Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Glossary
Backslopping Practice of retaining small quantities of
fermented product from the successful manufacture of a
fermented product in the previous batch and using it as the
inoculum or starter in the next batch.
Condiment An edible substance such as sauce that can be
added to food to impart a particular avor, or to improve its
avor, or to complement the dish.
Heterofermentative Producing a fermentation resulting in
a number of end products.
Introduction
Fermented foods are of great importance because they provide
and preserve great amounts of nutritious and healthy foods in
a wide diversity of avors, aromas, and textures, which enrich
the human diet. They are the source of alcoholic beverages,
vinegar, pickled vegetables, sausages, cheeses, yoghurts,
vegetable protein amino acid/peptide sauces and pastes with
meat-like avors, and leavened and sour-dough breads. Fermented foods are food substrates that are invaded or overgrown by edible microorganisms whose enzymes, particularly
amylases, proteases, and lipases hydrolyze the polysaccharides,
proteins, and lipids to nontoxic products with avors, aromas,
and textures pleasant and attractive to the human consumer
(Steinkraus, 1997). Fermentation also ensures microbiological
safety of food and may also make some foods more digestible,
and in the case of cassava, fermentation reduces toxicity of the
substrate. Milk, meat, cucumber, and cabbage are the main
substrates used in the commercial production of fermented
food. These substrates yield over 400 varieties of cheese of
20 distinct types and a very extensive range of yoghurt and
fermented milk drinks, fermented sausages and salamis,
pickles, and sauerkraut (Caplice and Fitzgerald, 1999).
Fermented Vegetables
Sauerkraut
Sauerkraut is a fermented product made from cabbage and
has its roots in central Europe. Germans and the Alsatians
prepare sauerkraut as their national dish (Sauerkraut, 2009).
Sauerkraut has also been used in Germany for medicinal purposes; traditionally in many parts of southern Germany, some
families would feed their children raw sauerkraut two times
every week this was believed to support and strengthen the
intestines of the sick children. Sauerkraut is also traditionally
produced in the Balkans using whole heads of cabbage instead
of shredded cabbage. It is usually produced by spontaneous
fermentation. In spontaneous sauerkraut fermentation, Leuconostoc mesenteroides initiate the fermentation process, followed
by the growth of other lactic acid bacteria (LAB), mainly
Lactobacillus brevis, Pediococcus pentosaceus, and Lactobacillus
plantarum species, among which L. plantarum is responsible for
the second phase of fermentation and high acidity of the
produced sauerkraut. The dominant species, present in the
fermentation, shift within 1 week from less acid-tolerant heterolactic to more acid-tolerant homolactic fermenting LAB
species. Shredded cabbage fermentations start with 106 colonyforming unit (cfu) g1 aerobic microorganisms, 106 cfu g1
enterobacteriaceae, and less than 102 cfu g1 yeasts and molds
(Tamang and Kailasapathy, 2010). According to Tamang and
Kailasapathy (2010), during the rst 2 or 3 days of sauerkraut
fermentation, less acid-tolerant LAB dominate, but after that
more acid-tolerant LAB predominate. Each of these populations
reaches concentrations of 108109 cfu g1. The fermentation is
complete in 2 weeks and at that time the most acid-resistant
L. plantarum predominates. Salt concentration and fermentation
temperature can also affect the growth of the naturally present
microorganisms and the sensory properties of the sauerkraut
(Wiander and Ryhanen, 2005). Two percentage of salt is usually
added to the traditional fermentation, and to reduce salt waste.
In a study of two commercial sauerkrauts, Plengvidhya
et al. (2007) reported that glucose and fructose were the primary fermentable sugars in the cabbage, with concentrations
of 1.5% and 2.2%, respectively, and sucrose concentration was
less than 0.2%. Lactic acid, acetic acid, and mannitol were
produced, and on the 14th day the pH value of all the tanks
increased from 3.4 to 3.7.
Kimchi
Kimchi is a group of fermented cabbage, radish, and garlic
foods and is consumed on a daily basis in Korea. The avor
of kimchi is dependent on the ingredients, fermentation
conditions, and LAB involved in the fermentation process
(Lee et al., 2005). Kimchi is stored for several months, when
doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-52512-3.00155-8
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Tempe contains not only dietary ber, saponins, and isoavones of soybean origin but also superoxide dismutase, an
enzyme that eliminates active oxygen. Strong thrombolytic
activity (average 450 IU g1 dry weight) was observed in
tempe extract (Sumi and Okamoto, 2003). In laboratory-made
tempe, the content of -aminobutyric acid, which improved
blood ow to the brain and inhibited the elevation of blood
pressure, increased when tempe was placed in an anaerobic
environment after normal aerobic fermentation (Aoki et al.,
2003). It was also reported that a phytoestrogen, equol, derived from soybean isoavone had a suppressive effect on
prostate cancer (Horii, 2008).
