Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
NOUN GROUPS
ADJECTIVALS NOUNS
shoes
they
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A. NOUNS
- A noun answers the question “Who?” or “What?”
Formation:
Suffixes:
Other suffixes:
-ist -ship
Singular/Plural Nouns
1. add –s
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2. add es: -x, -s, -ss, -sh, -ch, or –z
3. –ies: consonant followed by –y
4. –ves: end in –f or –fe
5. –o add –es: add –s
6. foreign plurals
7. different plural
8. same form
9. always plural
Collective Noun
A cackle of hens
A clutch of handbags
A scuttle of meese
Compound Nouns
a) horse thief
b) teabag
c) dry-cleaning
- Compound nouns with preposition make their plural by making the
first noun plural:
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- invent a noun
Nominalization
- When you heat a liquid it can change into gas. When the gas
cools it returns to liquid: Vaporization is followed by
condensation.
Extended Nouns
Meaning:
- Living/non-living nouns
Biology, drama, literature, social studies, physics, math,
astronomy, technology, geology
- Human/non-human nouns
Beans, plants, marsupials, actions, thoughts, feelings,
sayings of people
- Masculine/feminine/neuter
Stewardess/steward
Police officer
Mail carrier
- Proper/Common
Sarah, Philippines
- Particular/General
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Mum, the lady next door, my doll, our house
- Everyday/Technical
Digit, sonnet, vertebrate, rectangle, carbon dioxide
- Concrete/Abstract
Physical, material, tangible, memory, honesty, sadness
- Countable/Uncountable
Apples, nuns, air, water
- Objective/Subjective
Impartial, judgmental
- Terms of Address
Titles, nicknames, terms of endearment
Text Types:
- Exposition
- Information
- Literary text/Narrative
- Recount
- Instruction
- Explanation
B. PRONOUNS
I. Personal Pronouns
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Formation:
• Distinction of person
(first person, second person, third person)
• Number
(singular / plural)
• Gender
(masculine / feminine)
Subject Object
First person I we we us
Meaning:
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• They can also be used to develop links within a text and make it
cohesive.
Text Types:
• Literary
• Narrative
• Exposition
• Recount
• Information
• Object of Verb
- Susan told me the whole story.
• Object of Preposition
- She sat near me on the bus.
Formation:
Singular Plural
(Masculine) his
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3rd person (Feminine) hers theirs
Meaning:
Text Type
Recount
Narrative
257
IV. Types of Pronouns
1. Relative Pronouns
- They link a relative clause to a preceding noun. Its main
function is to join clauses together. In doing so, they connect a
relative clause to an antecedent (i.e., a noun that precedes the
pronoun.) Therefore, relative pronouns act as the subject or object of
the relative clause.
Formation:
The main relative pronouns are:
1. who
2. whom
3. whose
4. which
5. that
They are placed immediately after the noun or pronoun to which they
refer, except when a preposition such as to is used.
Meaning:
• The man who had fixed the leak had left his spanner.
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=The relative pronoun who refers back to the noun man and is
the subject of the relative clause and the verb had fixed.
• Many occasions that were held in the hotel made it to the news.
=That refers to the noun occasions and is the subject of the
relative clause and verb were held.
Text types:
- Recount
- Narrative
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2.Questions pronouns
- They are used in clauses to form a question. They are also
called interrogative pronoun.
Formation:
Wh- Questions
1. What
2. Who
3. Whom
4. Whose
5. Which
6. Whoever
7. Whatever
8. Whichever
Meaning:
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• Whichever made you decide for that?
Others
Text Types:
- Narrative
- Exposition
3. Demonstrative Pronouns
Formation:
Singular
1. This
2. That
Plural
3. These
4. Those
Meaning:
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We use demonstrative pronouns when identifying, introducing people
who they are.
• Who’s this?
• These are the seven continents of the world.
• Was that Pat on the phone?
• A subject
• Direct object
Text Types:
- Narrative
- Information
- Recount
4. Indefinite Pronouns
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- Indefinite pronouns refer to an unknown or undetermined
person, place or thing.
Formation:
Meaning:
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Text Types:
- Explanation
- Recount
- Information
- Narrative
- Exposition
5. Reflexive Pronouns
Formation:
Second person
yourself
singular
Meaning:
264
- Reflexive pronouns always act as OBJECTS not subjects, and they
require an interaction between the subject or subject(s) and an object.
They are typically indirect objects, direct objects and appositives.
• Because she was not hungry when the cake was served, Ellen
saved herself a piece.
o Ellen is the subject and Herself is a reflexive pronoun
acting as the indirect object.
Text types:
- Exposition
- Recount
6. Reciprocal Pronouns
Formation:
Looking at Meaning:
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- They are used when the individual members that make up a plural
subject noun take each other as their objects. They express an
interchangeable or mutual action or relationship.
Text types:
- Exposition
7. Distributive pronouns
Formation:
1. Each
2. Either
3. Neither
4. Everybody
5. Everyone
Looking at Meaning:
266
o The books are part of a group but they are considered as a
single entity.
Text types:
- Explanation
- Narrative
- Exposition
C. ADJECTIVALS
- provides information or builds up information around the
noun
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• How are those people/things compared with the others?
How does it compared with other things? (comparing adjective) – more
popular, most requested (anything that shows comparison).
C.1 DETERMINERS
I. Article
a. Definite Article
‘The’ - the only one definite article and the commonest determiner
Formation:
268
He was the youngest.
Meaning:
• Use ‘the’ with a noun when you are referring back to someone or
something. that has been mentioned.
*You can also use ‘the’ when you are referring to something of
which there is only one in a particular place.
