may have an external groove for a snap-ring to retain it in its
installed position. The outer corners may be chamfered to aid installation. The
manufacturer will precisely machine the external faces if the bearing is to be
installed in a double, or duplex, situation as displayed in Figure 8.15.
Internally, the races may be especially deep grooved to take thrust/radial load
combinations. Shields, or seals, can be fitted to the races to retain lubricant and
protect the bearing from contamination. The races may also be machined in
such a way internally or externally to make them self-aligning.
With a wide variety of sizes, tolerances and features, it is vital that the correct
bearing for the application be used. Part numbers and other identifying marks
will usually be found ground or etched on the outer race face, as shown in Figure
8.16.

Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
16 of 8
AA Form TO-18
Figure 8.16
Part-66 Subject
Ball Bearing Uses

Ball bearings are used in accessory drives, gearing, and in any application where
a narrow bearing is required, which is capable of withstanding high speeds and
operating with very low friction drag. Their drawbacks are cost and diametrical
size. Because of their point contact, they are not good at bearing heavy
oscillating loads which would cause stress at the tiny area on which the bearing
presses into the race. Angular Contact Ball Bearings.
Angular contact ball bearings, depending on the angle, can handle high thrust
loads in
combination with moderate radial loads. These bearings can be mounted singly back-t
back, face-to-faced, or in tandem.
Figure 8.17
Roller Bearings

Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
17 of 8
AA Form TO-18
Figure 8.18
Guiding lands or shoulders on the inner or outer races retain the rollers, and a
separating retainer keeps each roller apart from its neighbours. Figure 8.19
shows a typical cylindrical
Figure 8.19
Needle Roller Bearings
A type of roller bearing in which the rolling element has a length significantly
greater than its diameter is termed a needle roller bearing. An assembly is
pictured in Figure 8.20.
Figure 8.20
Needle roller bearings support heavy radial loads and occupy less space
diametrically than an equivalent roller bearing.
Needles have a slightly higher co-efficient of friction because of the number of
rolling surfaces, but are used where weight is undesirable and compactness
Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
10 of 8
AA Form TO-18
required: e.g. in automotive gearboxes and transmission shafts.

bearings can run directly on journals.
Needle roller
Un-caged Needle rollers cannot run at high speeds. Because the rollers are not
separated, effective lubrication is difficult to achieve at high RPM allowing the
rollers to make metal to metal contact. commonly used in universal joints and
as hinge bearings.
Caged needle roller bearings can carry heavy radial loads and are used in
gearboxes, crankshaft main and con-rod bearings, heavy accessories and areas
requiring a heavy load capacity bearing with a diameter less than an equivalent
ball bearing. Caged needle roller bearings that are oil lubricated (either splash or
pressure fed) can be run at high speed. Caged needle roller bearings that are
lubricated with grease cannot be run at high speed, effective lubrication is
difficult to achieve at high RPM allowing the rollers to skid and make metal to
metal contact.
Roller Bearing Uses

Roller and needle bearings can carry heavy radial loads and are used in
gearboxes, crankshaft main and con-rod bearings, heavy accessories and areas
requiring a heavy load capacity bearing with a diameter less than an equivalent
ball bearing. Their drawbacks are lower speed (more so with needle rollers), cost
and width.
Tapered Roller Bearings

These bearings are very rugged and are capable of supporting heavy radial and
thrust combination loads. A tapered roller bearing, Figure 8.21, has its cylindrical
rollers arranged with their axis at an angle to the shaft axis.
Figure 8.21
The outer race is known as a cup, the inner a cone. The ratio of thrust to radial
loading can be catered for by designing the bearing with a variation in the angle
of taper chosen.
For Example:
A heavy thrust load with little radial load requires a large taper angle. (Figure
8.22 A)
Slight thrust loads with heavier radial loading would require only a small taper
angle. (Figure 8.22 B)
Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
11 of 8
AA Form TO-18
Figure 8.22
Purely radial loads are not supported by taper roller bearings as the rings would
tend to be forced apart. The internal clearance in these bearings is adjustable
during installation, making them tolerant to some minor misalignment.
Tapered roller bearings are used on car front wheels, aircraft wheels and
helicopter rotor masts. They may be fitted on their own or in pairs to take loads
in either direction, such as in the automotive differential in Figure 8.23.
Figure 8.23
Self Aligning Bearings
Another situation is when movement is in more than one plane, e.g.:

some

Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
12 of 8
AA Form TO-18
contr
ol rod joints. Figure 8.25 shows a cutaway control rod joint.
By making the rollers barrel-shaped or spherical, the inner race, rollers, and
retainer can be made self-aligning to the outer ring. It can be done in two ways;
with a convex roller curvature as shown in Figure 8.28 (A), or a concave roller
curve as in Figure 8.28 (B).

Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
13 of 8
AA Form TO-18
Figure 8.28
As mentioned before, a self-aligning requirement is found in control rod end
bearings, Figure 8.29 shows two solutions.
Figure 8.29
Thrust Bearings
So far we have only considered bearings designed to support combination
radial/thrust loads such as deep groove ball and tapered rollers and flanged plain
bearings. We saw in plain bearings that a thrust washer is designed to take
purely thrust loads; rolling element bearings have a corresponding equivalent.
Ball, roller and needle bearings designed for purely thrust loads have the tracks
of their races aligned to bear the thrust loading along the axis, as is shown by the
roller bearing in Figure 8.30, and the ball bearing of Figure 8.31.

Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
14 of 8
AA Form TO-18
Figure 8.30-
Figure 8.31
This type of bearing is often used mounted vertically to support heavy machinery
on work shop floors e.g. a radial arm drill press, or in variable pitch propellers
which employ them between the propeller hub barrel and the blade butt to bear
centrifugal force and permit the blade to swivel.
If radial loading is expected, a normal bearing must be mounted alongside the
thrust bearing.
A needle thrust bearing has a very high load capacity and can also take limited
radial loads, if the needle rollers are tapered as well as being spherically
contoured, as pictured in Figure 8.32.

Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
15 of 8
AA Form TO-18
Diametrical Clearance
This is provided within very strict tolerances to allow for lubricant passage,
movement, and heat expansion, as well as to allow for fitting methods, which will
be explained later in this topic. Ball and roller bearings are often classified
according to their tolerance grouping.
Bearing Retention Methods

In order for rolling element bearings to operate correctly, the inner and outer
rings must seat correctly in or on their respective shafts and housings. The ease
with which the shaft can be placed into position, or removed, is termed its fit. A
loose fit means it can be mounted and removed with ease, probably with a
manual push. However in many cases a fit termed an interference fit is
required by the bearings operating environment.
Interference Fit
This is defined as a fit between two parts in which the part being put into a bore
is larger than the bore itself. A bush designed for a slight interference fit is
shown in Figure 8.34. In order to fit them together the bore can be expanded by
heating and/or the part shrunk by chilling. When the two components match
again in temperature they are tightly fitted together. No additional hardware is
required for fitting; however the area around the bore may be subject to tensile
stress.
Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
16 of 8
AA Form TO-18
Figure 8.34
The turbine shaft of a gas turbine engine may use a bearing that is fitted after
immersion in a bath of heated oil where it expands, when at a specified
temperature it is removed from the oil bath and quickly slipped onto its shaft. As
it cools to shaft temperature it shrinks securely onto the shaft.
Heavy interference fits reduce the internal clearance of the bearing, which if not
designed for, will result in bearing failure. Loose fitting results in excess creep,
which may damage the housing, and also causes noisy operation.
Circlips
To prevent axial movement of the bearing in the housing, a circlip can be used. A
groove may be machined in the outer ring to locate the circlip, as shown in Figure
8.35.
Figure 8.35
Alternately, the circlip may be located in a groove in the housing bore itself, as
shown in Figure 8.36.

Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
17 of 8
AA Form TO-18
Figure 8.36
Retaining Plates
A retaining plate is sometimes used if high strength axial location is required. A
plate is fitted over the bore in the housing in which the bearing is located, and is
secured by studs, nuts or bolts onto the housing. It in turn secures the bearing
against an internal shoulder in the
Figure 8.37
Advantages
The advantages of bearing retaining plates
are: x high axial retention capacity x
used
when interference fits cannot be utilised x

no affect on bearing internal clearance x
bearing replacement will not damage
housing x
easy to install replacement
bearings
Disadvantages
Disadvantages of retaining plates are:
x housing requires bolt holes

Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
18 of 8
AA Form TO-18
raises residual stress levels in the
housing x
it adds weight and requires
more space
Staking
Airframe and control bearings are retained by interference fits, but these may not
be sufficient to hold the bearing in place with significant axial loads and/or
vibration. There are a number of approved staking methods that may be used;
however these should never be used to compensate for poor interference fits.
Impression Staking
This consists of the deformation of the bearing housing using a staking punch (a
tool designed for the job). The metal is impressed around the circumference of
the bearing in such a way as to force it into the chamfer at the top of the bore in
the housing around the bearing outer race, as shown in Figure 8.38. In some
circumstances the shaft may be staked (Figure 8.39).
Figure 8.38
Figure 8.39
Figure 8.40 shows the staking method used on a flying control surface control
rod.

Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
19 of 8
AA Form TO-18
Advantages
x
no added weight or
space x
easy
bearing
installation
Disadvantages
x
can affect bearing clearances x
induces high residual stresses x bearing

removal can damage the housing
Swaging
A special roller tool rolls the metal circumference of the housing over the bearing
outer race edge; this is shown in Figure 8.41.

Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
20 of 8
AA Form TO-18
Figure 8.41
Alternately a sleeve fitted between the bearing and housing may be swaged, as
shown in Figure 8.42.
Figure 8.42
The advantages and disadvantages of swaging are much the same as for
impression staking.
Approved staking tools must be used. Centre-punches,
chisels or screw-drivers will severely damage housings and bearings. The staking
process must be carried out in accordance with maintenance manual
instructions.
B: January 2008
Revision

Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
21 of 8
AA Form TO-18
Figure 9.1
The gear being driven, such as the propeller shaft in Figure 9.2, will rotate in the
opposite direction to the driving (crankshaft) gear.
Spur Gears - Helical Cut

A modification of the spur gear, helical gears also connect parallel shafts but
have their teeth cut at an angle or helix to the gear shaft axis. This can be seen
in Figure 9.3. They can carry heavier loads at higher speeds than equivalent
sized spur gears and run more smoothly and quietly.
Figure 9.3
Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
22 of 8
AA Form TO-18
Single helical gears produce end thrust as they mesh, because the gear wants to
slide along the shaft in the direction of the tooth angle. The shaft on which they
are mounted requires thrust bearings, one of the applications for the bearing you
learned about in a previous topic. You may see double helical, or herringbone
gears designed to balance thrust forces and eliminate the need for thrust
bearings. As you can see in Figure 9.4, the V pattern of the gear teeth gives
the gear its name, supposedly resembling the skeletal remains of a herring. A
more appropriate description might compare them to the tread pattern of mud
gripping tyres.
Figure 9.4
Bevel Gears

Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
23 of 8
AA Form TO-18
Hypoid Gears
Worm Gears
This type of gear connects non-intersecting shafts, usually but not always at
right angles. As shown in Figure 9.7, they use a worm-screw, shaped like a
thread cut on the shaft, to drive a worm-wheel which is very similar to a spur
gear. The speed ratio is calculated by dividing the number of thread starts on
the worm-screw into the number of teeth on the worm-wheel gear.
Worm gears offer high reductions in single steps, they are quiet and can carry
heavy loads, however they are inefficient compared to other gears due to the
large sliding movement of their teeth. At reductions over about 20:1, the gearwheel cannot drive the worm screw.
.
Figure 9.7
Part-66 Subject

Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
24 of 8
AA Form TO-18
Rack and Pinion

This gear system is used to transmit motion between a rotating spur gear and a
linear toothed rack. A common use is in many car steering systems.
Figure 9.8 is an example of a rack and pinion gear assembly.
Figure 9.8
Sector Gear
Figure 9.9
Reduction Gear Assembly

Engines must operate at relatively high speeds for maximum efficiency.
Propellers must operate at lower speeds for maximum efficiency.
Therefore, reduction gears are used to allow both the engine and the propeller to
operate within their most efficient revolutions per minute.
Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
5 of 8
AA Form TO-18
Reduction gears are classified by the number of step used to bring about the
speed reduction. A single reduction gear is a gear mechanism consisting of a pair
of gears or a small drive gear (pinion), which directly drives a large (bull) gear.
For example, in a 2-to-1 single reduction gear, the number of teeth on the driven
gear is twice that of the driving pinion.
Epicyclic (Planetary) Gears

