Heat Transfer Project

Solar Radiation Energy Source

Spring 2016
Stephen Algero
Ryan Burleigh
Daniel Epperson
Austin Robert
Jordan White

Table of Contents:
Summary of
Results

Introduction

Literature
Survey
..
Reasoning/Analysis..
..
Pertinent
Equations

Design
.
Discussion
..
Properties
.
References
..

Abstract
This report will show the complete design of a heat exchanger for a closed
power cycle used in a spacecraft. In order to achieve this objective, a full
thermodynamic analysis of the system is completed. The results from this
analysis are then used to nd several parameters: a mathematical model for
the optimum radiator temperature for a minimal overall weight, the most
suitable conguration of ns, and the overall design of the condenser. A
literature survey regarding closed power cycles in space is also included.
Finally, any adaptations recommended for terrestrial uses are described.

Introduction
With improvements in aerospace technology, manned space flight is
becoming more common and a bigger part of todays modern science. With
the harsh conditions of space, many variables must be controlled to support
life. Controlling temperature, pressure, and oxygen levels within these
spacecraft all require power; not to mention the powerful electronics
scientists use to do research aboard these vessels. Solar panels are a
common solution to this problem for small crews, however these panels do
not feature an adequate output for more commercialized applications. One
alternative is to use a closed solar powered generation cycle. This system
closely resembles the power production systems used on Earth and will
provide a sufficient amount of energy at a much greater efficiency.

Literature Survey
A closed solar power cycle utilizing radiation from ns has been investigated
thoroughly for space application since the late 1950s. As such, there are a
multitude of existing publications that go into great detail with regard to the
design, variation and application of this method of power generation. Since
the ns are the primary method of heat emission from the system, the
dimensions and conguration of the n array is critical to the performance of
the system. In a technical paper from NASA published in 1966, Harris et al.[]
developed design equations pertaining to the thermal, physical, and
structural properties of the radiator material. Several of the equations were
derived from the study done by Karlekar and Chao.[], in which it was
determined that a n of triangular cross section was the most effective
shape for radiating heat away from the system.
Another point of interest in the design of this system is the radiator as a
whole. According to Thermal Fluids Central, the ideal n conguration is that
of straight ns of uniform cross-sectional area, extending radially from a
cylindrical pipe, and extruded along the pipe length. This allows for the least

amount of n interaction, while also representing a structure of signicant

strength so as to be able to withstand the pressure conditions of the radiator.

Condenser and Radiator Design

The next step of the design process was to design our condenser and
radiator, based on our thermodynamic analysis, focusing on keeping the
system efficient as well as lightweight. From the thermodynamic analysis of
the state of the working fluid at the inlet of the condenser, a target heat rate
was realized, upon which we based our radiation requirements. In the
interest of weight minimization, we proposed a condenser conguration in
which the ns extend radially outward and are extruded along the length of
the pipe. This n placing eliminates the need for a separate working fluid and
pump, the components similar to an automotive radiator, effectively
combining the radiator and condenser of our system. The n cross section,
as advised by Karlekar and Chao.[], is triangular, which allows for a view
factor that mitigates the interaction of radiation between adjacent ns. The
same study also recommended the optimum n number to be 5, which
allowed for adequate heat loss necessary for the system. The design
equations developed by Harris et al.[] were then adapted to a practical
radiator conguration, thus accounting for base cylinder thermal interaction,
along with n-to-n thermal interaction. This was achieved by Harris et al.[]
by analyzing the n array as an effective area envelope, with a boundary
from tip to tip of each n around the entire array,
A e =2 Nb ( L+r ) sin (

)
N

With an envelope temperature,

0.8585 L+

r
N

r
N
T e =T s
L+

With these new parameters taken into consideration, an appropriate heat

rate could then be arrived at, using the heat rate equation q=hrAe(Te T).

qTOT =2 NB ( L+r ) sin

L=

( qb )T

4
b

T
( 360
2N )

4
b

r
0.8585 L+
N
r
L+
N

1010

From this point, excel was used to iteratively solve for the length of the n
along the pipe, or n depth, b= 25.09 cm, and the radial length of the n, L=
14.58 m. Once an appropriate value for n depth was found, the thickness at
the base of the n could easily be found, using the relation,
q 2 5
T b 10 10
b

( )

t=

After which we calculated the optimum weight of the radiator based on n

depth, using the equation,
q
q
=
w b

( )

T 9b1022

The values of the n thickness at the base and optimum weight of the ns
were found to be t= 3.59 cm and w= 6.13 kg.
The n effectiveness was determined using the equation,
f=

qW
q W/ O

Where qw is qtot, the rate of heat dissipated with ns, and qw/o is the rate of
heat dissipated without the use of ns. The n effectiveness was found to be
f =26.77> 2 , proving that the ns were an effective and necessary addition
to the system.