• Use ‘the’ with a singular count noun when you want to make a
general
statement about all things of that type.
• Use ‘the’ with a singular count noun when you are referring to a
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system or service.
I don’t like using the phone.
• Use ‘the’ with the name of a musical instrument when you are
talking
about someone's ability to play the instrument.
• Do not normally use ‘the’ with proper nouns that are people's
names.
However, if you are referring about a family, you can say the
Brown's.
Use ‘the’ with some titles, such as 'the Queen of England' and
with the names of organizations, buildings, newspapers, and
works of art.
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'kingdom', 'republic', 'states or union'.
• You can use ‘the’ with countries that have plural nouns as their
names.
... the Philippines
*Note that you do not use ‘the’ with countries that have singular
noun as their names, such as 'China', Italy, or Turkey.
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• You do not use ‘the’ with northern, southern, eastern, western
and a singular name.
... western Africa
• You use ‘the’ with the names of bodies of water such as seas,
oceans, rivers, canals, gulfs, and straits.
... the Mediterranean Sea
• Use ‘the’ with some nationality adjective to talk about the people
who
live in a country.
Text types:
b. Indefinite Articles
Formation:
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• Use ‘a’... ‘A’ and ‘an’ with singular count nouns.
He was eating an apple.
*Remember that you use ‘a’ in front of a word that begins with
a consonant sound even if the first letter is a vowel
a piece
a university
an idea
an honest man
• After the verb "be" or another linking verb, you can use 'a' or 'an'
with
an adjective and a noun to give more information about
someone or something.
• You can also use 'a' or 'an' with a noun followed by a qualifier,
such as a prepositional phrases or a relative clause, when you
want to give more information about something.
The information was contained in an article on
Biology.
• Use 'a' or 'an' after the be or another linking verb when you are
saying
what someone is or what something they have.
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• Do not use ‘a’ or ‘an’ with uncount nouns or plural count nouns,
you do
not need to use a determiner at all with plural count nouns, but
you can use the determiners 'any', 'a few', 'many', 'several'
I love dogs.
However, if you say 'there are eggs in the kitchen', you mean
there are some eggs.
Meaning:
• Use ‘a’ or ‘an’ when you are talking about a person or thing in
the first
time.
*Note that the second time you refer to the same person or
thing you use 'the'.
• Use ‘a’ or ‘an’ to mean 'one' with some numbers. You can use a
or
an with nouns that refer to whole numbers, fractions, money,
weights or measure.
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thousand a half a dollar a liter
Text types:
Near Far
Meaning:
- This and These are used to people and things that are close to us
in space and time.
- That and Those are used to people and things that are more
distant in space or time.
Language Functions:
- This and These talk about people/things that are very obvious in
situation you are in.
- This and These distinguish things from others of the same kind.
- That and Those refer to things that we already know.
- These and These used to refer to someone or something that we
are mentioning for the first time.
- That and Those give emphasis (emphatic)
- That and Those establish a point of view or opinion.
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Text types:
- Recount
- Exposition
- Narrative
- Explanation
III. Possessives
- tells us who owns something.
Formation:
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3. If a singular proper noun ends in s, add an apostrophe.
6. If there is joint possession, use the correct possessive for only the
possessive closest to the noun.
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• My father-in-law's BMW is really fun to drive.
• The forest ranger's truck is painted an ugly shade of green.
• Your neighborhood letter carrier's job is more difficult than you
imagine.
Meaning:
Possession
Agency/Source
Human Relationships
Representation
Evaluation
Named after
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Measurement
An hour’s time
Text types:
- Recount
- Narrative
C.2 ADJECTIVES/DESCRIBERS
I. Quantity Adjectives
Formation:
2 types:
a. Cardinal Numbers – refers to the quantity (one, two, three,
four….)
b. Ordinal Numbers – refers to order, sequence, or position (first,
second, third..)
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Meaning:
- Recount
- Explanation
- Information
Meaning:
- have a more interpersonal function, expressing a particular point
of view.
- when we give our opinion, we are creating a situation where our
listener/reader will probably react, either agreeing or talking
issue with it. The opinion adjectives invite us not simply to
observe but to interact.
- it is important in critical reading activities, where students need
to identify how, for example, a newspaper article or magazine
story or television documentary is influencing them to see things
in a particular way.
280
- in writing, students are to express their evaluation of things,
people, and situations in less clichéd, more subtle and convincing
ways.
- we can also include here a group called “emphasizing adjectives”
which are used when we want to emphasize our opinions about
something (e.g. a complete fool)
Text types:
- Recount
- Exposition
Formation:
Meaning:
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its size, age, shape, color, and other qualities. These
adjectives are found in most text-types but particularly in
information reports, descriptions and procedures.
- While most adjectives provided a description which is everyday
and concrete, it is possible to find adjectives which are more
technical and/or abstract.
nutritious foods a contagious disease
Text types:
- information reports
- descriptions
- procedures
282
IV. Comparing Adjectives
283
9. Opinion and factual adjectives can be used in comparative
way.
Meaning:
Text types:
- information reports
- descriptions
- narratives
V. Classifying Adjectives
Formation:
animal doctor
science lesson
passenger train
boiled water
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For this reason, it might be better to refer to this group as
classifiers rather than classifying adjectives.
A look-at-my-exquisite-fur cat,
No he’s not!…
A ‘what-on-earth-was-that?’ cat.
Meaning:
- Classifiers tell us which class the thing belongs to. We could, for
example, divided newspapers into different classes: daily or
weekly; tabloid or broadsheet. Or we could talk about different
types of politicians: female or male; conservative or progressive;
labor or liberal.
