ELECTROMAGNETICS

for ENGINEERS
CHAPTER 2 TRANSMISSION LINES

Adapted from : Razel

Chapter Outline
General Considerations
Lumped-Element Model
Transmission-Line Equations
Wave Propagation on a Transmission Line
The Lossless Transmission Line
Input Impedance of the Lossless Line
Special Cases of the Lossless Line
Power Flow on a Lossless Transmission Line
The Smith Chart
Impedance Matching
Transients on Transmission Lines

General Considerations
Transmission line a two-port network
connecting a generator circuit to a load.

SoWhat is the use of

transmission line??
A transmission line is used to transmit
electrical energy/signals from one point to
another
i.e. from one source to a load.

Types of transmission line include: wires,

(telephone wire), coaxial cables, optical
fibers n etc

The role of wavelength

length of line, l
The impact of a transmission line
on the current and voltage in the
circuit depends on the:

frequency, f of the
signal provided by
generator.

At low frequency, the impact is negligible

At high frequency, the impact is very significant

Propagation modes
Electric field lines
Magnetic field lines
Transverse
electromagnetic
(TEM)
transmission lines

waves propagating along

these lines having electric
and magnetic field that are
entirely transverse to the
direction of propagation

Higher order
transmission
lines

waves propagating along these

lines have at least one significant
field component in the direction of
propagation

Propagation
modes

Propagation modes

A few examples of transverse electromagnetic (TEM) and higher order transmission line

Lumped- element model

A transmission line is represented by a parallelwire configuration regardless of the specific
shape of the line, (in term of lumped element
circuit model)
i.e coaxial line, two-wire line or any TEM line.

Lumped element circuit model consists of four

basic elements called the transmission line
parameters : R , L , G , C .
Series element

Shunt element

Lumped- element model

Lumped-element transmission line parameters:

R : combined resistance of both conductors per unit length, in

/m
L : the combined inductance of both conductors per unit length,
in H/m
G : the conductance of the insulation medium per unit length, in
S/m
C : the capacitance of the two conductors per unit length, in F/m

For example, a coil of wire has the property of

inductance. When a certain amount of inductance is
needed in a circuit, a coil of the proper dimension is
inserted

Lumped- element model

Lumped- element model for 3 type of lines

Note: , , pertain to the insulating material between conductors

Exercise 1:
Use table 5.1 to compute the line
parameter of a two wire air line whose
wires are separated by distance of 2 cm,
and, each is 1 mm in radius. The wires
may be treated as perfect conductors with
c= .
R = ?, L=?, G=?, C=?

Solution exercise 1:
Rs
R'
a

Rs

c=

f o
o

Rs

fo

Rs 0

R' 0

L' ln (d / 2a) (d / 2a) 2 1

G'

C'

2
ln (d / 2a) (d / 2a) 1)

2
ln (d / 2a) (d / 2a) 1)

c=

G' 0

L' ln (d / 2a) (d / 2a) 2 1

d 2cm 0.02m
a 1m m 0.001m

0.02
0.02 2
L' ln (
) (
) 1
2(0.001)
2(0.001)

L' 1.20H / m

C'

ln (d / 2a) (d / 2a) 2 1)

d 2cm 0.02m
a 1m m 0.001m

C'

0.02
0.02 2
ln (
) (
) 1
2(0.001)
2(0.001)

C ' 9.29 pF / m

Exercise 2:
Calculate the transmission line parameters
at 1 MHz for a rigid coaxial air line with
an inner conductor diameter of 0.6 cm
and outer conductor diameter of 1.2 cm.
The conductors are made of copper.
(c=0.9991 ; c=5.8x107)
f = 1MHz
r1 = 0.006m/2 = 0.003m
r2 = 0.012m/2 = 0.006m

Solution exercise 2:
Rs 1 1
R'

2 a b

Rs

Rs

f
o

(1Mhz)
5.8 x107

Rs 2.608x10 4

2.608x104 1
1
R'

2
0.003 0.006

R' 0.0208 / m


L'
ln(b / a)
2
a 0.003m
b 0.006m

0.006
L'
ln
2 0.003

L' 0.138H / m

BARE IN
UR MIND

o r
o (const33)
From calculator

r from appendixB
(pg238)

C'

2
lnb / a

d 2cm 0.02m
a 1m m 0.001m

2
C'
0.006
ln

0.003

BARE IN
UR MIND

o r
o (const32)
From calculator

r from appendixB
(pg 237)