Thermodynamic Analysis

The rst step for designing a closed power cycle that uses radiation is to
perform a thermodynamic analysis to nd the optimum radiator. The
thermodynamic system is modeled as a Rankine cycle with the working fluid
being ammonia. Ammonia was chosen as the working fluid because of its low
density, low viscosity, and high specic heat. These criteria were chosen to
minimize weight, pipe stress, and to minimize the heat needed to bring fluid
to a vapor. The system is broken down into four sections: the boiler, turbine,
condenser, and pump. We started with a max source temperature (coming
out of the boiler) of 420C (693 K) as required by the project assignment.
During our analysis it was also noted that greater pressure difference across
the Rankine cycle resulted in a greater overall efficiency for the cycle. With
this in mind, a pressure of 10 MPa was chosen. From these two values, the
remaining properties at this state were found using thermodynamics tables,
namely the entropy value at this point, s3. We assumed the fluid going
through the turbine to be an isentropic ( s=0 and incompressible
process (s3=s4) allowing us to again reference the thermodynamic tables to
nd properties of the working fluid at point 4, or just before the radiator. To
solve for the qualities after the radiator, it was assumed that the radiator
also reduces the quality of the working fluid from 1 to 0. It was also assumed
that this process is to be isobaric ( P=0) and isothermal ( T =0) . From
these assumptions, the properties at point 1 can be found, once again
reading from the thermodynamic tables. To nd the properties at point 2, the
following equations for work done by the pump were derived:

W Pump= m
h=m
vP

Where

is the mass flow rate for the system,

of the fluid, and

h=h2h1

and

P=P 2P1

is the specic volume

are the changes in enthalpy

and pressure across the pump respectively. It was assumed that the pump is
isentropic and the flow is incompressible ( v=0) which allowed us to
derive the above equation from the following equation:

Tds=dhvdP

Since the pressure drop across the pump, specic volume of the fluid, and
enthalpy at point 1 are all known values, the enthalpy at point 2 can be
calculated. The second requirement for our design was that the net work
output must be at least 120 kilowatts, represented by the following equation:

( ( h3h 4 ) ( h2h1 ) )=120 kW

W net =W Tubrine W Pump= m

From this equation the required mass flow rate was calculated. With the
properties at each state and the mass flow rate found, the heat requirements
for the boiler and radiator could be calculated as follows:

1h4 )
QRadiator =m(h
3 h2 )
Q Boiler =m(h

Boiler properties
Use p3 and t3 to get s3
Used s3 = s4 (isentropic turbine) to go from superheated vapor to saturated
vapor to get p4 and t4 (change in p,t,h)
From P4=p1 and t4=t1 to nd h1 and s1 for saturated vapor(4) to saturated
liquid(1)

We know p2-p1 and v(1) and h1 to get h2 (vdP=h2-h1)

With h2 use in 120kw= m((h3-h4)-(h2-h1)) to get flow rate (also m(wtwp)=120kw)
Use flow rate to get heat rejected by radiator

Discussion
Shortcomings of our design include a large block of area required for
the pipes to wrap around to accommodate the relatively large length of pipe
required for the ns attached to it. Our design is inherently wasting some
energy in the form of heat (rejected by the radiator) that could be utilized for
additional power, however it is necessary to deplete this to reenter a liquid
form for the pump to complete the working fluid loop. Viscous losses in the
pipe are another inherent loss that will occur in our system. In the design,
just like the solar panel, the radiator is absorbing energy from the sun and
will have to work to immediately irradiate it back out into the surroundings,
this takes away from the heat rejection required by the process that the ns
are designed to accomplish. Advantages of our design is that it utilizes
triangular ns, which is one of the most efficient n geometries. Ammonia is
another advantage as it has high specic heat capacity, low density and low
viscosity. Ammonia also has desirable temperatures and pressures required
to convert from saturated vapor to saturated liquid forms to absorb and
reject heat. This enables the boiler to put enough heat into the fluid that the
high pressure saturated vapor form drives the turbine enough to have a net
positive power output. Increasing the Diameter of the working fluid pipe
could decrease the length of ns along the pipe resulting in less piping
needed to exit the shuttle. If this process were to occur on earth the working
fluid would need to be changed as Ammonia could not be kept cool enough
without a refrigeration cycle. The n efficiency would most than likely not be
greater than two on the ground making a heat exchanger necessary.

W = m
h=m
P
hr = (T 2s +T 2 )(T s+ T )

A e =2 Nb ( L+r ) sin (

0.8585 L+

)
N

r
N

r
N
T e =T s

L+

QTOT =2 NB ( L+ r ) sin

L=

( qb )T

4
b

N ( 2 )

2
2
3

1
2

1010
1
3

(] 1 ) 10

105

k N

=
q
q
=
w b

( )

T 9b1022

t=

q 2 5
T b 10 10
b

12
1011
2 3
k

( )

T
( 360
2N )

10

4
b

r
0.8585 L+
N
r
L+
N

 =0.99
=0

=0.9
N=5

=1.15
=1.7563

References
1) M. Ashby. Materials Selection in Mechanical Design. Elsevier Ltd. 4th edition,
2011
2) T. Bergman, A. Lavine, F. Incropera, D. Dewitt. Introduction to Heat Transfer.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6th edition, 2011
3) https://www.thermalfluidscentral.org/encyclopedia/index.php/Heat_conductio
n_in_extended_surface
4) B. Karlekar, B. Chao. Mass Minimization of Radiating Trapezoidal Fins with
Negligible Base Cyclinder Interaction. International Journal of Heat & Mass
Transfer, 6(1):3348, January 1963
5) D. Harris, R. Burian, J. Ketchman. A Design Procedure for the Weight
Optimization of Straight Finned Radiators. NASA Technical Note, August 1966.