Nebular

Hypothesis
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History
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Fourth
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nebular
1734
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Kant, who was familiar with Swedenborg's
work, developed the theory further in
1755. He argued that gaseous clouds—
nebulae, which slowly rotate, gradually
collapse and flatten due to gravity and
eventually form stars and planets. A similar
model was proposed in 1796 by Pierre-
Simon Laplace. It featured a contracting and
cooling protosolar cloud—the protosolar
The birth of the modernnebula.
widely accepted theory of planetary
formation—Solar Nebular Disk Model (SNDM)—can be traced to the
works of Soviet astronomer Victor Safronov. His book Evolution of
the protoplanetary cloud and formation of the Earth and the
planets, which was translated to English in 1972, had a long
lasting effect on the way scientists think about the formation of
the planets. In this book almost all major problems of the
planetary formation process were formulated and some of them
solved. The Safronov's ideas were further developed in the works
of George Wetherill, who discovered runaway accretion
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Formation of protostars
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Protosta
rs
Stars are thought to form inside giant clouds of cold molecular
hydrogen—giant molecular clouds roughly 300,000 times the mass of
the Sun and 20 parsecs in diameter. The initial collapse of a solar-
mass protostellar nebula takes around 100,000 years. Every nebula
begins with a certain amount of angular momentum. Gas in the
central part of the nebula, whose angular momentum is relatively low,
undergoes fast compression and forms a hot hydrostatic (not
contracting) core containing a small fraction of the mass of the
original nebula. This core forms the seed of what will become a
star. As the collapse continues, conservation of angular momentum
means that the rotation of the infalling envelop accelerates, which
largely prevents the gas from directly accreting onto the central core.
The gas is instead forced to spread outwards near its equatorial plane,
forming a disk, which in turn accretes onto the core.
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Example of a PROTOSTAR
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The visible-light (left) and infrared (right) views of theTrifid Nebula

—a giant star-forming cloud of gas and dust located 5,400 light-
years away in the constellation Sagittarius
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Formation protoplanetary
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Under certain circumstances
disk, which can now be disks
the
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Protoplanetary
disk
calledlevel
protoplanetary, may give birth to
a planetary system.
Protoplanetary disks have been The main problem in the physics
observed around a very high of accretion disks is the
fraction of stars in young star generation of turbulence and the
clusters. They exist from the mechanism responsible for the
beginning of a star's formation, high effective viscosity. The
but at the earliest stages are turbulent viscosity is thought to
unobservable due to be responsible for
the opacity of the surrounding the transport of the mass to the
envelope. The disk of a central protostar and momentum
Class 0 protostar is thought to be to the periphery of the disk. This
massive and hot. It is an is vital for accretion, because the
accretion disk, which feeds the gas can be accreted by the
central protostar. central protostar only if it losses
most of its angular momentum,
which must be carried away by
the small part of the gas drifting
outwards
 Example of a
PROTOPLANETARY DISK
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The Orion Nebula, Four of the stars are surrounded by gas and

dust trapped as the stars formed, but were left in orbit about the
star. These are possibly protoplanetary disks, or proplyds, that
might evolve on to agglomerate planets. The proplyds which are
closest to the hottest stars of the parent star cluster are seen as
bright objects, while the object farthest from the hottest stars is
seen as a dark object.
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FORMATION OF
PLANETS
 Rocky Planets
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Rocky planets form in the inner part of the
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protoplanetary disk, within level line,
where the temperature is high enough to
prevent condensation of water ice and other
substances into grains. This results in
coagulation of purely rocky grains and later in
the formation of rocky planetesimals. Such
conditions are thought to exist in the inner 3–
4 AU part of the disk of a sun-like star. After
small planetesimals—about 1 km in diameter
—have formed by one way or
another, runaway accretion begins. This leads
to the preferential growth of larger bodies at
the
The expense
runawayofaccretion
smaller ones.
lasts between 10,000 and 100,000 years and
ends when the largest bodies exceed approximately 1,000 km in
diameter. Slowing of the accretion is caused by gravitational
perturbations by large bodies on the remaining planetesimals. In
addition, the influence of larger bodies stops further growth of smaller
bodies. It is characterized by the dominance of several hundred of the
largest bodies—oligarchs, which continue to slowly accrete
planetesimals.
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Giant
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The formation of giant planets is an outstanding

Planets
problem in the planetary sciences. In the framework
of the Solar Nebular Model two theories for their
formation exist. The first one is the disk instability
model, where giant planets form in the massive
protoplanetary disks as a result of
its gravitational fragmentation (see above. The disk
instability may also lead to the formation of brown
dwarfs, which are usually classified as stars. The
second possibility is the core accretion model, which
is also known as the nucleated instability model. he
latter scenario is thought to be the most promising
one, because it can explain the formation of the
giant planets in relatively low mass disks (less than
Giant planet core 0.1 solar masses).
formation is thought to proceed roughly along the
lines of the terrestrial planet formation.  It starts with planetesimals,
which then undergo the runaway growth followed by the slower
oligarchic stage. Hypotheses do not predict a merger stage, due to
the low probability of collisions between planetary embryos in the
outer part of planetary systems.
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