C ' 80.3 pF / m

2
G'
b
ln
a

G' 0

Because, the material

separating the inner and
outer is perfect dielectric
(air) with =0, thus G = 0

G : the conductance of the

insulation medium per unit length,
in S/m

Transmission line equations

Is used to describes the voltage and the current across the
transmission line in term of propagation constant and
impedance

Complex propagation constant,

R' jL'G' jC '

the real part of

- attenuation constant, unit: Np/m
the imaginary part of
- phase constant, unit: rad/m

Transmission line equations

The characteristic impedance of the line, Z0 :
Z0

R' jL'
G ' jC '

Phase velocity of propagating waves:

u p f

where f = frequency (Hz)

= wavelength (m)
= phase constant

2f

Example 1
An air line is a transmission line for which air is
the dielectric material present between the two
conductors, which renders G = 0.
In addition, the conductors are made of a
material with high conductivity so that R 0.
For an air line with characteristic impedance of
50 and phase constant of 20 rad/m at 700MHz,
find the inductance per meter and the
capacitance per meter of the line.

Solution to Example 1
The following quantities are given:
Z 0 50, 20 rad/m, f 700 MHz 7 108 Hz

With R = G = 0,

propagation constant,

R' jL'G ' jC '

2
jL' jC ' L' C '

L' C '
and
R' jL'
L'
Z0

G ' jC '
C'

Solution to Example 1

The ratio is given by: Z 0

L'
2
2 Z o 2 ( L' C ' )
C'

L' C '
L'
C'

2
L'

Z 0 L' C
C'

2 2 Z o 2C 2
Z oC

C'

20

90.9 pF/m
8
Z 0 2 7 10 50

We get L from Z0

Z 0 L' C ' L' 50 90.9 1012 227 nH/m

2

Lossless transmission line

Transmission line can be designed to minimize ohmic losses by
selecting high conductivities and dielectric material, thus we assume :

Lossless transmission line - Very small values of R

and G.
We set R=0 and G=0, hence:

(lossless line)

L' C ' (lossless line)

Transmission line equations

Complex propagation constant,

R'
0 jL'G'
0 jC '

the real part of

- attenuation constant, unit: Np/m
the imaginary part of
- phase constant, unit: rad/m

Lossless transmission line

Transmission line can be designed to minimize ohmic losses by
selecting high conductivities and dielectric material, thus we assume :

Lossless transmission line - Very small values of R

and G.
We set R=0 and G=0, hence:

(lossless line)

L' C ' (lossless line)

Z0

R ' jL'
G ' jC '

since R' 0 and G' 0,

Z0

L'
C'

(lossless line)

Lossless transmission line

Using the relation properties between , , :
(rad/m)
up

(m/s)

Wavelength,
up

f
f

r
r

Where r = relative permittivity of the insulating

material between conductors

Exercise 3:
For a losses transmission line, = 20.7 cm
at 1GHz. Find r of the insulating material.
=20.7cm 0.207m ;
up

f
f

r
r

f=1 GHz
3x108
0.207
1GHz

3x108 1
r
1GHz 0.207

r 1.449

r 2.1

Exercise 4
A lossless transmission line of length 80
cm operates at a frequency of 600MHz .
The line parameters are
&
C 100 pF/m
L 0.25 H/m
Find the characteristic impedance, the
phase constant and the phase velocity.
The condition apply that the line is
lossless, So: R= 0 & G=0

 characteristic
impedance :

L 0.25 H/m
C 100 pF/m

L
Z0
C

Z0

6
0.25x10

12
100x10

50

phase constant: Im R' jL'G' jC '

With R n G = 0

L' C '

2 (600x106 ) (0.25x106 )(100x1012 )

= 18.85 rad/m


phase velocity: u p f

vp

6
2 (600x10 )

8
2 x10 m / s

18.85

2f

Voltage Reflection Coefficient

Every transmission line has a resistance
associated with it, and comes about because of
its construction. This is called its characteristic
impedance, Z0.
The standard characteristic impedance value is
50. However when the transmission line is
terminated with an arbitrary load ZL, in which is
not equivalent to its characteristic impedance (ZL
Z0), a reflected wave will occur.