- Classifying adjectives are important in text-types such as
information reports. They are one of the resources we use to
categorize the word in various ways. (e.g. venomous snakes/non-
venomous snakes; igneous rocks/sedimentary
rocks/metamorphic rocks).
- Adjectives which indicate nationality, location or origin are
usually classifiers:
Australian history
A British passport
A medieval village
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- Words which refer to the material that is something is made out
of are generally classifiers:
A cotton dress
Leather shoes
A plastic bucket
Text types:
- information reports
- information reports
- narratives/literary texts
I. Adjectival Phrases
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Formation:
Meaning:
287
Question Adjectival Phrase
a partridge in a pear tree.
Where?
a big hollow log with a lot of holes
With what?
in it.
Formation:
288
Meaning:
VERB GROUPS
D. VERBS
Formation:
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- A verb group can consist of a single word (e.g. He wrote a
letter) or a number of words (e.g. He might have been going to
talk.)
I. Types of Verbs
Meaning:
Text types:
- Literary texts
- Recounts
290
- Procedures
Sample Action verbs
b. Saying verbs
Text types:
- Exposition
- Literary text
291
c. Sensing verbs
Text types:
- Exposition
- Literary Texts
- Recounts
292
d. Relating verbs
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Text types:
- Information reports or descriptions
- Explanation
II. Tenses
- Tense tells us about time – when an action takes place. The verb
group tells us whether something is happening in the present,
the past, or the future.
Formation:
a. Present
- Most English verbs have two present tenses: the present
simple and the present continuous.
Text types:
- Instruction
- Explanation
- Information
- Exposition
- Literary Text/Narratives
294
1. Present simple
- Generally formed using a single world:
e.g. I read the papers everyday.
- Most verbs in the present simple are fairly regular. The verb ‘to
be’, however is irregular.
Singular Plural
1 person
st
I Am we are
2nd person you Are you are
3rd person he/she/it Is they are
2. Present Continuous
b. Past
- There are several past tenses in English. Here we will focus only
on the three most common – past simple, past continuous,
and perfect.
Text types:
- Explanation
- Information
- Exposition
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- Literary Text/Narratives
- Recount
1. Past Simple
- Generally formed by adding –ed to the stem of the verb.
Stem of the verb Past simple
walk → walked
- If the verb stem ends in –e, simply add d:
use → used
- If the verb ends in a stressed vowel + consonant, double the
consonant and add –ed.
plan → planned
- If the verb ends in a consonant + -y, change y to an I and add –
ed.
study → studied
2. Past Continuous
- Past continuous tense is formed by using the past tense of a
helping verb (the auxiliary verb ‘to be’ –was/were) plus the present
participle:
3. Perfect Tense
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- The perfect tense is formed by using the helping verb ‘to have’
plus the past participle:
c. Future
- The future tense is formed by using the helping verb ‘will’ plus
the main verb.
Helping Verb Present
(auxiliary) Participle
he Will go
they Will finish
I Will read
she Will have
- The auxiliary ‘shall’ is used with the first person (I shall read; We
shall promise).
Text types:
- Explanation
- Information
- Exposition
- Literary Text/Narratives
III. Modals
- Modals give us information about the degree of obligation or
certainty involved in the action. If we feel a bit tentative about
doing something, we can use low modality, e.g.:
I might go.
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- If we want to express a high degree of certainty, we can use high
modality, e.g.:
I must go.
Formation:
- Modals are formed by using a modal auxiliary plus the verb.
Meaning:
- In any particular situation, we choose different degrees of
modality depending on how we want to relate to the
listener/reader and how we want to portray our own level of
commitment to an idea or action. Someone with a high degree
of authority, status, power or expertise may choose to use high
modality in order to convince someone to do something or to
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believe something. In other situations, low modality might leave
open the possibility of negotiation.
Text Types:
- Discussions
- Expositions
- Information (advertisements)
- Narratives
Formation:
- When we form the negative, we generally insert the word ‘not’
after the helping (auxiliary) verb, e.g.
• I will not listen any longer.
- With those tenses which do not use a helping verb, however, we
also need to insert the verb ‘do/does’ when forming the
negative.
• Present simple
I play the piano. → I do not play the piano.
• Past simple
She worked hard. → She did not work
hard.
- Negatives, of course, can be contracted.
• I do not play the piano → I don’t play the piano.
- The contraction of the negative in the future tense is irregular:
• She will not eat her dinner. → She won’t eat her
dinner.
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Meaning:
- Has the function of introducing an interpersonal tone involving
contradiction, disapproval, opposition, denial, absence, and so
on, where the speaker/writer is making a judgment about the
truth or value of a statement.
- Other negative words include:
neither nor no nobody nowhere
never none not no one nothing
- Prefixes and suffixes can also contribute a negative tone:
We were very displeased.
Text types:
- Discussions
- Expositions
V. Multiword verbs
- Sometimes a verb group is made up of several words. As we
have seen, this can be due to need to indicate tense (e.g. ‘has
gone’; ‘will be looking’). But sometimes it simply takes more
than one word to express the meaning of the verb (e.g. ‘tried to
move’; ‘stood up’). This is not a major grammatical point to be
taught, but it does help when trying to identify where the verb
group begins and ends—i.e. the boundaries of the verb group.
Text types:
- All text types.
Formation:
1. Complex Verbs
300
- Some verbs groups consists of two verbs, each of which
contributes to the meaning, e.g.:
The babies began crying when they heard the
thunder.
- As you can see, the verb group become quite lengthy:
He has been wanting to get started all morning.