Primarily used as reduction gearing in aircraft engines, epicyclic gearing is also
found in a cars automatic gearbox. Epicyclic gearing is a gear arrangement
using an inner sun gear, planetary gears fixed to a spider, and an outer gear
ring. The term epicyclic is derived from epi meaning upon, and cycle, a
circle. Similarly, planetary gives an indication of gears circling a central gear in
the same manner as planets orbiting a sun.
As reduction gearing, it has the advantage over a spur gear set by keeping the
propeller of an aircraft engine on the same axis as the engine output shaft.
Two arrangements which may be used are:
x
spur
planetary
bevel epicyclic
Spur planetary
Figure 9.10
This system is mostly used in reduction gearing assemblies.

Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
6 of 8
AA Form TO-18
Bevel Epicyclic
Bevel gears are mounted on the spider (the branched shaft forming the
mounting axles of the small gears at either end).
The gear system is longer but of smaller diameter than a spur planetary.
Figure 9.11 shows a bevel epicyclic gear assembly. Again, varying ratios and
change in direction of rotation may be achieved if any of the sub-assemblies are
locked, or made to supply the input/output, during the design of the system.
Figure 9.11 Differential Gears

Differential gearing is similar to bevel planetary; however the end gears are
usually of the same size (as shown in Figure 9.12).
Any of the three shafts can be input or output, and there can be arrangements
of:
x
two inputs and one
output x
one input and
two outputs
x one input and one output with the other shaft fixed
Double input differential gears are used in some aircraft control systems and
instruments to either add two angular movements or find the difference between
them.

Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
7 of 8
AA Form TO-18
Gear ratio / speed ratio relationship

A gear is a toothed wheel transmitting motion from one shaft to another. If the
interconnected or meshed gears are of different radii, and consequently have
differing numbers of teeth, the speed of rotation of the shafts will differ. For
example, in Figure 9.13, because gear (A) has 24 teeth and gear (B) has 12
teeth, (B) will always rotate at twice the speed of (A). Shaft speed is usually
stated in revolutions per minute (RPM).
Figure 9.13
The speed ratio of a car gearbox is given as the number of engine revolutions
(input) for one revolution of the tailshaft (output). Similarly the back axle ratio is
given as the number of revolutions of the tailshaft (input) for one revolution of
the driving wheels (output).
We know that with geared drives the relative speed of two meshed gears (rpm)
depends on the ratio of teeth on each gear. The convention for the gear ratio
of two meshed gears is:
number of teeth on driving gear
number of teeth on driven gear

Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
8 of 8
AA Form TO-18
Therefore from Figure 9.11 if gear A is the driving gear and gear B is the driven
gear, the gear ratio is
24
12
= 2:1
However the speed ratio (rpm) is directly opposite and would therefore be 1: 2.
Idler Gears
These may also be termed intermediate gears.
other gears to either:
x
Idlers are used between two
make the output gear rotate in the same direction as
the input x
to link gears when there is a distance
between them
The presence of an idler gear makes no difference to the ratio of speed between
the input and output. In the following diagram, Figure 9.14, gear (B) is an idler
gear, it is both a driven and a driving gear, however if (A) is the input and (C) the
output, the gear ratio is still 8/24 or 1: 3 (speed ratio 3: 1). The only part the
idler plays is to transfer the drive and make (C) rotate in the same direction as
(A).
Figure 9.14
However, we are often concerned with gear trains that have various
arrangements of large and small gears in sequence, as shown in Figure 9.15.
But nothing changes, if gear A is the driving and gear E is the driven, all the
gears in between (B,C,D) are idler gears and have no effect on the gear ratio (or
speed ratio/rpm) between A and E.

Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
9 of 8
AA Form TO-18
Figure 9.15
Direction of Rotation
Notice the direction of rotation of gears in Figure 9.15. Direction of rotation can
be simply calculated by counting the number of gears between the driving gear,
and the gear in question. The following can then be applied:
x
for even numbers of gears from the input gear, rotation is opposite
the first gear x
for odd numbers of gears, the direction of rotation is
with the first gear
Spur planetary
Figure 9.16
This system is mostly used in reduction gearing assemblies.
In figure 9.16 the ring gear is the drive and the sun gear is the driven, in this
instance the reduction ratio (speed ratio) would be as follows (note, we are not
talking about gear ratio):
Number of teeth on ring gear + number of teeth on sun gear
Number of teeth on ring gear
If the ring gear has 72 teeth and the sun gear has 36 teeth (note the planetary
gears are irrelevant), the reduction ratio (speed ratio) would be
72 + 36
= 1.5: 1
72
However reduction ratios are usually expressed in whole numbers and would
therefore be 3:
2.
Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
10 of 8
AA Form TO-18
Reduction gears are classified by the number of steps used to bring about the
speed reduction. For example, a gear mechanism consisting of a pair of gears or
a small gear (pinion) driven by the engine shaft, which directly drives a large
(bull) gear on the propeller shaft, is called a single-reduction gear

Revision 3
B6.7 Springs
11 of 8
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
Belts, Chains, Sprockets

Chains Control chains are found in a number of applications in aircraft control
systems. Usually they are found where there is a short distance between two
hardware items, (two torque tubes for example) or the system requires a
relatively large amount of force to operate and it is not practical for a small cable
run to be installed.
The cockpit pedestal area, as pictured below, is a common place to find short
chain assemblies.
Figure 9.17
Like bicycle chains, aircraft control chains are made up of multiple links and can
be joined together to make an endless loop. They can also be of a terminating
type a single length with a start and finish.
Aircraft chains, however, tend to be manufactured to closer tolerance and have
more rigorous inspection criteria They also have components such as chain
keepers, similar to cable guards, to stop the chain from coming off the sprockets
They have drive sprockets and idler sprockets and a method of re-tensioning the
assembly
Revision 2
B6.9 Transmissions
12 of 18
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
Figure 9.18
Aircraft control chains are usually of the roller type. Rollers are free to rotate
around bushes which hold the inner link plates together.
Pins are mounted in the outer plates, which are clamped together to join the
whole assembly.
Figure 9.19
Chains are sized according to pitch, width

and roller diameter.
Pitch refers to the distance between the
axis of each roller.
Revision 2
B6.9 Transmissions
13 of 18
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
Figure 9.21
Like cables, chain guards can be fitted to sprockets to prevent the chain from
coming adrift when tension is reduced.
Stop pieces on the chain guard and non-interchangeable end connectors can
prevent the incorrect installation of non-reversible chains
Sprockets
Sprockets are used in many aircraft systems and in a variety of different
applications.
Figure 9.22
Sprockets (depending on their application) are usually
made from; x
Steel or, x
Alloy.
but can be manufactured

from, x
Hard fibre
material or, x
Plastic.
Their primary roll is to convert rotary motion into linier motion and/or linier
motion into rotary motion. Also where long chain systems are used they act as
support for the chain in the form of an idler sprocket.
Revision 2
B6.9 Transmissions
14 of 18
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
Idler Sprocket
An idler sprocket is a non-driving sprocket used to support the chain run.
Figure
DLER SPROCKET
9.23
Sprocket teeth are spaced to align with chain pitch.

The number of teeth on the drive sprocket compared to number of teeth on the
sprocket being driven determines the gearing ratio of the chain system.
e.g. a drive sprocket has 36 teeth and the driven sprocket has 12 teeth. The
driven sprocket rotates 3 times for every drive sprocket rotation.
Belts
Drive belts are used in a number of applications (example - found in helicopter
drive systems). They come in many different shapes and designs.
Figure 9.24
Belt drives carry less load than chain drives. However, they do not require
lubrication, are more shock resistant, and they are quieter and smoother in
operation All belts are a variation of two types :
x
Vee belts x
non-
slip toothed belt
Revision 2
B6.9 Transmissions
15 of 18
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
Vee Belt
Toothed Belt
Figure 9.25
Belt drives can come in single or multiple belt and pulley systems.
Figure 9.26
Figure 9.27
Part-66 Subject
Revision 2
B6.9 Transmissions
16 of 18
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
Figure 9.28
Gear backlash must be established in accordance with the relevant maintenance
manual. Excessive backlash can be caused by worn gear teeth or improper
meshing of teeth or bearings which do not support the gears properly. Some of
the effects of incorrect backlash are:
x Excessive backlash can result in severe impact on the gear teeth from sudden
stopping or reversal of load. In Figure 9.29, the gears are set too far apart
causing excessive backlash.
This will cause broken gear teeth, gear
bouncing and gear noise.
Figure 9.29
Figure 9.30
x A measurable amount of backlash can be detected by hand if one gear is held
and the other rocked. Usually this is minimal and a Dial Test Indicator (DTI)
is set up to measure it. A typical gear may have .003 to .004 inch backlash.
The correct backlash will be given in the maintenance publications which
must be followed.
Revision 2
B6.9 Transmissions
17 of 18
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
Screw Jacks
A screw thread that can be used to give high mechanical advantage is known as
a screw jack.
Screw jacks convert rotational movement into linear movement.
In some applications they are called screw jack actuators or linear
actuators There are 3 basic types :
1
The worm and peg mechanism
The worm and peg