Voltage reflection coefficient

Voltage reflection coefficient, the ratio of the
amplitude of the reflected voltage wave, V0- to
the amplitude of the incident voltage wave, V0+ at
the load.
Hence,
Z L / Z0 1
V Z Z
0
0 L
V0 Z L Z 0

Z L / Z0 1

(dimentionless)

Where reflection coefficient

Z L load impedance
Z 0 characteristic impedance

Voltage reflection coefficient

~
VL
ZL ~
IL

The load impedance, ZL

Where;
~

VL V0 V0

V0
~ V0
IL

Z0
Z0

~
V L = total voltage at the load
V0- = amplitude of reflected voltage wave
V0+ = amplitude of the incident voltage wave
~
I L = total current at the load
Z0 = characteristic impedance of the line

Voltage reflection coefficient

And in case of a RL and RC series, ZL :
ZL = R + jL ;

ZL = R +1/ jC

A load is matched to the line if ZL = Z0 because

there will be no reflection by the load ( = 0 and
V0= 0.
When the load is an open circuit, (ZL=), = 1
and V0- = V0+.
When the load is a short circuit (ZL=0), = -1
and V0- = V0+.

What is the difference between

an open and closed circuit?
closed allows electricity through, and open doesn't.
open circuit - Any circuit which is not complete is considered an
open circuit. The open status of the circuit doesn't depend on how it
became unclosed, so circuits which are manually disconnected and
circuits which have blown fuses, faulty wiring or missing
components are all considered open circuits.
close circuit: A circuit is considered to be closed when electricity
flows from an energy source to the desired endpoint of the circuit. A
complete circuit which is not performing any actual work can still be
a closed circuit. For example, a circuit connected to a dead battery
may not perform any work, but it is still a closed circuit.

Example 2
A 100- transmission line is connected to a
load consisting of a 50- resistor in series with a
10pF capacitor. Find the reflection coefficient at
the load for a 100-MHz signal.

Solution to Example 2
The following quantities are given
RL 50, CL 1011F, Z 0 100, f 100MHz 108 Hz

The load impedance is

Z L RL j / CL
1
50 j
50 j159
8
11
2 10 10

Voltage reflection coefficient is

Z L / Z 0 1 0.5 j1.59 1

0.76 60.7
Z L / Z 0 1 0.5 j1.59 1

Z / Z 1 0.5 j1.59 1
L 0

0.76 60.7
Z L / Z 0 1 0.5 j1.59 1

1 0.5
2
2
0.5 1.59 tan

0.5 j1.59 1

1.59

0.5 j1.59 1
1 1.5
2
2

1.5 1.59 tan

1.59

1.5772.6

2.19 46.7

In order to convert from ve

magnitude for by replacing the
ve sign with e-j180

0.76119.3
0.76e j119.3

0.76e j119.3 (e j180 )

0.76e j 60.7
0.76

; r 60.7

Maths TIP
1

Exercise 5
A 150 lossless line is terminated in a
load impedance ZL= (30 j200) .
Calculate the voltage reflection coefficient
at the load.
Zo = 150
ZL= (30 j200)

(30 j 200) 150

(30 j 200) 150

Z L Z0

Z L Z0
o

j
72
.
95
0.867e

Standing Waves
Interference of the reflected wave and the
incident wave along a transmission line creates
a standing wave.
Constructive interference gives maximum value
for standing wave pattern, while destructive
interference gives minimum value.
The repetition period is for incident and
reflected wave individually.
But, the repetition period for standing wave
pattern is /2.

Standing Waves
For a matched line, ZL = Z0, = 0 and
~
V z = |V0+| for all values of z.

Standing Waves
For a short-circuited load, (ZL=0), = -1.

Standing Waves
For an open-circuited load, (ZL=), = 1.

The wave is shifted by /4 from short-circuit case.

Standing Waves
First voltage maximum occurs at:
r n
Where r = phase
lmax

where n 0
angle of
4
2
If r 0 n=0;
If r 0 n=1
First voltage minimum occurs at:
lmin

lmax / 4 if lmax / 4

lmax / 4 if lmax / 4

VSWR
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio
(VSWR) is ratio between the
maximum voltage an the
minimum voltage along the
transmission line.

VSWR provides a measure of

mismatch between the load
and the transmission line.
For a matched load with = 0,
VSWR = 1 and for a line with
|| - 1, VSWR = .

The VSWR is given by:

VSWR

1 | |
1 | |

ZL Z
Where,
ZL Z 0
Where reflection coefficient
Z L load impedance
Z 0 characteristic impedance

Example 3
A 50- transmission line is terminated in a load
with ZL = (100 + j50) . Find the voltage
reflection coefficient and the voltage standingwave ratio (VSWR).