E. ADVERBIALS
- words and phrases that provide extra detail about what is going
on.
- answer the questions where? when? how? why? with whom? by
what means? for how long?
Text types:
- All text types.
301
A. Types of Adverbials
I. Adverbs
Formation:
tomorrow
soon
upstairs
probably
quickly
well
there
finally
stupid stupidly
thankful thankfully
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When the adjective ends in –y, change the ‘y’ to ‘i’ before adding –
ly.
happy happily
angry angrily
Meaning:
- An adverb gives the circumstance of the verb in a sentence.
Formation:
- consist of a group of words generally beginning with a
preposition:
in a deep voice
Prepositions are generally single words (e.g. on, in, under) but can
sometimes be multiple words (e.g. on top of, in front of). The following
is a list of common prepositions:
at of to by with
303
into until near under during
Meaning:
B. ADVERBIAL ROLES
304
She sang at the concert.
305
- Sometimes adverbials function to set the tone for the whole
sentence. They often signal to the listener or reader how to interpret a
statement.
C. FORMATION OF ADVERBIALS
Meaning:
Formation:
306
last night a minute ago before midnight
left right
307
everywhere somewhere elsewhere
D. DEGREE OF ADVERBIALS
Functions:
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I. View Point
apparently surely
II. Degree
309
completely less almost worse
nearly
III. Focusing
- emphasizes the importance of something.
- focuses on a certain aspect of something.
o e.g. He just wanted to steal your wallet.
probably perhaps
maybe definitely
surely possibly
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CLAUSES
F. CLAUSE
I. ORGANIZATION OF CLAUSES
Clause
311
Adjectivals
Articles Quality
Possessives Factual
Comparing
Classifying
Formation:
1. Syntax
SUBJECT VERB
312
- Sometimes there is also a noun following the verb. This is
called the object of the verb.
313
particular participant. It might be that the ‘do-er’ is not
important and the emphasis should be on the ‘done-to’.
314
- When students are learning to read, it is helpful if they can
see the sentences in terms of meaningful chunks. It is not
necessary that they use the terminologies, but they are able
to recognize how a clause is made up of units of meaning.
This can be encouraged indirectly (e.g. pausing and
intonation when the teacher is reading aloud) of more
explicitly (e.g. asking students questions such as those
given).
Text types:
- newspaper stories
- beaurucratic memos
- historical accounts
- explanations
Formation:
Types of Process:
1. (MATERIAL PROCESSES)
His cat killed the little mouse. - “What did his cat
do?”
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- The processes (italicized words) express some action going on.
The question to be asked is “What happened?” or “What’s going on?”
This process closely related to the traditional definition of verbs as
action words or doing word.
2. (BEHAVIORAL PROCESSES)
She laughed.
(MENTAL PROCESSES)
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Ex. I like listening to music. –“What does he/she feel
towards to music?”
Ex: She said she’d be home for dinner. – “What did the
speaker do?”
317
d. CLAUSES WITH RELATING VERBS
(RELATIONAL PROCESSES)
Meaning:
318
- Everyday we deal with experiences and these events we refer to
as processes. In every clause there is a process which is
represented by the verb group. The verb group is based on the
verb. This component focuses on the question “what’s going
on?” or “what is the participant is doing?”
I. STATEMENT (DECLARATIVE)
Formation:
Subj. Aux.
Meaning:
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I have found the passionfruit.
Formation:
Subj. Aux.
Ex. She likes pasta. > She does like pasta. > Does she like
pasta?
Cha found the wallet. > Cha did find the wallet. > Did
Cha find the wallet?
320
The type of question above is generally called yes/no questions. We
can also ask wh-questions. They still ask for information but require
an answer, which goes beyond a simple yes/no. Wh- questions require
lengthier, more complex response.
Meaning:
o Narrative/Literary Text
o Exposition
321
III. COMMANDS (IMPERATIVE)
Formation:
Meaning:
Text types:
- Instructions
- Literary text (stories)
IV. EXCLAMATION
Formation:
322
+ adjectival or what + noun group
e.g How exciting? What a surprise?
Meaning:
Text types:
- Literary texts
A. Simple Sentences
Example
B. Compound sentences
Example
323
Canada is a rich country, but still it has many poor people.
C. Complex Sentences
Example
The man who owns the nice red car is our neighbor.
D. Compound-Complex sentences
There are two special types of compound sentences which you might
want to note. First, rather than joining two simple sentences together,
a co-ordinating conjunction sometimes joins two complex sentences, or
one simple sentence and one complex sentence. In this case, the
sentence is called a compound-complex sentence:
Example
The girl who I met in the park asked me to a date but I needed to go to
work in the evening.
Text Types:
- Mostly found in all text types
V. RELATIVE CLAUSES
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Formation:
Examples
The man who owns the nice red car is our neighbor.
Mathew and Loretta, who skate in the streets, are very noisy in the
early evening.
We tried our luck at the same flea market where George found an
Amazing Spiderman #96.
325
Hans who is an architect lives in Berlin.
Looking at Meaning:
Text types:
- Descriptions
- Explanations
- Narratives
- Recount
- Exposition
VI. QUOTING
- In some cases, we quote the actual words said or thought. When
using quote structure, you report what someone has said as if
you were using one’s own words.
- Also called direct speech
326
Formation:
327
agree demand recite
comment vow
Complain warn
conclude wonder
confess write
continue
pray
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The reporting verb is found:
o At the beginning
He stepped back and said, “Now look at that.”
o At the middle
“You see,” he said, “my father was a clergyman.
o At the end
“You have to keep trying, Mabel,” he said.
