Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Fourth Edition
Dieter Buerle
Laser Processing and Chemistry
Fourth Edition
With 332 Figures
123
Prof. Dr. Dr.h.c. Dieter Buerle Johannes-Kepler-Universitt Linz Inst. Angewandte P
hysik Altenbergerstr. 69 4040 Linz Austria dieter.baeuerle@jku.at
ISBN 978-3-642-17612-8 e-ISBN 978-3-642-17613-5 DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-17613-5 Sp
ringer Heidelberg Dordrecht London New York
Library of Congress Control Number: 2011923073 c Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelbe
rg 1986, 1996, 2000, 2011 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are rese
rved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the r
ights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasti
ng, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Du
plication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provi
sions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version,
and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Violations are lia
ble to prosecution under the German Copyright Law. The use of general descriptiv
e names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply,
even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the
relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Co
ver design: eStudio Calamar S.L., Heidelberg Printed on acid-free paper Springer
is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)
To my family and my friends around the world
Preface
Materials processing with lasers is an expanding field which is captivating the
attention of scientists, engineers, and manufacturers alike. The aspect of most
interest to scientists is the basic interaction mechanisms between the intense l
ight of a laser and materials exposed to a chemically reactive or non-reactive s
urrounding medium. Engineers and manufacturers see in the laser a tool which wil
l not only make manufacturing cheaper, faster, cleaner, and more accurate but al
so open up entirely new technologies and manufacturing methods that are simply n
ot available using standard techniques. The most established applications are la
ser machining (cutting, drilling, shaping), and laser welding, surface hardening
, annealing, recrystallization, and glazing. Laser chemical processing which inc
ludes micropatterning and extended-area processing by laser-induced etching, mat
erial deposition, chemical transformation, etc. has actual and potential applica
tions in micromechanics, metallurgy, integrated optics, electronic device and se
miconductor manufacture, optoelectronics, sensor technology and chemical enginee
ring. Increasingly, lasers are also being used in biotechnology, medicine, and i
n art conservation and restoration. This book concentrates on various aspects of
lasermatter interactions, in particular with regard to laser material processing
. Special attention is given to laserinduced chemical reactions and non-equilibr
ium processes at gas, liquid, and solidsolid interfaces. The intention is to give s
cientists, engineers, and manufacturers an overview of the extent to which new d
evelopments in laser processing are understood at present, of the various new po
ssibilities, and of the limitations of laser techniques. Students may prefer to
read the book selectively, not troubling themselves unduly with detailed calcula
tions or descriptions of single processes. The book is divided into seven parts,
each of which consists in turn of several chapters. The main symbols, conversio
n factors, abbreviations and acronyms used throughout the text are listed in App
endix A. For convenience, some mathematical functions and relations of particula
r interest are listed in Appendix B. Tables I, II, III, IV and V are intended to
encourage the reader to use the formulas presented for rapid estimation of vari
ous quantities. An extensive subject index can be found at the end of the book.
The publication of this fourth edition was motivated by both the excellent revie
ws and responses from colleagues and students and, importantly, the fact that th
e third edition was almost sold out within only 3 years. In the present edition
I
vii
viii
Preface
have included some of the most fascinating new developments in the field. Among
those are fundamental investigations and applications using ultrashort laser pul
ses, the synthesis of metastable materials, and the increasing importance of las
ers in nanotechnology, including nanopatterning and the synthesis of both nanopa
rticles and nanocomposite films. More attention is also given to fields of pract
ical interest such as 3D-microfabrication and rapid prototyping, different types
of surface functionalizations covering applications in microtechnology, chemica
l analysis, combustion engines, etc. Two additional chapters have been added. Th
ese summarize new developments and applications of lasers in medicine, biotechno
logy, and art conservation and restoration. Finally, I wish to thank my students
and all my staff for valuable discussions. Many of our "own" results incorporat
ed in this book have been achieved together with colleagues and friends during w
orld-wide cooperations within various different national and international proje
cts. In particular I would like to thank M. Aspelmeyer, M. Dinescu, C. Grigoropo
ulos, P. Leiderer, T. Lippert, A. Pikulin, and many others for valuable discussi
ons and N. Bityurin, J.D. Pedarnig, and B. Rethfeld for critical reading and com
ments on parts of the present manuscript. Valuable discussions and contributions
to several chapters of the previous edition, in particular by B. Luk'yanchuk, N
. Arnold, and N. Bityurin are gratefully acknowledged. Our close cooperation ove
r many years, mainly on theoretical aspects of laser-material interactions, is r
eflected in numerous publications cited throughout the text. Last but not least,
I wish to express my deep gratitude to my outstanding secretary, Irmengard Hasl
inger, for her tireless assistance in preparing this new edition. Linz, March 20
11 Dieter Buerle
Contents
Part I Overview and Fundamentals 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 Convention
al Laser Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2
Laser Chemical Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . 1.2.1 Thermal Activation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . 1.2.2 Non-thermal Activation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 1.2.3 Local and Large-Area Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 1.2.4 Comparison of Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.5 Planar and Non-planar Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Ther
mal, Photophysical, and Photochemical Processes . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Excita
tion Mechanisms, Relaxation Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1 Th
ermal Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.