Solution to Example 3
We have,
Z Z 0 100 j50 50
L

0.45e j 26.6
Z L Z 0 100 j50 50

VSWR is given by:

1

1 0.45
VSWR

2.6
1 1 0.45

Exercise 6:
A 140 lossless line is terminated in a
load impedance ZL= (280 +j182) , if =
72cm, find
a) Reflection coefficient,
b) The VSWR,
c) The locations of voltage maxima and
minima

 a) Reflection coefficient,
Z L Z0

Z L Z0

(280 j182) (140)

(280 j182) (140)
1 182
2
2
140 182 tan

140

182
4202 1822 tan1

420

140 j182

420 j182

23052.4o
45723.43o

0.528.97o

 b) The VSWR;
1 | |
VSWR
1 | |
0.528.97o

VSWR

1 | 0.528.97 |
1 | 0.528.97 |

1 0.5
VSWR
3
1 0.5

 The locations of voltage maxima and

minima
r n
lmax

where n 0
4
2

(0.5)(72) n
lmax

4
2
n
2.9cm
2

lmax / 4 if lmax / 4
lmin
lmax / 4 if lmax / 4

72cm
72cm / 4 18cm
lmax / 4

lmin lmax / 4
72
(2.9 n )
2
4
20.9 n

Input impedance of a lossless

line
The input impedance, Zin is the ratio of the total
voltage (incident and reflected voltages) to the
total current at any point z on the line.
~
V ( z)
Z in ( z ) ~
I ( z)

or

1 e j 2 z
Z0
j 2 z
1

Z L cos l jZ 0 sin l
Z L jZ 0 tan l

Z in l Z 0
Z 0

Z 0 cos l jZ L sin l
Z 0 jZ L tan l

Special cases of the lossless

line
For a line terminated in a short-circuit, ZL = 0:
~
Vsc l
sc
Z in ~
jZ 0 tan l
I sc l

For a line terminated in an open circuit, ZL = :

Z inoc

Voc l
~
jZ 0 cot l
I oc l

Application of short-circuit and

open-circuit measurements
The measurements of short-circuit input
impedance, Z insc and open-circuit input
impedance, Z inoc can be used to measure the
characteristic impedance of the line:
Z o Z insc Z inoc

and
tan l

Z insc
Z inoc

Matched transmission line

For a matched lossless transmission line, ZL=Z0:
1) The input impedance Zin=Z0 for all locations z
on the line,
2) =0, and
3) all the incident power is delivered to the load,
regardless of the length of the line, l.

When ZL=0(short circuit)

Ratio of the total

voltage to total
current on the line

sc jZ tan l
Zin
0
Special case

When ZL=(open circuit)

Input
Impedance, Zin

oc jZ cot l
Zin
0

l
Application
Be used to measure the
characteristic impedance of
the line :

sc Z oc
Z o Zin
in tan l

sc
Z in
oc
Z in

l 0

Zin Z L

But, If the
transmission line is

Zin Z0 2 Z L

Power flow on a lossless

transmission line
Two ways to determine the average power of an incident
wave and the reflected wave;
Time-domain approach
Phasor domain approach

2
V0

i
Average power for incident wave; Pav 2Z
0

Average power for reflected wave:

Pavr

(W)

2
2 V0

2Z 0

The net average power delivered to the load:

i Pr
Pav Pav
av

V0

1 2

2Z 0

(W)

Pavi

Power flow on a lossless

transmission line
The time average power reflected by a load connected to
a lossless transmission line is equal to the incident
power multiplied by ||2

Exercise 7
For a 50 lossless transmission line terminated in
a load impedance ZL = (100 + j50), determine the
percentage of the average power reflected over
average incident power by the load.

Z0=50; ZL = (100 + j50)

2
r
i
Pav Pav
(W)

r
Pav
2

(W)
i
Pav

 Reflection coefficient,
Z L Z0

Z L Z0

(100 j50) (50)

(100 j50) (50)
1 50
2
2
50 50 tan

50

50
1502 502 tan1

150

50 j 50

150 j 50

70.745o
158.118.4o

0.4526.6o
2

0.2

the percentage of the average incident

power reflected by the load = 20%

Exercise 8
For the line of exercise previously
(exercise 7), what is the average reflected
power if |V0+|=1V
Pavr

2
2 V0

2Z 0

Pavi

2 1
r
Pav 0.45

2(50)

2mW

Smith Chart
Smith chart is used to analyze & design
transmission line circuits.
Reflection coefficient, : e j r r ji
r = real part, i = imaginary part

Impedances on Smith chart are represented by

normalized value, zL : z Z L
L

Z0

the normalized load impedance, zL is

dimensionless.