Meaning:
o Newspaper articles
o Stories
o Advertisements
o Biographies
o Recounts
REPORTING VERBS
Meaning:
Text types:
o Newspaper articles
o Stories
o Advertisements
o Biographies
o Recounts
• If the reporting verb (i.e. said) is in the past, the reported clause will be
in a past form. This form is usually one step back into the past from the
original.
For example:
For example:
o He says the test is difficult.
o She has said that she watches TV every day.
o Jack will say that he comes to school every day.
• If reporting a general truth the present tense will be retained.
For example:The teacher said that phrasal verbs are very important.
For example:
• She said, "I want to bring my children." BECOMES She said she wanted
to bring her children.
• Jack said, "My wife went with me to the show." BECOMES Jack said his
wife had gone with him to the show.
For example:
• She said, "I want to bring my children tomorrow." BECOMES She said
she wanted to bring her children the next day.
• Jack said, "My wife went with me to the show yesterday." BECOMES
Jack said his wife had gone with him to the show the day before.
Indirect Questions
For example:
• She asked, "Do you want to come with me?" BECOMES She asked me if
I wanted to come with her.
• Dave asked, "Where did you go last weekend?" BECOMES Dave asked
me where I had gone the previous weekend.
• He asked, "Why are you studying English?" BECOMES She asked me
why I was studying English.
A. SPEECH
• We make use of the word ‘that’ in reporting what the other person has
said.
• If the reporting verb (i.e. said) is in the past, the reported clause will be
in a past form. This form is usually one step back into the past from the
original.
‘The final exam is difficult.’ she said.
B. THOUGHT
C. QUESTIONS
told
command
E. TIME
today – yesterday
now- then
ago- before
here- there
Place Where, Today
wherever
e.g. (reported on a different day)
until on presentations.
Manner o Biographies
• Quality o Recounts
• Means As
TEXT LEVEL
G. TEXT ORGANIZATION
Formation:
- Text Structure
I. Paragraphs
• Help the reader to discern the major points being made in the text and
the shifts between those points.
• The length can range from an individual sentence through to a number
of sentences.
• The author needs to decide how to divide the written material into
manageable and logical bundle, each of which deal with a single
unified topic or event.
III. Theme
• It refers to the beginning of the clause. At the text level, the beginning
of the clauses focus our attention on how the topic is being developed.
• This helps to make the text coherent and to enable the reader to
predict how the text is unfolding.
Meaning:
Let us look at the those features in a descriptive text about the city of
the New York.
Some of the New York’s best informed men are elevator operators,
who rarely talk, but always listen- like doormen. Sardi’s doormen listen to the
comments made by Broadway’s first- nighters walking by after the last act.
They listen closely. They listen carefully. They can tell you within ten minutes
which shows will flop and which will be hits….
The text is subdivided into paragraphs, each dealing with a particular aspect
of the topic. Each paragraph begins with a topic sentence. The beginning of
each sentence or theme, alters us to the topic which is being developed
while the end of the sentence introduces the new information about the
topic.
There are number of possible theme patterns which a writer can drawn upon
reading the text.
-
TEXT TYPES
I. Recount Text
Functions:
Formation:
Grammatical features
Use of indirect speech for reporting Use of direct and indirect speech
Use of the past and past perfect Use of wide range of tense,
tenses for retelling events and particularly past tense for narrative:
reporting speech possible use of the present tense for
dramatic immediacy
(he/she they)
Nouns, nouns phrases, adjectives and A wide range of nouns, noun phrases,
adjective phrases used to clarify adjectives and adjective phrases
events and people used to describe; likely to be largely
realistic
Functions:
Functions:
Formation:
Grammatical Features
IV. Explanation
Functions:
1. to explain how or why things are as they are, or how things work
2. to enable the reader to understand the process that is being explained
Formation:
1. a general statement
2. a series of events in chronological order
3. concluding statement
Grammar Features:
V. Exposition
Functions:
IV. Literary
Functions:
1. to tell a story
2. to entertain reader
Formations:
2. complication
3. series of events.
4. resolution
Grammar Features:
1. Action verbs: Action verbs provide interest to the writing. For example,
instead of The old woman was in his way try The old woman barred his path.
Instead of She laughed try She cackled.
2. Written in the first person (I, we) or the third person (he, she, they).
5. Specific nouns: Strong nouns have more specific meanings, eg. oak as
opposed to tree.
6. Active nouns: Make nouns actually do something, eg. It was raining could
become Rain splashed down or There was a large cabinet in the lounge could
become A large cabinet seemed to fill the lounge.
8. Use of the senses: Where appropriate, the senses can be used to describe
and develop the experiences, setting and character:
Vacation to London
Mr. Richard’s family was on vacation. They are Mr. and Mrs. Richard
with two sons. They went to London. They saw their travel agent and booked
their tickets. They went to the British Embassy to get visas to enter Britain.
They had booked fourteen days tour. This includes travel and
accommodation. They also included tours around London
They boarded a large Boeing flight. The flight was nearly fourteen hours. On
the plane the cabin crews were very friendly. They gave them news paper
and magazine to read. They gave them food and drink. There was a film for
their entertainment. They had a very pleasant flight. They slept part of the
way.
On arrival at Heathrow Airport, they had to go to Customs and Immigration.
The officers were pleasant. They checked the document carefully but their
manners were very polite. Mr. Richard and his family collected their bags and
went to London Welcome Desk. They arranged the transfer to a hotel.
The hotel was a well-known four-star hotel. The room had perfect view of the
park. The room had its own bathroom and toilet. Instead of keys for the
room, they inserted a key-card to open the door. On the third floor, there
was a restaurant serving Asian and European food. They had variety of food.