Fermented Cereal
Cereal-fermented foods involve a lactic acid fermentation step
in most cases, which can be associated with an alcoholic fermentation step depending on the process used (e.g., brewing).
It is now commonly known that lactic acid fermentation contributes to human welfare through the preservation of foods, the development of organoleptic characteristics
and nutritional improvement of foods, and the healthpromoting effects of lactic acid bacteria (probiotics) (Nout and
Motarjemi, 1997; Charalampopoulos et al., 2002; Kohajdova
and Karovicova, 2007).
Lactic acid cereal-fermented foods and beverages are made
from a great variety of cereals involving different processing
methods. Maize, millet, and sorghum grains in Africa are used
to produce such lactic acid-fermented foods like ogi (Benin,
Nigeria), togwa (Tanzania), bushera (Uganda), ben-saalga/koko
(Burkina Faso, Ghana), gowe (Benin), mawe (Benin), kenkey
(Ghana), hussuwa (Sudan), mahewu (Zimbabwe), poto poto
(Peoples Republic of Congo). In many African countries, the
same cereals can be germinated to produce malt for their use
in brewing of cereal slurries to make traditional beers of thick
consistency, called under different vernacular names such as
dolo in Burkina Faso; bili bili in Tchad; burukutu in Nigeria; pito
in Ghana; and kafr, a Bantu beer, in South Africa. In Mexico
and Guatemala, maize is used to produce pozol whereas rice is
used to produce selroti, bhaati jaanr, idli, dosa in India, and
burong isda in the Philippines. In the Himalayas, various cereals
like nger millet, wheat, maize, and barley are used to produce
different kinds of fermented beverages like kodo ko jaanr and
gahun to jaanr, and if we consider the particular case of the
Balkan Peninsula, rye, wheat, millet, maize, rice, barley, and
oat are used alone or in mixtures to produce boza.
115
fermentation of milk by Streptococcus. thermophilus and Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus (formerly Lactobacillus bulgaricus). Among the factors contributing to the great success of
this fermented milk product, the image of a natural product,
attractive organoleptic characteristics (fresh, acidulated taste,
and pleasant avor), nutritional value, prophylactic and therapeutic properties, and moderate cost (due to the high productivity of the production lines) can all be mentioned
(Tamime and Robinson, 2007). Varieties of yogurt available
include plain (set), fruit-avored, whipped, drinking type
(stirred), smoked, dried, strained, and frozen (Tamime and
Robinson, 2007).
The desirable typical avor of yogurt comes from a mixture
of lactic acid, carbonyl compounds (acetaldehyde, acetone,
diacetyl, acetoin), nonvolatile acids (pyruvic, oxalic, succinic),
volatile acids (formic, acetic, propionic), and a large series of
degradation products from the catabolism of proteins, fats,
and lactose. In general, yogurt has less lactose and more lactic
acid, galactose, peptides, free amino acids, and free fatty acid
than milk (Tamime and Robinson, 2007). Apart from its high
nutritional value, yogurt has a lot of health benets. Benecial
health effects are presumed to depend on the ability of
S. thermophilus and L. delbrueckii to reach the gastrointestinal
tract alive, where they persist and/or multiply. However, there
have been conicting studies concerning the culture recovery
of L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus and S. thermophilus from fecal
samples after yogurt ingest; whereas some authors reported
recovery of both bacterial types (Mater et al., 2005; Elli et al.,
2006), some others have failed to do so (del Campo et al.,
2005).
Cheese
Cheese in Europe has traditionally been considered the preferred outlet for milk after local fresh milk requirements have
been met. The EU cheese market is the largest in the world.
Cheese has therefore provided much better export opportunities than any other dairy product as the willingness to pay for
high quality European cheese has always been high.
Most cheeses in Europe are produced on a commercial
scale using the appropriate LAB starter culture. Thermophilic
strains are generally used in cheeses with a high cooking
temperature such as Swiss and Italian types (Caplice and
Fitzgerald, 1999). Secondary microora are added in some
processes to improve texture (e.g., the production of CO2 by
Propionibacterium in Swiss cheese) and avor (e.g., by the
production of diacetyl). Moulds, yeasts and bacteria other than
lactic acid bacteria are used as secondary microora in some
varieties of cheese.