Smith Chart
Reflection coefficient, A :0.3 + j0.4

1/ 2
2
2
0.3 0.4
0.5
r

tan 0.4 / 0.3 53

Reflection coefficient, B :-0.5 - j0.2

1/ 2
2
2
0.5 0.2
0.54
r tan10.5 / 0.2 202

In order to eliminate ve part, thus

r 360 202 158

The complex plane.

A :0.3 + j0.4

B :-0.5 - j0.2

Smith Chart
Reflection coefficient, : Z L / Z 0 1

Z L / Z0 1

Since

zL 1
ZL
zL
, becomes: z 1
Z0
L

1
rL jx L
Re-arrange in terms of zL: z L
1
rL = Normalized load resistance
xL = Normalized load admittance

The families of circle for rL and xL.

Plotting normalized impedance, zL = 2-j1

(2 j1) 1

(2 j1) 1

12 12
2
2
3 1

0.45
r tan11/ 2 26.6

Input impedance
The input impedance, Zin:
1 e j 2 l
Z in Z 0
1 e j 2 l

is the voltage reflection coefficient at the load.

We shift the phase angle of by 2l, to get L.
This will match zL to zin. The || is the same, but
the phase is changed by 2l.
On the Smith chart, this means rotating in a
clockwise direction (WTG).

Input impedance
Since = 2/, shifting by 2 l is equal to phase
change of 2.
Equating: 2l 2 2 l 2

Hence, for one complete rotation corresponds to

l = /2.
The objective of shifting to L is to find Zin at
an any distance l on the transmission line.

Example 5
A 50- transmission line is terminated with
ZL=(100-j50). Find Zin at a distance l =0.1
from the load.
Solution: Normalized the load impedance

Z L 100 j 50
zL

Z0
50
zL 2 j

Solution to Example 5

A 2 j

l =0.1
zin = 0.6 j0.66
de normalize
(multiplying by Zo)
Zin = 30 j33

VSWR, Voltage Maxima and

Voltage Minima
zL=2+j1
VSWR = 2.6
(at Pmax).

lmax=(0.25-0.213)
=0.037.
lmin=(0.037+0.25)
=0.287

VSWR, Voltage Maxima and

Voltage Minima
Point A is the normalized load impedance with
zL=2+j1.
VSWR = 2.6 (at Pmax).
The distance between the load and the first
voltage maximum is lmax=(0.25-0.213)=0.037.
The distance between the load and the first
voltage minimum is lmin=(0.037+0.25) =0.287.

Impedance to admittance
transformations
zL=0.6 + j1.4

yL=0.25 - j0.6

Example 6
Given that the voltage standing-wave ratio, VSWR = 3.
On a 50- line, the first voltage minimum occurs at 5 cm
from the load, and that the distance between
successive minima is 20 cm, find the load
impedance.

Solution:
The distance between successive minima is equal to
/2.
the distance between successive minima is 20 cm,
Hence, = 40 cm
20 / 2

2(20)

Solution to Example 6
Point A =VSWR = 3
5
l min
0.125
40

z L 0.6 j 0.8

de normalize
(multiplying by Zo)
Zin = 30 j40

Solution to Example 6
First voltage minimum (in wavelength unit) is at
5
l min
0.125 on the WTL scale from point B.
40

Intersect the line with constant SWR circle = 3.

The normalized load impedance at point C is:
z L 0.6 j 0.8
De-normalize (multiplying by Z0) to get ZL:
Z L 500.6 j 0.8 30 j 40

Exercise

Solution: Normalized the load impedance

ZL
zL
0.6 j 0.4
Z0
a) reflection coefficient from smith Chart

r 121

(0.6 j 0.4) 1

(0.6 j 0.4) 1

0.4 2 0.4 2

1.6 2 0.4 2
0.34

0.34e

j121

 r 121
0.082

0.25 - 0.082
0.168

z L 0.6 j 0.4
lmin

lmax
length :
0.301

Z in
0.72 - j0.62

0.301 0.082
0.383

3) Move a distance 0.301 towards the generator (WTG)

(refer to Smith chart)
0.301 + 0.082=0.383

At 0.383, read the value of which at the point

intersects with constant circle, we have = zin = 0.72j0.62.
Denormalized it, hence = Zin = 72- j62

4) Distance from load to the first voltage maximum, (refer

to Smith chart)
0.25-0.082=0.168