mechanism is not used much
because excessive backlash
often results from localised
wear on the peg and worm
screw
Figure 9.31
2. The worm and nut mechanism
The worm and nut mechanism
type is often used on aircraft. It
usually has an Acme or square
thread. Actuation is by turning the
shaft to drive the nut, or by
turning the nut to drive the shaft.
Figure 9.32
3. The recirculating ball mechanism
Figure 9.33
This type is a low friction variation of the worm and nut mechanism. It is
sometimes known as a ball screw actuator. The closed pathway for the ball
Revision 2
B6.9 Transmissions
18 of 18
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
bearings allow them to continually circulate along the mating grooves of the
shaft and nut, to thus reduce friction when the mechanism is actuated. This form
of screw jack is most commonly used in aircraft for many applications in
particular the flap drive system.
Control Rods
Push-pull rods have many system applications. For example, the aileron and trim
tab mechanism above has at least three adjustable push-pull rods.
Revision 2
B6.9 Transmissions
19 of 18
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
Revision 2
B6.9 Transmissions
20 of 18
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
length, but most have at least one adjustable end.

Adjustable push-pull rod may have;
Revision 2
B6.9 Transmissions
21 of 18
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
left-hand threaded end and a right-hand threaded end.
Allows shortening or lengthening the rod when altering system rigging.
The checknuts are loosened, enabling the rod to be turned without disturbing the
rod eye ends
Figure 9.37
The bellcrank pivots on bearings mounted on a shaft.
There is usually no adjustment possible to the bellcrank, although the push-pull
rods can be adjustable to enable correct system rigging.
Torque Tubes
This view of an aircraft rudder shows a torque tube and torque arm.
Revision 2
B6.9 Transmissions
22 of 18
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
Figure 9.38
The torque arm receives the linear motion input from the control system and
causes the torque tube to rotate. Thus the torque arm and torque tube can be
said to have converted linear motion to rotary motion.
A torque can transmit force across a long distance.
The torque tube is directly connected to the control surface and causes it to
move.
Torque tubes and torque arms are usually of fixed length, diameter and angle.
They are usually not adjustable.
Note - also the adjustable push-pull rods connecting the rudder balance lever to
the rudder balance tab.
Revision 2
B6.9 Transmissions
23 of 18
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
B: January 2008
Revision
TOPIC 6.10 CONTROL CABLES

Cables
Cables are the most widely used linkage in primary control systems because they
offer advantages over other types of control:
Strong, light weight and flexible, they are easy to route through sharp turns.
Disadvantages of cables include:

Tension must be adjusted regularly because the cables tend to
stretch over time.
Prone to wear at points of contact i.e. pulleys, bellcranks,
quadrants etc. Tension varies with temperature changes.
All aircraft control cable is preformed - that is, the wires are shaped in a spiral
form before the strands and the cables are wound together. This means if the
cable is cut, the wires will not spring out.
A cable is made up of strands which, in turn, are made up of individual wires.
(Refer to Jeppesen Airframe P1-41)
Cable Guards
All cable pulleys should be fitted with guards to prevent the cable from jumping
out of the pulley groove if the cable tension drops off.
Figure 10.1
The two main types of cable guards or cable keepers are shown.
Care should be taken to ensure that the guard runs close, but does not contact the pulley
or cable.
Cable Tensioning Devices