Fermented Milk
Yogurt
Yogurt is the most popular and successful fermented milk
product all over the world and is manufactured by scientically sound technologies in modern dairy factories. It is similar
to some traditionally made yogurt manufactured thousands of
years ago. Yogurt is a widely consumed highly nutritious fermented milk, dened by the Codex Alimentarius (FAO/WHO,
2003) as a coagulated milk product resulting from the
Fermented Fish
There are many varieties of fermented sh products available
at present. Fermented sh products include liquid products
such as sh sauce also known as nampla in Thailand, kecap ikan
or bakasang in Indonesia, patis in the Philippines, nouc-mam in
Vietnam, oyster sauce, hoi-sin sauce, and paste products such as
sh and shrimp pastes also known as belacan or terasi in
Indonesia and Malaysia, and dry and semidry fermented sh.
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Fermented Meat
Fermented meats originated independently in a number of
regions around the world, although European-style products
now predominate in terms of their scale of production and the
degree to which they have been subjected to scientic scrutiny
(Tamang and Kailasapathy, 2010). These sausages are produced by fermenting with LAB a mixture of minced meat mixed
Fermented Alcohols
Rice Wine
Rice wine is a generic name referring to alcoholic beverages
made from cereals, mainly rice, in east Asia. The beverage is
known as rice wine in the West because its alcohol content is
approximates that of a wine. Rice wine is called sake in Japan,
cheongju in Korea, and shaosingjiu in China. Sake is the national and traditional drink of Japan and is one of the most
popular traditional nondistilled alcoholic drinks in the world.
Most Japanese elderly people, 61% of aged men and 18%
women, prefer sake and beer according to a questionnaire
survey (Jin et al., 2005). It is prepared from rice using koji and
is a clear, pale yellow liquid containing 1520% alcohol
(Tamang and Kailasapathy, 2010). Unique strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae have evolved to conduct these fermentations,
generating products with high ethanol content (1220%), attractive avor, aroma, and odor (Kodama, 1993). The rst
organisms that develop in the mash under traditional fermentation conditions are nitrate-reducing bacteria such as
Pseudomonas, Achromobacter, Flavobacterium, or Micrococcus spp.
(Murakami, 1972). These are followed by L. mesenteroides var
sake and Lactobacillus sake, and yeasts (Kodama and Yoshizawa,
1977). The presence of lactic acid bacteria in controlled
amounts is essential for satisfactory sake fermentation because
the pH of the basic mash is too high for good yeast growth or a
satisfactory avor in the nished product (Wood, 1977). The
highly rened sake brewed by the most skillful brewers using
very highly polished rice at low temperatures of 911 C for
2530 days is known as gonjoshu (Kodama and Yoshizawa,
1977). Most LAB that spoil sake are homofermentative rods
and are more tolerant to ethanol and acid than nonspoilers
(Inoue et al., 1992). Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains with disrupted ubiquitin-related genes produced more ethanol than
the parental strain during sake brewing (Wu et al., 2009).
Several researchers have reported on improved strains for sake
production on an industrial scale (Hirooka et al., 2005; Kotaka
et al., 2008; Hirasawa et al., 2009).
Wine
Wine is dened as the alcoholic fermentation of grape juice or
other fruits without distillation. Red wine is produced from
red grapes and other dark-colored grapes. White wine is made
by fermenting mashed white grapes or from dark-colored
grapes with the skin, pulp, and seeds removed. Red wines and
white wines have markedly different avors, and individual
wines within the white or red classication may have noticeably different tastes as well (Robinson, 1994). Consumption
of red wine is common in the traditional Mediterranean diet
(Trichopoulou et al., 2003). Traditional winemaking has been
illustrated by Walker (1998). Grapes are collected from the
vineyard, destemmed, crushed, pressed, and macerated, and
fermented by naturally present yeasts or by adding starters.
After the desired fermentation, the mass is ltered to remove
sediments and is stored in wooden casks for maturation for
several months, and then bottled, matured, stabilized, and
ltered into clear red or white wines (depending on the color
of grapes).