The two week in London went by fast. At the end of the 14-day, they were
quite tired but they felt very happy.
Last week my friend and I were bored after three weeks of holidays, so we
rode our bikes to Smith Beach, which is only five kilometres from where I
live.
When we arrived at the beach, we were surprised to see there was hardly
anyone there.
After having a quick dip in the ocean, which was really cold, we realised one
reason there were not many people there. It was also quite windy.
After we bought ourselves some hot chips at the takeaway store nearby, we
rode our bikes down the beach for a while, on the hard, damp part of the
sand. We had the wind behind us and, before we knew it, we were many
miles down the beach.
Before we made the long trip back we decided to paddle our feet in the
water for a while, and then sit down for a rest. While we were sitting on the
beach, just chatting, it suddenly dawned on us both that all the way back we
would be riding into the strong wind.
When we finally made it back home, we were both totally exhausted! But we
learned some good lessons that day!
EXAMPLE OF INSTRUCTIONAL
Shallow trays
Water hose
Seed potatoes
Fertilizer
Insecticide to control insects
1. Clearing the land of all debris and plants will improve growth of your
potatoes. Best results can be achieved if all debris and previous
growth is removed from the area. It is suggested that raking the entire
plot will prove beneficial as the plants start to grow.
2. Loosening the soil will allow the potatoes to develop into healthy
plants. Although a hoe and rake will provide satisfactory results, the
job will be much easier with the use of a gas-powered tiller. Thesecan
be rented from local equipment rental facilities.
3. Digging the holes correctly will enable the potatoes to grow above and
below the ground. Although there is some difference in varieties, most
potatoes should be planted from 3-5 inches below the ground. These
holes can be dug with a hoe in a long trench or individual holes.
1. Cutting the potatoes can be achieved with a small, sharp knife. Cut the
seed potato into several pieces making sure each piece as at least one
eye and a large piece of the potato.
2. Sprouting the eyes will provide better results for future plants. Lay the
pieces out on flat or shallow trays and allow them to sit in a sunny, airy
place for several weeks until the eyes sprout. These sprouts will be
dark green and closely clustered in the eye.
Warning: The vines of the potato can grow freely along the ground.
Be careful not to damage the growing plant.
2. Fertilizing the plants of the potato can ensure growth above and below
the ground. The type of soil will determine the correct fertilizer to be
used. A local nursery can provide the information you need.
3. Controlling insects in your potato garden will enable your plants to
continue growing. There is an all-purpose potato dust or spray that can
be purchased to control most bugs that will damage this vegetable.
4. Watering the plants may be necessary if there is not sufficient
rainfall. Keep a water hose nearby to water whenever the plants seem
dry. This will become even more important as the summer months get
hotter.
There are some important points to consider when you decide to protect
your home with an indoor home security camera. To find the best home
security camera once you have determined your needs, take into
consideration the following.
Instructions
• STEP 1: Determine the purpose of your indoor security camera: will you
be monitoring your home or home office for keeping tabs on your kids
when they are with the babysitter?
• STEP 2: Determine the view angle you need from your camera. In
general, the wider the view the more the camera will record. This is
particularly important if you will be using your camera outdoors.
• STEP 3: Determine the picture quality that you will need from your
security camera and choose a camera that will provide it. While many
screens are small and can use a lower resolution, a higher resolution
will provide a clearer picture.
• STEP 4: Choosing a wireless security camera? Choose a camera with a
transmission range that will suit your needs; keep in mind that walls
and ceilings will reduce the range a wireless camera will have.
• STEP 5: Planning to record the signal? Choose a camera that will
broadcast to the system that you have chosen: closed circuit tv, your
computer or a digital video recorder.
• STEP 6: Do you want a camera that will start recording when
movement is detected? Choose a camera with a motion sensor.
• STEP 7: Determine the size and type of security camera you are
looking for. Some cameras are small enough to hide on a shelf or with
your child's toys; other are larger and provide you with the opportunity
to zoom in.
• STEP 8: Determine whether or not you want to be able to record sound
with your security camera.
• STEP 9: Lastly, determine whether you want a camera that is
monitored by a security company or not; if you do, be sure to choose
the right company. Ask questions and get recommendations.
• Ask questions. Just because you are trying to find the right camera for
your needs does not mean that you're on your own. Ask friends, family
and even your insurance agent for recommendations.
• Remember that a system that you monitor yourself will require a bit
more maintenance: think about whether or not you'll be able to break
away from a meeting or be able to have access when on vacation
before you choose to monitor the system yourself.
• Keep in mind that some small wireless cameras are battery operated;
remember that you will have to routinely change the batteries to keep
your camera functioning well.
Sister Maricica Irina Cornici, 23, who was being treated for
schizophrenia, said she believed the devil was talking to her.
Dozens of the priest’s supporters packed the courtroom and prayed for
him. Several burst into tears when the verdict was announced.
"In the past it was sufficient for a vehicle just to perceive the
environment, said Sebastian Thrun, an associate professor of computer
science and electrical engineering at Stanford University.
"Today we can drive about 100 miles (160 kilometers) before human
assistance is necessary, by 2010 I expect this to go 1,000 miles (1,160
kilometers), by 2020 up to a million miles (1.6 million kilometers)," he
said.
"By 2030 you'll be able to see them on the highway, with a driving
reliability that will exceed humans by orders of magnitude.
"We believe this technology will affect all of us. It is going to have
enormous significance for people who can't drive because of
disabilities or because they are ill or impaired."
EXAMPLE OF EXPOSITION
MichelleDrew
.
Finally, you have met, HIM/HER. You know what I mean, THE ONE. All your
life, or so it seems, you have been waiting for the person who made your
heart pound, made the stars bright, and taken over all reasonable thought
processes with ideas of making love on every beach from here to Tahiti.
You have a weird expression on your face, food suddenly seems like a mere
inconvenience and sleep is just something you used to do. Your friends tease
you about being in love. Your mother WARNS you about being in love.
Of course, you’re not stupid. You’ve been around (more than Mom knows
about), and you have spent time in meditation/therapy having explored your
own needs in the world. You want a soul mate but this guy/gal is just so sexy
that it’s hard to imagine introducing him/her to your parents at all.
So, things are going well and you are looking toward the NEXT STEP,
becoming an item. Going public. Everyone knows and invites you as a
couple. People you know speculate about the future of YOUR RELATIONSHIP.
But the future means forever when it comes to commitment, so how do you
know if this is really a good thing?
Are people whispering about how happy they are for you, or are they
wondering if you should be committed yourself (like in a secure mental
health facility)? And how about yourself? Do you feel comfortable with your
newest love interest or do you just want to feel comfortable with someone?
Is this the person that you want to spend your life with or are you just afraid
to march into the future alone?
Love as a dynamic process. For me, that means that there is a relationship
that flexes, changes and grows as people mature, experience happens upon
them, priorities and dreams are built and goals are met. Love brings out the
best in people as individuals. The relationship between them becomes the
way they define their lives. As jobs, careers, and family concerns change,
people are able to work as a team to be understanding and flexible so the
relationship (their lives) will flourish.
So what about infatuation? That’s when you think of someone all the time,
you go out of your way to be around him/her, and you begin to center your
priorities around him/her as well. There is history with this person: Maybe a
short history, but maybe quite a while. You both enjoy being together. You
both daydream about each other and get all crawly in your underwear. But is
it LOVE? I mean, you hate to be wrong about this kind of thing, especially if
you have in mind perhaps reproducing together (or maybe if you forget to
think about it JUST ONCE).
Most people are infatuated with their love partners to a certain degree.
People who are in love think of their partners periodically when they are
apart (some more than others). Men seem to be better, in general, in
compartmentalizing their lives, thereby putting thoughts of loved ones aside
until the mind is free to dwell on life. And yes, there are many exceptions
and many ranges within the genders.
So how do you know? The question, actually is simple, the answer, however,
is not easy to own or accept. And here it is: Does this relationship bring out
the best in both of you?
This is the part where you get to assess and evaluate yourself and your
partner, and your relationship HONESTLY.
Though difficult, evaluating how things are going at regular intervals can
help to give some direction (and re-direct misdirection) to people who are
self-guided toward happiness and success. For those who are on a negative
course, people who are unhappy,
confused and perhaps self-sabotaging, regular evaluation can point out some
hard truths about oneself, and/or about the person you want to take the next
step with.
While you try to evaluate whether or not it is THE REAL THING, here are
some things to consider:
Are you happy? That would be a yes or no. When you wake up, are you glad
to be alive? Are you grateful for the blessings that you receive daily, like
being alive and loved? Are you loved and treated as a person of value? Does
HIS/HER MOTHER know about you?
Is your life on a positive track? Do you have hope for the future? Do you have
dreams and work toward them all the time? Is your life better because your
boy/girlfriend is in it? Really?
Are you in this relationship alone? Having someone on your arm makes life
less complicated. You get a built in escort and date. Most people seem to
think and feel better as part of a pair. There is a sense of social relief as well
meaning family and friends stop trying to fix you up. Are you thinking and
planning as a pair? Do you automatically consider both of your plans for the
weekend, or merely anticipate maybe meeting up sometime? Have you
postponed or given up your hopes and dreams for the relationship or have
you restructured your dreams together?
The answers, and the courage to face the facts is the key to making the
determination. In infatuation, your gaze, your thoughts and maybe your
world revolves around someone. You have blinders on. It seems that all the
world pales in comparison to this person’s looks, talents, intelligence,
creativity, etc. What you might not see by keeping the blinders on, what can
be serious flaws in any relationship, are the destructive traits and behaviors
that degrade self esteem and cause some pretty negative effects on one’s
choices and decisions.
Many have had the experience of looking back at some early romance, in
middle or high school perhaps, when we were “in love” with a special
teacher, or camp counselor. It can be easier to see in retrospect, what you
weren’t ready to see at the time. Your thoughts of
romance were simply an innocent fantasy: An infatuation that felt like love at
the time.
Aside from your age, what was it about you that made you make that
mistake. Innocence? Loneliness?: A longing to grow up, maybe. But those
were things going on in your head. In fact, these feelings had little to do with
the actual object of your infatuation (crush). It could be that some of those
same feelings and needs exist for you today. Beware of your own
vulnerability, and your own desire to “get rescued” from that solitary life of
the unpaired.
In time, the faults that you refuse to see will begin to come to the
foreground. You may be infatuated with a rich and powerful person, but as
you come to know that person on a more intimate basis, the qualities that
intrigued you will begin to fade into the background.
In the case of love, your focus is on your special someone, and that someone
exists in the real world. Give and take, compromise and cooperation are
characteristics of love relationships. Working toward common goals, sharing
dreams and values define the dynamics of a good love relationship. People
know each other on a separate and private level than the world at large.
Infatuation can even be thought of as love with only 2 dimensions. With love,
that third dimension is REALITY. So, it is actually your ability to tell what is
real in a relationship, versus what is imagined. You love being part of a
couple, but is this the person you want to be in a couple with?
Look at the reality of who this person is, not who she/he wants to be. Do you
always interact over dinner and drinks? Meet under different circumstances.
Become part of each other’s lives. If that is not happening, why not? Are you
spending and enjoying time together? What happens when you’re apart? Are
you sure?
Trying to differentiate your love interest from your lust interest is requires a
level head and the courage to face the unpleasant. It also requires maturity
and the ability to take a step back and survey the big picture. The result is
more control and confidence as you stride your way in love’s direction.
EXAMPLE OF EXPLANATION
Soils with a pH of less than 7.0 are acid. The lower the pH, the more acid the
soil. When soil pH falls below 5.5, plant growth is affected. Crop yields
decrease, reducing productiv Soils provide water and nutrients for plant
growth and development. Essential plant nutrients include phosphorus,
nitrogen, potassium and sulfur. Plants require other elements such as
molybdenum, in smaller quantities. Some elements eg aluminium and
manganese, are toxic to plants.
The solubility of nitients changes with pH. In acid soils (low pH), molybdenum
becomes less soluble and aluminium becomes more soluble. Therefore, plant
growth may be affected by either a deficiency of molybdenum or too much
aluminium.
Both crop and pasture plants are affected by acid soils. there may be a range
of symptoms. Crops and pastures may be poorly established resulting in
patchy and uneven growth. Plant leaves may go yellow and die at the tips.
The root system of the plant may be stunted. Crops may yield less.
Plants vary in their sensitivity to low pH. Canola and lucerne are very
sensitive to acid soils so do not grow well. Lupins and triticale are tolerant to
soils of low pH so they still perform well.
SONNET #18
• The
argument is
written in the
timeless
present
tense. This
might
change to
the past if
historical
background
to the issue
was being
given. If
predictions
are being
made the
tense might
change to
the future.
• The writer
uses
repetition of
words,
phrases and
concepts
deliberately,
for effect.
• Verbs are
used when
expressing
opinions, eg.
I think ___
are the best!
We believe
students
should not
be stopped
from eating
junk food.
• Strong
effective
adjectives
are used.
• Thought
provoking
questions
are used.
These may
be asked as
rhetorical
questions.
(Rhetorical
questions: a
question
asked only
for effect,
not for
information,
eg. Would
you give
your pre-
schooler
matches to
play with?)
• Use of
passive
verbs to help
structure the
text.
• Written in
the timeless
present
tense.
• Use of
pronouns (I,
we, us) is
used to
manipulate
the reader to
agree with
the position
argued. eg.
We all know
that smoking
causes
cancer so we
do not
smoke.
• Use of
emotive
language ie.
words that
will appeal to
the reader's
feelings, eg.
concern,
unreasonabl
e, should.
• Use of
passive voice
ie verbs in
which the
subject is
acted upon
and not
doing the
action. This
helps
structure the
text, eg. We
would like to
suggest that
an enquiry
be held into
the running
of the steel
mills. Water
is being
polluted.
• Conjunctions
that can
exemplify
and show
results - they
are usually
used in
concluding
statements
to finalise
arguments
More Language
Features
Debates
Debates, which are
conducted orally,
are a form of
argument in which
two opposing
points of view are
stated and both
sides are argued.
Supporting
evidence for each
side is put forward
and finally an
opinion is stated
based on the two
arguments.
H. COHESION
- making use of grammatical devices which show that the various parts
of the text are related to each other – an interrelatedness.
- making connections within the text and to the context (the textual
function)
Sample text:
Aesop
Jupiter announced that he intended to appoint a king over the birds, and
named a day on which they were to appear before his throne, when he would
select the most beautiful of them all to be their ruler. Wishing to look their
best on the occasion they repaired to the banks of a stream, where they
busied themselves in washing and preening their feathers. The Jackdaw was
there along with the rest, and realized that, with his ugly plumage, he would
have no chance of being chosen as he was: so he waited till they were all
gone, and then picked up the most gaudy of the feathers they had dropped,
and fastened them about his own body, with the result that he looked gayer
than any of them. When the appointed day came, the birds assembled
before Jupiter's throne. After passing them in review, he was about to make
the Jackdaw king, when all the rest set upon the king-select, stripped him of
his borrowed plumes, and exposed him for the Jackdaw that he was.
I. Referring Words
- using words which refer back to something which has already been
mentioned.
Pronouns
Examples:
o Types:
Backward reference
Once Mr. Dewsbery had finished his breakfast he threw his
manuscript on the fire and burnt it – he had never done
anything on an empty stomach.
Forward reference
Once he had finished his breakfast, Mr. Dewsbery threw his
manuscript on the fire and burnt it.
CHILD: Yes
Ellipsis
CHILD: Smelling.
*word chains
I. TEXT CONNECTIVES
Sentence: She just told you to leave. In other words, she doesn’t want to
have you here.
Sentence: Linda has been complaining about chest pains for several
days now. So, doctors recommended her bed rest.
Sentence: First, mix the butter, flour, milk and egg together. Then, pour
batter on pan.
Sentence: Justin was injured during the game yesterday. Despite this, he
still played in today’s game.
Examples: of course, well, surely, after all, now, anyway, after all
Sentence: Bruce Willis’ new film is coming soon at the cinemas. Surely,
it will be a blockbuster movie.
= This gives an indication of the subject matter being developed in the text
and the kind of knowledge being build-up.
= This is to focus on the time, degree of comparison, and positive & negative
aspects.
= The features zero in on the rhetorical pattern of the text to determine the
interrelatedness of ideas
Which features contribute to the cohesion of the text?
- referencing, word association, text connectives