2 Photochemical Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.3
Photophysical Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.4
A Simple Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
.1.5 Chemical Relaxation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 The Heat Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 5.2.1 Micro-/Nanoprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 5.2.2 The Reaction Chamber; Typical Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.3 Larg
e-Area Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.4 Subs
trates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Confinement of the Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 5.3.1 The Thermal Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 5.3.2 Non-thermal Substrate Excitations . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . .
39 41 43 45 45 49 51 52 53 57 59 59 60 61 62 63 63 64 66 70 70 71 71 76 76 77 79
82 83 83 85 85 85 87 89 90 90 95 96 98 98 99 99
Contents
xi
5.3.3 5.3.4 5.3.5 5.3.6 5.3.7
Gas-, Liquid- and Adsorbed-Phase Excitations . . . . . . Plasma Formation . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Material Damages . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Non-linearities . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Optical Near-Field and Fiel
d-Enhancement Effects . . .
99 100 100 100 104
Part II Temperature Distributions and Surface Melting 6 General Solutions of the
Heat Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 The Boundar
y-Value Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.1
The Attenuation Function, f (z ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.2 Bou
ndary and Initial Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Analytical
Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 6.3 Pulse Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.1 Single Rectangular Pulse . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.2 Triangular Pulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.3 Smooth Pulse . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.4 Multiple-Pulse Irradiation . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 Beam Shapes . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.1 Circular
Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.2 Rec
tangular Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.3
Uniform Illumination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5
Characteristics of Temperature Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.1 Center-Temperature Rise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.2 Width of Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 6.6 Numerical Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 7 Semi-infinite Substrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 The Center-Temperature Rise . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1.1 Gaussian Beam . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1.2 Circular Laser
Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1.3 Rectangular
Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Stationary
Solutions for Temperature-Independent Parameters . . 7.2.1 Surface Absorption .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.2 Finite Absorption
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Stationary Sol
utions for Temperature-Dependent Parameters . . . 7.4 Scanned CW-Laser Beam . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 Pulsed-Laser I
rradiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
.5.1 Gaussian Intensity Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5.2 Uniform Irradiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
e
.
.
.
ce of a
. 11.5
. . . .
. . . .
Liquid Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Limitations of Model Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 11.6 Plasma Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
201 203 204 207 212 214 215 217 220 221
Contents
xiii
11.7
11.8
11.6.1 Ionization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 11.6.2 Optical Properties of Plasmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . 11.6.3 Optical Breakdown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . Laser-Supported Absorption Waves (LSAW) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . 11.7.1 Laser-Supported Combustion Waves (LSCW): Ip I I d . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7.2 Laser-Supporte
d Detonation Waves (LSDW): I Id . 11.7.3 Superdetonation . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Abrasive Laser Machining . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.8.1 Cutting, Drilling, Sha
ping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.8.2 Non-metals . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.8.3 Scribing,
Marking, Engraving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.8.4 Comparison of
Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
222 223 225 227 227 229 230 231 231 233 234 234 237 238 242 244 247 249 250 251
253 256 256 256 259 260 261 263 265 266 267 268 270 271 272 272 273 274 276 276
277 278
12 Nanosecond-Laser Ablation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 12.1 Surface Patterning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2 Ablation Mechanisms . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2.1 Models . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3 Photo
thermal Surface Ablation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3.1 Influence of Screening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 12.3.2 Post-pulse Ablation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . 12.4 Interactions Below Threshold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 12.5 The Threshold Fluence, th . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.5.1 Thin Films . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.6 Ablation Rates . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.6.1 Depe
ndence on Photon Energy and Fluence . . . . . . . . . 12.6.2 Dependence on Pulse
Duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.6.3 Influence of Spot Size,
Screening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.6.4 Dependence on Pulse Number
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.6.5 Influence of an Ambient Atmosphe
re . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.7 Photothermal Volume Decomposition . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.8 Photochemical Ablation . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.8.1 Dissociation of Polym
er Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.8.2 Defect-Related Processes,
Incubation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.9 Photophysical Ablation . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.9.1 Long Pulses . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.9.2 Short P
ulses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.9
.3 Thermal Versus Photochemical and Photophysical Ablation . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.10 Thermo- and Photo
Carbon
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
tures .
. . . .
. .
. . . . . . . .
19.6 Insulators
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
19.8 Comparison
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
of LCVD
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
and
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.6.1 Oxides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . 19.6.2 Nitrides . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.7 Heterostruc
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Standard Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . .
Contents
xvii
20 Adsorbed Layers, LaserMBE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . 20.1 Fundamental Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.1.1 Influence of Laser Light . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.2 Deposition from Adsorbed Layers . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.2.1 Vacuum . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.2.2 Gaseous Ambient . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.3 Combined Laser a
nd Molecular/Atomic Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.3.1 Laser-MBE . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.3.2 Laser-ALE
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.3.3 L
aser-OMBD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
.3.4 Laser-Focused Atomic Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Liquid
-Phase Deposition, Electroplating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 21.1 Liquid-Phase Processing Without an External EMF . . . . . . . . . . . 21.
1.1 Thermal Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.1
.2 Electroless Plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 21.1.3 MetalLiquid Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 21.1.4 SemiconductorLiquid Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.1.
5 Further Experimental Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.2 Elect
rochemical Plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 21.2.1 Jet-Plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 22 Thin-Film Formation by Pulsed-Laser Deposition and LaserInduced Evaporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 22.1 Experimental Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . 22.1.1 Congruent and Incongruent Ablation . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 22.1.2 Targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 22.1.3 Uniform Ablation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.1.4 Cross-Beam PLD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.2 Volume and Surface Processes, Film Growth .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.2.1 Plasma and Gas-Phase Reactions . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.2.2 Substrate Temperature, Laser-Pulse-Repetition
Rate . . 22.2.3 Energy of Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . 22.2.4 Particulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.2.5 Chemical Composition and Thickness of Films . .
. . . . 22.3 Overview of Materials and Film Properties . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 22.4 High-Temperature Superconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 22.4.1 Non-reactive Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 22.4.2 Reactive Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 22.4.3 Heterostructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.4.4 Metastable Compounds, Mixed Systems . . .
. . . . . . . . . 22.4.5 Films with Step-Like Morphology . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 22.4.6 Buffer Layers, Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . 22.5 Metals, Semiconductors, and Insulators . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 22.5.1 Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.5.2 Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
457 458 462 463 463 466 470 471 472 473 474 477 477 477 480 481 483 484 484 486
489 490 493 494 495 497 497 498 499 500 501 504 505 506 507 507 508 510 512 513
515 515 515
xviii
Contents
22.6
22.7 22.8
22.5.3 Carbon Films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . 22.5.4 Insulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 22.5.5 Heterostructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nanostructured Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.6.1 Nanoparticle films . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.6.2 Nanocomposites . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Organic Materials . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.7.1 MAPLE
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . La
ser-Induced Forward Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 22.8.1 Transfer films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . .
517 519 521 521 522 522 524 527 528 530
Part V Material Transformations, Synthesis and Structure
ransformations, Laser Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Transformation Hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . 23.2 Laser Annealing, Recrystallization . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 23.2.1 Ion-Implanted Semiconductors .
. . . . . . . 23.2.2 Thin Films . . . . . . . . . . . .
Formation
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
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23 Material T
. . . . 23.1
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