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Others
Vinegar
Vinegar is a highly acceptable condiment used in pickling and
preservation of cucumber and other vegetables. Vinegar has
long been used as a seasoning and preserving agent and is
produced by a fermentation process from wine, apple juice,
honey, rice, malted barley, etc. (Giordano et al., 2003). In
northeastern regions of Asia, such as China and Japan, vinegar is
traditionally produced from cereals, primarily rice (Haruta et al.,
2006). Vinegar is not just a solution of acetic acid, but a complex matrix composed of alcohols, acids, aldehydes, and ketones (Wang and Jin, 2000; Suomalainen and Kangasperko
1963). The production of vinegar depends on mixed fermentation, which involves both yeasts and bacteria. Acetic acid
bacteria, particularly those belonging to the genera Acetobacter
and Gluconacetobacter (De Ley et al., 1984; Yamada et al., 1997)
are used for industrial vinegar production because of their
remarkable ability to oxidize ethanol to acetic acid and high
resistance to acetic acid. The fermentation is initiated by yeasts,
which break down glucose into ethyl alcohol with the liberation
of carbon dioxide gas. Following on from the yeasts, acetobacter
oxidize the alcohol to acetic acid and water. The yeasts and
bacteria exist together in a form known as commensalism. The
acetobacter are dependent on the yeasts to produce an easily
oxidizable substance (ethyl alcohol). It is not possible to produce vinegar by the action of one type of microorganism alone.
118
Table 1
119
Food
References
Fermented vegetables
Sauerkraut
Hesseltine (1965)
Kimchi
Fermented soybean
and cereals
Tempe
Cereals
Fermented milk
Yogurt
LAB
Pseudomonas, Enterobacter, Moraxella, Micrococcus, Streptococcus,
Beddows (1985)
Adams et al. (1985)
Miso
Doenjang
Cheese
Fermented sh
Surstromming
Fish sauce
(Indonesian)
Korean sh products
from anchovy
marcescens
Fermented alcohols
Rice wine
Wine
Others
Vinegar
Fermented meat
120
Vinegar
Fermented Dairy Products (Yogurt)
Probiotic foods are a group of health-promoting products
called functional foods, with large commercial interest and
growing market shares (Arvanitoyannis and van HouwelingenKoukaliaroglou, 2005). Their health benets are based on the
presence of selected strains of lactic acid bacteria, and when
taken up in adequate amounts, confer a health benet on the
host. They are administered mostly through the consumption
of fermented milks or yoghurts (Mercenier et al., 2003).
Among the health benets, improvement of lactose intolerance symptoms among lactose maldigestors has been
clearly demonstrated (Rizkalla et al., 2000; Labayen et al.,
2001; Pelletier et al., 2001). This physiological effect is thought
to be not only due to the lowering of the lactose content in
yogurt by 2030% as compared to milk, but also due to the
contribution of bacterial -galactosidases to increase enzymatic activity in human intestines. Yogurt has also been used in
the management of acute diarrhea disorders as recommended
by the FAO/WHO (2003). Yogurt feeding in children with
acute watery diarrhea decreased stool frequency and shortened
the duration of diarrheal episodes (Boudraa et al., 2001). A
further benet may accrue from its recognized immunomodulation capacity (Meydani and Ha, 2000). Yogurt consumption seems to enhance the immune response, particularly
in immunocompromised populations such as the elderly
(Tamang and Kailasapathy, 2010). Yogurt consumption has
also been associated with decreased risk of progression and
promotion of colon cancer by modulating cell proliferation
and increasing cellular apoptosis (Rachid et al., 2002).
Fermented Alcohols
It has been estimated that the medicinal use of wine dates back
to 2200 BC, making it the oldest known medicine (Robinson,
Conclusion
Modern consumers worldwide are increasingly becoming
interested in their personal health and expect the food they
consume to be not only safe but also healthy or even capable
of preventing illnesses. Fermented products have a very
important role to play in human diet not only in terms of
nutrition but also in the promotion of good health. One
possible reason for the lower incidence of diseases such as
obesity, diabetes, or even breast cancer among Asians is that
they consume a lot of fermented foods including soybean
products, which are unique to the Asian traditional diet. Fermentation makes it possible to provide and preserve large
quantities of nutritious food in a wide variety of avors, aromas, and textures to feed the increasing population of the
world. However, careful selection of specic strains combined
with proper production and handling procedures are necessary
to ensure that desired benets are provided to consumers.
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Relevant Websites
http://www.habitat.org/habitat
Habitat for Humanitys International.
http://soyinfocenter.com/index.php
SoyInfo Center.