With temperature variations, the aircraft structure and control cables expand or
contract at different rates.
Revision 2
B6.9 Transmissions
24 of 18
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
Figure 10.2
If the structure expands at a greater rate than the cables, the cables will tend to
tighten.
As cable tension increases past the value of the spring tension, the spring will
compress, allowing the quadrants to move with the cables.
When a control input is made, the cables are pulled from one side only.
links keep the whole unit rigid. The quadrants then turn in unison.
The
When rigging the cable system, a temperature scale on the tension regulator
makes allowance for ambient temperature.
Revision 2
B6.9 Transmissions
25 of 18
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
Figure 10.3 - Fokker 28 or F100 aileron tension regulator

Bowden Cables
Flexible cables that run inside an outer sleeve are called Bowden or Teleflex
cables.
Bicycle brake cables are an example the outer sleeve is fixed at both ends and
the cable is attached to a handle and the brake caliper. When the handle is
pulled, the cable runs free inside the sleeve and actuates the caliper.
This type of cable is used on aircraft where there is not enough room for cable
pulleys.
The cables flexibility makes it ideal for an area such as a cockpit area, where
there is not enough room for cable pulleys and push-pull rods are impractical
because of the curving path the control system must follow.
F igure 10.4
The steel cable can either be a push-pull type or can rotate, driving a screw jack.
The outer casing of the cables protect the inner cable from damage. If the outer
casing is bent, however, the inner cable will not travel freely.
Revision 2
B6.9 Transmissions
26 of 18
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
Likewise, if the outer casing is chafed through, the inner cable is likely to be
damaged.
Both these situations is cause for rejection of the assembly.
Figure 10.5 - Bowden Cable used for rudder pedal adjustment.
Revision 2
B6.9 Transmissions
27 of 18

Aircraft Hardware SR

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Aircraft Hardware SR

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

AA Form TO-18

B-6b Aircraft Hardware

Copyright 2008 Aviation Australia

B6.10 Control Cables

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

Aircraft Fastening Devices

Issue B: January 2008

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

To describe the nature or basic

Represent in words enabling hearer or reader to form an idea of an

Issue B: January 2008

x To tell the facts, details, or particulars of something verbally or in writing.

Make known in detail.

Offer reason for cause and

Issue B: January 2008

Issue B: January 2008

Fasteners - Bolts, Studs and Screws

Issue B: January 2008

Define bearing application, loads and materials used in their construction.

Issue B: January 2008

TOPIC 6.5.2 FASTENERS BOLTS, STUDS AND SCREWS

THREAD TYPE AND FITS

Issue B: January 2008

Issue B: January 2008

STANDARD AIRCRAFT BOLTS

Issue B: January 2008

The diameter of a bolt is indicated by the number immediately following the

AN = Air Force / Navy. x

1/16 inch x -6 = Length in 1/8 inch x A = Not

STANDARD AIRFRAME BOLTS

Issue B: January 2008

Unless specified, a bolt is made of cadmium-plated nickel steel. A corrosion

Issue B: January 2008

Issue B: January 2008

CLEVIS BOLTS: AN21 TO AN36

Issue B: January 2008

Issue B: January 2008

CLOSE TOLERANCE BOLTS: AN173 to AN186

Issue B: January 2008

tolerance than standard bolts.

INTERNAL WRENCHING BOLTS (MS20004 TO MS20024)

Issue B: January 2008

PRECISION AIRFRAME BOLTS

Grip length is measured from under the head end of

Issue B: January 2008

different sizes, plating material, drilling specifications, etc.

MS: Military Standard

Issue B: January 2008

STANDARD AIRFRAME BOLTS: NATO Standardisation Agency

Issue B: January 2008

Issue B: January 2008

METAL SELF-LOCKING NUTS

Issue B: January 2008

Issue B: January 2008

AN320 SHEAR CASTLE NUT

AN315 PLAIN NUT

Issue B: January 2008

Issue B: January 2008

Issue B: January 2008

Tinnerman nuts used to mount instruments can either be installed in an

Issue B: January 2008

Issue B: January 2008

There are three basic classifications of screws used in aircraft construction: