CDMA - P&O - I - 01 - 200908 CDMA Network Planning and Optimization Training Guide-Primary Principles

CDMA network planning and optimization
training guide-Primary Principles
Course Objectives
Master some communication concepts such as Erl, blocking rate
Know about spread spectrum communication principles
Master CDMA channels structure and modulation technology
Master key CDMA technologies such as soft-handoff, power
control and diversity reception
Master EVDO principle and key technologies
Master propagation models and their application
Master some indices concept of antenna and selection of antenna
Reference
ZTE
CDMA Network
Materials
Planning
&Optimization
Training
Contents
1 Basic Conception of Communications........................................................................................................1
1.1 System Bandwidth and Signal Bandwidth..........................................................................................1
1.1.1 System Bandwidth....................................................................................................................1
1.1.2 Signal Bandwidth.....................................................................................................................3
1.2 Definition of Erlang.............................................................................................................................4
1.3 Blocking Rate......................................................................................................................................4
1.4 GOS......................................................................................................................................................6
1.5 Receiver Sensitivity.............................................................................................................................6
1.5.1 IS-97 Sensitivity Test................................................................................................................6
1.5.2 Receiver Sensitivity in Link Budget........................................................................................7
1.6 Reverse Load Factor............................................................................................................................7
1.7 Definitions of dB, dBm, dBi, dBd, dBc ans dBW..............................................................................8
1.8 LAC......................................................................................................................................................9
1.9 Frequency Reuse................................................................................................................................10
1.10 Comparison between Bit, Byte, Symbol and Chip..........................................................................11
1.11 Conversion between Frequency and Frequency Band....................................................................12
1.12 Definitions of SID and NID............................................................................................................14
1.13 Definitions of IMSI.........................................................................................................................15
2 CDMA Principles........................................................................................................................................19
2.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................19
2.2 Spread Spectrum Communication Technology.................................................................................19
2.2.1 Spread Spectrum Communication Theory.............................................................................19
2.2.2 Spreading and De-spreading...................................................................................................20
i
2.2.3 Processing Gain and Anti-Interference Tolerance..................................................................21

2.2.4 Spread Spectrum Communication Features...........................................................................22
2.3 Multiple Access Technology..............................................................................................................23
2.4 CDMA System Implementation........................................................................................................23
2.4.1 CDMA Spread Spectrum Communication Principles............................................................24
2.4.2 CDMA Spreading Code Selection..........................................................................................25
2.5 Voice Coding Technology..................................................................................................................30
2.6 Channel Coding Technology.............................................................................................................31
2.6.1 Mobile Communication Channel Features.............................................................................31
2.6.2 Cyclic Redundancy Check.....................................................................................................34
2.6.3 Convolutional Coding............................................................................................................34
2.6.4 Block Interleaving Technology..............................................................................................34
2.6.5 Turbo Code.............................................................................................................................35
3 Channel Composition and Function.........................................................................................................41
3.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................41
3.2 Basic Concepts of Spread Rate and Radio Configuration................................................................41
3.3 Forward and Reverse Channels of the 1x System.............................................................................43
3.3.1 Forward Channels...................................................................................................................43
3.3.2 Reverse Channels...................................................................................................................48
3.4 Forward and Reverse Channels of the 1xEV-DO System.................................................................52
3.4.1 Forward Channels...................................................................................................................52
3.4.2 Reverse Channels...................................................................................................................56
4 Key CDMA Technologies...........................................................................................................................65
4.1 Uniform Frequency Reuse.................................................................................................................65
4.2 Power Control....................................................................................................................................66
4.2.1 1x Power Control Principle and Implementation Mode........................................................67
4.2.2 1xEV-DO Power Control Principle and Implementation Mode............................................81
ii
4.3 Soft Handoff......................................................................................................................................85

4.3.1 Soft Handoff in the 1x System...............................................................................................86
4.3.2 Soft Handoff in the 1xEV-DO System...................................................................................91
4.4 Diversity Reception...........................................................................................................................91
4.4.1 Time Diversity........................................................................................................................92
4.4.2 Frequency Diversity...............................................................................................................93
4.4.3 Space Diversity.......................................................................................................................94
4.4.4 Rake Receiver.........................................................................................................................96
4.5 Key 1x EV-DO Technologies............................................................................................................99
4.5.1 Reverse Link Power Control..................................................................................................99
4.5.2 Reverse Link Rate Control.....................................................................................................99
4.5.3 Forward Link TDM..............................................................................................................100
4.5.4 Forward Link Scheduling Strategy......................................................................................100
4.5.5 Forward Link Virtual Soft Handoff......................................................................................101
4.5.6 Adaptive Modulation Coding Technology...........................................................................101
4.5.7 R-P Session Establishment...................................................................................................101
4.6 Key PTT Technologies....................................................................................................................102
4.6.1 Channel Sharing...................................................................................................................102
4.6.2 Fast Connection....................................................................................................................103
5 CDMA2000 1x EV_DO Theory & Key Technologies...........................................................................105
5.1 Development of CDMA2000 1x EV_DO.......................................................................................105
5.1.1 Overview...............................................................................................................................105
5.1.2 Air Interface Evolution.........................................................................................................107
5.1.3 Network Reference Model...................................................................................................108
5.1.4 Air Interface Protocol Layer.................................................................................................109
5.2 Advantages of EVDO RevA over EVDO Rls0...............................................................................110
5.3 EVDO RevA Physical Layer...........................................................................................................113
iii
5.3.1 Forward Channel..................................................................................................................114

5.3.2 Reverse Channel...................................................................................................................116
5.4 EVDO Key Technologies................................................................................................................120
5.4.1 Forward TDM/Fixed Power Transmission...........................................................................120
5.4.2 Virtual Soft Handoff Technology.........................................................................................121
5.4.3 Data Control Technique........................................................................................................123
5.4.4 Reverse Power Control Technique.......................................................................................127
5.4.5 Technique of Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request (H-ARQ)................................................128
5.4.6 Multiple User Diversity/Forward dispatching.....................................................................133
5.4.7 Reverse Link Delay and Capacity Exchange.......................................................................139
6 Radio Propagation....................................................................................................................................141
6.1 Radio Propagation theory................................................................................................................141
6.1.1 Free Space Propagation........................................................................................................142
6.1.2 Relation between electric field and power...........................................................................146
6.1.3 Three Fundamental Propagation Mechanisms.....................................................................148
6.2 Introduction to Radio Propagation Models.....................................................................................153
6.2.1 Categories of Propagation Models.......................................................................................154
6.2.2 Macro Cell Propagation Model............................................................................................155
6.2.3 Micro Cell Propagation Model.............................................................................................165
6.2.4 Indoor Propagation Model....................................................................................................167
6.2.5 Application of Propagation Model in Cellular Design.........................................................169
7 Antenna......................................................................................................................................................173
7.1 Basic Principles of Antenna.............................................................................................................173
7.1.1 Antenna Gain........................................................................................................................173
7.1.2 Radiation Directional Diagram............................................................................................174
7.1.3 Polarization Mode.................................................................................................................176
7.1.4 Other indices.........................................................................................................................177
iv
7.1.5 Antenna Diversity.................................................................................................................179

7.1.6 Electrical antenna and Mechanical antenna.........................................................................183
7.2 Selection of Antenna........................................................................................................................184
7.2.1 Working Frequency Band and Polarization Mode...............................................................185
7.2.2 Antenna Radiation Pattern, Horizontal Lobe Width, Vertical Lobe Width and Gain..........185
7.2.3 Antenna downtilt Mode........................................................................................................189
7.2.4 Antenna Side Lobe Suppression, Zero-Point Filling and Front-to-Back Ratio...................190
7.2.5 Front-to-Back Ratio of Antenna, Max input power, Third-Order Intermodulation, isolation
between the ports...........................................................................................................................191
7.3 Antenna Selection for Indoor Distribution System.........................................................................191
1 Basic Conception of Communications

Key points
Erl,blocking rate and some basic conception of communications
1.1 System Bandwidth and Signal Bandwidth

1.1.1 System Bandwidth
In the communication system, all signals transmitted have some bandwidth (that is,
occupy some band resources). To process the signals for a specific purpose, the system
bandwidth, i.e., the band resources that is provided by the system, is a key performance
parameter. Following are the three ways a system bandwidth can be defined:
1.
Define the system bandwidth by equivalent noise bandwidth: Suppose the

systems transmission function is H(f), then the equivalent noise bandwidth is
given by:
Wn
1
| H max | 2
| H ( f ) |
df
Where H max is the maximum amplitude of H(f).

For example, the equivalent noise bandwidth Wn of the low-pass filter is as
illustrated in Figure 1.1 -1:
Figure 1.1-1 Equivalent noise bandwidth of low-pass filter
Definition of the equivalent noise bandwidth Wn is:

Average power of the white noise passing Wn = power of the white noise
1
passing the actual filter.

For the band-pass filter with
f0
as the center frequency as shown in Figure
1.1 -2, the definition of the equivalent noise bandwidth Bn is: average power of
the white noise passing Bn = power of the white noise passing the actual filter.
Figure 1.1-2 Equivalent noise bandwidth of band-pass filter
2.
Definition of the half-power point bandwidth or the so-called 3dB bandwidth

with the half-power point of the power transfer function:
For the low-pass filter, the power transfer function at the half-power point W1/2
is:
| H ( f ) |W2 1 / 2
1
| H ( f ) | 02
2
For the band-pass filter, the power transfer function at the half-power point W1/2
is:
| H ( f ) | 2B1 / 2
1
| H ( f ) | 2f 0
2
For the amplitude
frequency curve, it is
0.71
Figure 1.1-3 Half-power point bandwidth
Chapter 7 Antenna
3.
Definition of the system bandwidth Be with percentage of the total passed

energy:
For the band-pass filter:
f 0 Be / 2
f 0 Be / 2
| H ( f ) | df (1 e) | H ( f ) | 2 df
2
|H(f)|2(dB)
Figure 1.1-4 System bandwidth Be of band-pass filter
In this case, bandwidth is also defined with respect to the power decline, with the only
exception that the decline is not fixed at 3dB, but at random, such as by 1dB, 2dB etc.
For some low-pass filters such as the loop filter, the bandwidth is usually defined with
respect to the equivalent noise; for the band-pass filters, the bandwidth is usually
defined with a fixed 3dB decline or energy percentage.
1.1.2 Signal Bandwidth

As discussed above, bandwidth can be defined by the decline of a certain percentage
(dB) of the power transfer function. This concept can also be used to define the signal
bandwidth if | H ( f ) | 2 is replaced by the signals Fourier Transformation (FT)
| X ( f ) | 2 . For the average power of random signals, use the frequency density
S x ( f ) to replace | X ( f ) | 2 . And similarly, the signal may have bandwidths of 1dB,

2dB or 3dB, or 90% power (energy) or 95% power (energy) bandwidth.
The system bandwidth is to the signal bandwidth, what the car is to the road.
A certain main lobe bandwidth is the requirement for the system bandwidth raised by
the signal. For example, to transmit voice signals with a rate of 32Kbps via BPSK, the
system bandwidth should be 64kHz and above; in another case, the system bandwidth
determines the width of signals that can be transmitted. For example, the ordinary
digital voice channel does not allow transmission of digital color signals, and a 14kHz
3
CDMA network planning and optimization training guide-Primary Principles
system allows transmission of 2 16Kbps voice signals.
1.2 Definition of Erlang

In telephone switching system, demand for the server from the source is called traffic,
whereas it is called traffic load from the perspective of the server. The definition of
traffic or traffic load is as follows:
The traffic load produced (or shouldered) by a source (or a server) during the period T
is the total of the lasted time for each of all services during this period. Two factors are
related to the traffic load: the call intensity (degree of demand frequentness) and call
duration (time lasted for each service).
Suppose n calls occur during the period T, and the average call duration of the calls is
hav, then the traffic load is: AT=n*hav. In order to calculate the traffic density, first
define the traffic flow as: A1=AT/T=n*hav/T=*hav, where =n/T is the call intensity
of the source or the average calls within a unit period. The traffic flow is the total of
service time within the unit period, which represents the occupation ratio of a single
source or server. The occupation ratio is forever less than or equal to 1. The unit of the
traffic flow is Erlang. In practice, the traffic flow is usually called the traffic.
Note: The dimension of traffic is time, but the traffic flow is dimensionless.
If the unit of the call intensity is call/hour, and the unit of the call duration is 100s,
hence another unit of the traffic flow is hundred call seconds (ccs), which is a unit
frequently used in North American countries. As the unit of the call duration in Erlang
definition is the hour, therefore: 1erl=36ccs.
1.3 Blocking Rate

Due to economic reasons, links that can be provided in a given area are usually much
fewer than the telephone subscribers. When one calls, it might be possible for all links
to be busy, which is called blocking or time blocking. The more the links can be
provided, the lower the blocking rate of the system and the better the QoS provided to
the subscribers. That is, the bearing capabilities of the telephone system decide the
number of links, which in turn decides the blocking rate of the system.
The call blocking rate is given by:
Chapter 7 Antenna
Pblocking
S
S
S!
K
K!
k 0
Where, the unit of / is Erlang. In physics, / means the simultaneous call links. In
Poisson distribution, / means the frequency of occurrence of a certain parameter. For
example, in the queue events, the physical meaning of / is the amount of increased
queue length in the unit time. Another example can also explain the Poisson
distribution.
Suppose, during a given period of time [0, 1], the number of accidents at a crossroad is
.
Now
l1 [0,1 n],
divide
the
time
l2 [1 n, 2 n],
equally
into
parts,
n,
L .
If 1: The probability of having one accident within li is proportional to length of time,

and the probability of having two accidents within li is zero. is a constant, and the
probability of the accident within li is /n.
If 2: Within each part of the period, events of accident occurrence are mutually
independent.
Then, how is the probability of having i accidents?
Obviously, the probability of having i accidents is in binomial distribution.
i
n
P ( x i )
1
i
n
n

When
n i
n! 1 n!,
P ( x i ) e i i!
In the above formula, the meanings of the various parameters of the Poisson
distribution are: is the frequency of occurrence, the index i means that the same event
occurs i times within a given period of time, and the formula gives the probability of
having i events within a given period of time.
The trunk seizure in fixed line communication can be described with the Poisson
distribution. Suppose, in a given period, the average call duration is 1/. Now divide
the duration equally into n parts, then each part is 1/(n). Now, repeat the same
analysis, hence:
P( x i) e
i
i!
When there are only n trunk lines, the concept of i = n means blocking rate. Hence:
Pblocking
n!
e i!
n
n
n!
i
i!
Where / is the traffic in Erlang within the unit period of time.

Given the same capacity in Erlang, the higher the allowed blocking rate is, the fewer
the required links.
1.4 GOS
GOS means Grade of Service (Quality of Service). The blocking rate, together with
other performance indices of system quality, constitutes the GOS provided by the
system to the subscribers.
1.5 Receiver Sensitivity

1.5.1 IS-97 Sensitivity Test
IS-97 sensitivity test shows that the sensitivity of the BTS reverse receiver can reach
-126.4dBm, which is a very high index.
As long as either the receiving performance of the reverse link or the link noise
coefficient of the system is decided, the others can be derived.
The receiver sensitivity is the power of the input signal. Suppose P in = -126.4dBm, no
noise is added when the system receiving sensitivity is tested, which means all noise
comes from system thermal noise; and the thermal noise power intensity is N 0, then:
N 0 kTF Boltzman const Noise _ Figure
1.38 10 23 308 K F
203.7dB NF ( dB)
173.7dBm NF ( dB )
E b N 0 Eb N 0 Pin 21 N 0W
126.4 21 173.7 NF 10 log 1228800
7.4 NF
If the system demodulation performance is 4dB, then the system link noise coefficient
is 3.4dB.
Chapter 7 Antenna
1.5.2 Receiver Sensitivity in Link Budget

The receiving sensitivity in the link budget is different from the receiver sensitivity
given by the IS-97 sensitivity test. The receiver sensitivity in the link budget takes into
consideration not only the receiver thermal noise, but also multiple factors such as cell
load and soft handoff, and can be taken as the requirement for received signal intensity
with a given load. Sensitivity given by the IS-97 sensitivity test is one of the indices of
the receiver, whereas the receiving sensitivity in the link budget considers the load
requirement in network designing as well as the receiver performance. Therefore, the
receiving sensitivity in the link budget is closer to what happens in the actual
environment.
1.6 Reverse Load Factor

X, the CDMA cell loading, is defined by:
X cell _ loading
number _ of _ active _ users

max inum _ allowable _ number _ of _ users
Take the BTS thermal noise into consideration
SNR
S
S
2
0
I T M Fe 1 r S
2
and we get:
M Fe 1 1 r 0 2 r S
Ignore 2, then we get:
M max Fe 1 1 r 0
Hence:
X M
M max
Fe
2
r S
M Fe r S
M Fe r S 2
As M/Fe>>1, the above equation can be simplified as:
Fe 1 r S
IT
2
M Fe 1 r S I T 2
When the cell loading approaches 1, I T>>2, which means interference in the cell has
7
become very strong. When the cell capacity is surpassed, the system will become
unstable. The relationship between the cell loading and interference is as shown in
Figure 1.6 -5:
20
10
0
-10
-20
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

Cell Loading
Figure 1.6-5 Relationship between cell loading and interference
1.7 Definitions of dB, dBm, dBi, dBd, dBc ans dBW

1.
dBm
dBm is the absolute value of power, equivalent to 1mW. Calculation of 1dBm is
10lg (P value /lmW).
For example, if the transmitting power P is 10W, then, in dBm:
10lg(10W/1mW) =10lg(10000)=40dBm. Therefore it can be said the
transmitting power P is 40dBm.
2.
dBi, dBd
dBi and dBd are both relative values for power gain, but have different
references. The reference of dBi is the omni-antenna (isotrophic radiator), while
that of dBd is the dipole (half-wave dipole antenna). Therefore, the values of dBi
and dBd are slightly different, and the same gain expressed in dBi is 2.15 larger
than that expressed in dBd.
For example: the antenna gain of 16 dBd can be converted into 18.15 dBi (the
integral value is 18 dBi).
3.
dB
For voltage V, current I and field intensity E: 20logdB
Chapter 7 Antenna
For power P: 10logdB

dB is the relative value of power. To calculate how much dB power A is more or
less than power B, use the formula: 10lg (power A/power B).
For example, if the gain of antenna A is 20dBd, and that of antenna B is 14dBd,
then the gain of antenna A is 6dB larger than that of antenna B.
4.
dBc
dBc is usually used to describe the performance of RF components. dBc is also a
relative value of power that has the same calculation method as that of dB.
Generally speaking, dBc is a relative value used on many occasions for
describing the carrier power, such as measuring the interference (co-frequency
interference, intermodulation interference, cross-modulation interference, and
out-of-band interference), coupling, and scattering etc. In principle, where dBc
is applied, dB can replace it.
5.
dBW
Similar to dBm, dBW is an absolute value of power. The formula is 10log(W).
For example, power of 1W can be converted as: 10log1=0dBW, power of 2W
can be converted as: 10log=3dBW.
1.8 LAC
LAC is the Location Area Code used as the only identifier for the location area in
China digital PLMN. It is a 2-byte hexadecimal BCD code, expressed as L1L2L3L4
(the value range is 0000~FFFF, and 65536 location areas can be identified with LAC.)
The area is a base station group composed of several base stations in the system or
network. The area information of a base station is carried in the REG_ZONE filed in
the system reference message and transmitted to the mobile station.
Area-based registration means, when a mobile station moves into a new cell, the area
whose base station belongs to does not exist in the access area registration table stored
in the memory, the mobile station starts registration for this new area. When
registration of any type succeeds (including the default registration), the area the
mobile station belongs to is added into the table. Each area in the table has a
corresponding timer that will be activated once the mobile station leaves the
corresponding area. When the timer times out, the corresponding area will be deleted
9
from the table. One mobile station can be registered simultaneously for multiple areas,
each of which is identified only by the area code (REG_ZONE) and the area SID and
NID.
1.9 Frequency Reuse

Frequency reuse means applying the same carrier frequency for radiation within
different geographic areas, but such areas shall have adequate clearance between them
so that the resulting co-channel and adjacent channel interference can be negligible.
Frequency reuse is mainly used in FDMA systems, such as in GSM communication.
Application of frequency reuse is to divide the available channels into several groups.
For example, if there are N available channels, which are divided into F groups, then
each group has N/F channels. As the total number of channels, N, is fixed, the fewer
the groups F, the more the channels in each group. But at the same time, fewer groups
means shorter clearance for the co-channel reused, which then brings down the average
C/I (carrier-to-interference ratio) value of the system. Therefore, in practice, the C/I
value is given a 3dB redundancy for protection and the channels are divided into 12
groups. That is, there will be 4 base stations and 12 frequencies. The directional
antenna may have a 90 or 60 angle to form a clover-leaf cell, that is, to divide the
base station into three fan cells. as shown in Figure 1.9 -6:
Figure 1.9-6 Frequency reuse application
For the Omni-antenna, it is recommended that the channels be divided into 7 groups,
and the 7 groups might be selected at random from the 12 groups, only with an
exception that, use of the adjacent frequency groups in the adjacent cells should be
avoided as much as possible (see Figure 1.9 -7). The cell that has heavy loading may
10
Chapter 7 Antenna
borrow the remaining frequency groups. For example, the cell in group 9 may borrow
the frequency of group 2.
9
11
7
1
1
5
5
3
3
9
7
Figure 1.9-7 Frequency reuse application in Omni cell
In the CDMA system, as the code division, instead of the frequency division,
technology is applied, only PN reuse is used.
1.10 Comparison between Bit, Byte, Symbol and Chip

1.
Bit is 0 or 1 carried in the base band signal. Each digit represents 1 bit;
2.
1 byte = 8 bits. At the earlier stage, the AUX adder uses 8 bits for one
calculating action. Therefore, it is called the eight-bit system. The concept byte
is seldom used in CDMA base band processing;
3.
Symbol is the unit used in modulation and demodulation. The information in

bits goes through convolution encoding (or turbo encoding), repetition,
interleaving, and CRC correction (but the processes are different in the forward
and reverse directions) and becomes a symbol. A symbol may not be 1 bit in
size, but shall not be less than that;
4.
Chip is the minimum unit. It can be viewed as a concept of time duration. In

CDMA 2000, the length of one PN chip is 1/1.2288*10-6s.
CDMA chip rate refers to the rate of the spread spectrum PN sequence, which is
1.2288Mchip/s for data transmission. Take the CDMA 2000 reverse channel of basic
service for example: The reverse channel code symbol rate is 28800 code
symbols/second. As every 6 code symbols are modulated into one modulation symbol
11
for transmission, the modulation symbol rate is 4800 modulation symbols/second. The
modulation symbol is further modulated by the 64-order Walsh function, and every
modulation symbol has 64 Walsh bit chips. Therefore, the Walsh bit chip rate is fixed at
4800*64=307.2Kchip/s. As every Walsh bit chip is expanded into 4 PN bit chips, then
the final data rate, i.e., the spread spectrum PN sequence rate, is 1.2288Mchip/s. The
so-called code chip is the bit chip when used in CDMA spread spectrum sequence
encoding.
1.11 Conversion between Frequency and Frequency Band

In the CDMA system, if the frequency band used by the system is known, the specific
frequency can be worked out by the frequency band calculation formula. The resulting
frequency is the central frequency of the band used by the system. Add or subtract
0.625MHz to or from the central frequency and the resulting value is the frequency
band.
1.
450M
The currently used frequency band is Band A. The frequency is given by:
BS signal receiving (uplink): 450.00MHz ~ 458MHz
BS transmitting (downlink): 460.00MHz ~ 468MHz
The fixed phase difference between the downlink and uplink is 10MHz.
Table 1.11-1 Recommended frequency in 450M system
160frequency band 210 frequency band 260 frequency band
frequency band in uplink(MHZ)
453.35 ~ 454.60
454.60 ~ 455.85
455.85 ~ 457.10
frequency band in downlink(MHZ) 463.35 ~ 464.60
464.60 ~ 465.85
465.85 ~ 467.10
12
Chapter 7 Antenna
Figure 1.11-8 Frequency band in 450M system
2.
800M
In commercial 800 systems, the common frequency bands are:
BS signal receiving (uplink): 825MHz ~ 835MHz
BS signal transmitting (downlink): 870MHz ~ 880MHz
The fixed phase difference between the downlink and uplink is 45MHz.
Table 1.11-2 Calculating formula of frequencies in 800M system
Transmitter
Mobile station
Base station
CDMA channel number
CDMA designated frequencies
1 N 799
0.030 N + 825.000
991 N 1023
0.030 (N-1023) + 825.000
1 N 799
0.030 N + 870.000
991 N 1023
0.030 (N-1023) + 870.000
13
Figure 1.11-9 Frequency band division in 800M system
3.
1.9G
The common frequency bands used in commercial 1.9G CDMA systems are:
BS signal receiving (uplink): 1890MHz ~ 1905MHz
BS signal transmitting (downlink): 1970MHz ~ 1985MHz
Figure 1.11-10 Frequency band division in 1.9G system
1.12 Definitions of SID and NID

A base station is a member of a cellular system and a network, and a network is a
subset of a system.
The SID code identifies the system and the NID code identifies the system network..
Therefore, a network is identified only by a pair of codes (SID, NID). SID = 0 and NID
= 0 are reserved values, representing all base stations not affiliated to any specific
network. NID = 65535 (216 - 1) is also a reserved value. To the mobile station, it means
the entire system identified by SID (independent of NID) is in the local (not roaming).
Figure 1.12 -11 shows an example of a system and a network. The subsystem with SID
= i has three networks identified by t, u, and v respectively. The base station identified
by NID = 0 is a member of the system i but not a member of any of the three networks.
14
Chapter 7 Antenna
SID = k
SID = j
NID=u
NID=t
NID = 0
NID=v
SID = i
SID = l
Figure 1.12-11 System and network
The mobile station (MS) has a list that contains one or more pairs of local (nonroaming) identifiers (SID, NID). If the identifier codes (SIDs, NIDs) stored in the list
(received from the system parameter information) do not match with any of the mobile
station non-roaming identifier codes (SID, NID), it means the mobile station is
roaming. There are two types of roaming: If the mobile station is roaming and it has
some pairs of SIDs in the list that match with the SIDs of the MS non-roaming
identifier codes, it means this MS is an external NID roamer. If it has no SID in the list
that matches with the SIDs of the MS non-roaming identifier codes, it means the MS is
an external SID roamer. The MS may have a special value NID = 65535 to indicate that
it believes none of the NIDs in the SID is roaming (for example, none of all mobile
stations in the base stations of the system is roaming).
1.13 Definitions of IMSI

The International Mobile Station Identifier (IMSI) identifies each of the CDMA digital
mobile stations. The IMSI code consists of 15 digits (0-9). The first 3 digits indicate the
country of the mobile station, and the rest digits constitute the National Mobile Station
Identifier (NMSI) that consists of the Mobile Station Network Code (MNC) and the
Mobile Station Identifier Number (MSIN). The structure of IMSI is as shown in Figure
1.13 -12, and the meanings of each field:
MCC
Mobile country code
MNC
Mobile network code

15
MSIN
Mobile Station Identifier Number
NMSI
National Mobile Station Identifier (MNC+MSIN)
IMSI
International Mobile Station Identifier (MCC+MNC+MSIN)
Figure 1.13-12 IMSI structure
IMSI codes have two categories:
Category 0: IMSI codes have 15 digits, that is, the NMSI codes have 12 digits.
Category 1: IMSI codes have less than 15 digits, that is, the NMSI codes have
fewer than 12 digits.
In calling the mobile station, the MS IMSI code is usually divided into two parts:
IMSI_S (MIN) and IMSI_11_12.
IMSI_S is composed of the last 10 digits of IMSI. If the IMSI does not have 10 digits,
then the beginning part of the IMSI_S is to be filled by 0. The IMSI_S structure is as
shown in Figure 1.13 -13:
Figure 1.13-13 IMSI_S structure
16
2 CDMA Principles
Key points
CDMA spread spectrum communication principle
CDMA voice coding and channel coding technology
2.1 Introduction
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) includes two basic technologies: code
division based on spread spectrum and multiple access technology. These two basic
technologies in combination with the other key technologies form the technical support
of todays CDMA mobile communication systems.
After studying this chapter, you will master the basic CDMA principles, understand
CDMA voice and channel encoding technologies, and get prepared for the
understanding of IS-95, cdma2000 1x (hereinafter called 1x) and cdma2000 1x EV-DO
(hereinafter called 1xEV-DO) system principles.
2.2 Spread Spectrum Communication Technology

Three primary communication transmission modes in the information era comprises the
spread spectrum communication, fiber communication, and satellite communication.
2.2.1 Spread Spectrum Communication Theory

Spread spectrum communication follows the Shannon formula.
The formula for calculating channel capacity follows information theory research:
C B log 2 (1 S N )
C is channel capacity in bits/s, B is signal bandwidth in Hz, S is signal mean power in
W, and N is mean noise power in W.
According to Shannon formula, the signal bandwidth (B) and Signal to Noise Ratio
(S/N) are inversely proportional if channel capacity (C) remains unchanged. Increasing
signal bandwidth enables reliable information transfer at the same rate with low S/N.
17
Even if noise drowns the signal, reliable communication occurs as long as there is
significant signal bandwidth increase. Spread spectrum enables information transfer on
a higher bandwidth to reduce high SNR requirement.
2.2.2 Spreading and De-spreading

Spread spectrum communication technology is an information transmission mode that
follows spread spectrum code for modulation at the transmitting end, increasing signal
bandwidth required for information transfer. At the receiving end, the same spread
spectrum code enables coherent demodulation to restore transmitted information.
Figure 2.2 -14 illustrates the entire spreading and de-spreading processes.
Figure 2.2-14 Spreading and De-spreading Process
1.
Figure 2.2 -14 illustrates modulated data conversion into narrowband signals
with bandwidth B1.
2.
Pseudo noise code (PN) generated by spread code generator spreads and
modulates narrowband signals, and becomes broadband spread signals with
extremely low power spectral density. As figure 2 illustrates, B2 is far greater
than B1. Narrowband signals spread in broadband according to a regular pattern
18
Chapter 7 Antenna
defined by PN and then sent out.

3.
Signal transmission causes interference noise like narrowband noise and

broadband noise.
4.
Spread and demodulation of broadband signals at the receiving end use the
same transmitting end PN and become normal narrowband signals. Bandwidth
extraction of components mapped with those on the transmission side is
according to regular PN pattern, and integrated with normal narrowband
signals. Regular communication processing method demodulates narrowband
signals into information data followed by de-spreading of interference noise
into bandwidth signals.
2.2.3 Processing Gain and Anti-Interference Tolerance

Two important spread spectrum communication system concept types are processing
gain and anti-interference tolerance.
Processing gain shows spread spectrum system SNR improvement. It reflects the
systems anti-interference performance.
Normally, the ratio of spread spectrum signal bandwidth W and information bandwidth
F is the processing Gain G p .
Gp
W
.
F
According to theoretical analysis, anti-interference spread spectrum system

performance is directly proportional to signal bandwidth before spreading than that
after spreading.
However, spread spectrum system processing gain does not fully reflect system
performance under interference environment. A certain SNR at the output end ensures
normal system operation, despite system losses. Anti-interference tolerance is
the following defines
M J G p [(
MJ
S
) o Ls ]
N
S
) o Ls ]
SNR at the output end is N
.
M J G p [(
System loss is
Ls .
19
MJ
, and
2.2.4 Spread Spectrum Communication Features

Following section describes the spread spectrum communication technology features:
1.
Strong Anti-interference Capability

Spread spectrum technology enables spread and broad frequency band transfer
of transmitting end signals, and the compression and restoration of receiving end
spread signal bandwidth to narrowband signals. Interference signals do not
relate to spread PN. After spreading the interference signals to wide band, the
interference power within the same band containing useful signals reduces. As a
result, output signal/interference ratio increases, making anti-interference
capability strong. Anti-interference capability is directly proportional to spread
times of the band. Wider the spectrum spread, stronger is the anti-interference
capability.
2.
Multi-Access Communication
Although the CDMA spread spectrum system occupies a wide band, users share
the same frequency band at one time. Spectrum utilization is high. Hence, the
spread spectrum system supports multi-access communication.
3.
High Security
As spread spectrum communication system spreads the transmitted information
to a wide band, its power density reduces with spectrum spread. Noise may
drown the signals. It is difficult to intercept or scout such signals.
4.
Multi-path Interference Resistance

In mobile communication and indoor environments, multi-path interference
poses
very
serious
constraints.
The
system
cannot
ensure
smooth
communication in the absence of strong anti-interference capability. Spread

spectrum communication technology prevents multi-path interference through
spread spectrum code correlation features. It uses multi-path energy to improve
system performance.
Spread spectrum communication has several other advantages, such as accurate
time and range, noise prevention, low power spectral density, and random
access.
20
Chapter 7 Antenna
2.3 Multiple Access Technology

Multi-access mode enables several user addresses use the same resource to
communicate with one another. In CDMA systems, multiple access technology enables
several users to share the same frequency at one time. Generally, these users are in
different places and in moving state. Several satellite communication earth stations
communicate through the same satellite repeater, likewise several MSs communicate at
the same frequency through the base station.
Use of same transmission band causes generation of mutual interference among users.
That is the so-called multi-access interference or self-interference. Signal division on
the receiver incorporates certain features to avoid multi-access interference on signals
from different users to differentiate them.
Mathematically, multiple access technology is the orthogonal division of signals,
expressing the transmission signals as a function of time, frequency, and code.
Multiple access technology uses different features of signals to differentiate channels:
1.
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA): Different users use different

frequency at one time.
2.
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA): Different users use different timeslots
within the same frequency.
3.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA): All terminals use the same band to
transfer signals at one time. It implements signal splitting by using
orthogonality or quasi-orthogonality between different terminal signal address
code waveforms.
2.4 CDMA System Implementation

CDMA is a multi-access mode with a broad development perspective. Currently, it is
the development hotspot in many countries around the world.
CDMA uses a group of orthogonal or quasi-orthogonal PN sequences to enable
multiple users share the frequency resources for air transmission and implement
network access at the same time.
2.4.1 CDMA Spread Spectrum Communication Principles

The spread spectrum communication system provides three implementation modes,
21
namely, Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS), Frequency Hopping Spread

Spectrum (FHSS), and Time Hopping Spread Spectrum (THSS).
As Figure 2.4 -15 illustrates, CDMA adopts DSSS technology.
Figure 2.4-15 CDMA Spread Spectrum Communication Principles
3G standards use different spreading code rates. In cdma2000 1x system, spreading

code rate is 1.2288 Mb/s.
22
Chapter 7 Antenna
With respect to Figure 2.4 -15, signal processing waveform change is as illustrated in
Figure 2.4 -16.
Signal
+
Spreading
code
Result of spreading
(a) Spreading
Signal
received
+
Spreading
code
Result of despreading
(b) Despreading
Figure 2.4-16 Signal Waveform During Spreading and De-spreading
Spreading process adopts mod 2 calculation, which is equivalent to binary exclusiveOR calculation. A chip is the code element obtained after spreading. The term chips/s
defines chip rate. Spread gain is equal to the ratio of code rate and input signal.
According to Nyquist theorem, spectrum bandwidth of pulse signals is inversely
proportional to pulse bandwidth. As Figure 2.4 -16 illustrates, signal pulse band is
wide. The pulse becomes narrower after spreading. The signal spectrum before
spreading must be narrow, and signal spectrum after spreading must be wide.
Generally, CDMA can adopt several successive spread spectrum sequences to spread
signals, and then perform de-spreading in reverse order to restore original data.
2.4.2 CDMA Spreading Code Selection

Spreading code needs discrimination, and is orthogonal. Proper spreading code has the
following features:
1.
Cross-correlation: Only autologous spreading code can de-spread signals. Other

23
spreading codes cannot de-spread signals.

2.
Self-correlation: Autologous delay does not affect de-spreading of signals.
3.
Easy to generate
4.
Randomness
5.
Providing the period as long as possible to prevent interference.
Spreading codes used in CDMA system currently include Walsh code and Pseudorandom Number (PN).
2.4.2.1 Walsh Code
The Walsh code is a quadrature spread spectrum code, which is generated based on the
Walsh function set. The Walsh function is a type of binary quadrature function with the
value between 1 and 1. It supports multiple equivalent definition methods. The most
common method is Handmard numbering method. The Walsh function in IS-95 is such
a definition method.
The Walsh function set is a complete non-sinusoidal quadrature function set, which is
often used as the address code of the user.
The IS-95 standard presents the specific structure table of (r=6, n=2 6=64) 6464 Walsh
functions.
The 2N order Walsh function can be differentiated with the following recursion
formula:
H1=0
H2=00
01
0000
0101
H4
0011
0110
H N H N
H 2N
H N H N
H N H N Where, N is power of 2, and H N indicates the not operation on H N .

Walsh function set features quadrature and normalization. The quadrature refers to the
quadrature in the specified section and the multiplying of two different Walsh functions
with the same order, and the result is 0. The normalization refers to the quadrature in
the specified section and the multiplying of two same Walsh functions, and the average
24
Chapter 7 Antenna
value is +1.
There are multiple methods for generating the Walsh sequence. In general, the
Handmard matrix is used to generate the Walsh sequence. The procedure for using the
Handmard matrix to generate the Walsh sequence is the iterative method.
In asynchronous case, both the self correlation and mutual correlation of the Walsh
function are not ideal, and become worse clearly along with the enlargement of the
synchronous error value.
2.4.2.2 m Sequence (PN Short Code and PN Long Code)
As there are limited Walsh codes, and the Walsh codes cannot provide random signals,
PN provides a large number of spreading codes when needed. PN has similar features
to noise sequence. It is a periodic binary sequence, which seems random but in fact
very regular. The most common PN is the m sequence.
Orthogonality of the m sequence is not as good as that of the Walsh code. It is the
cross-correlation of the m sequences of the same series. Cross-correlation of the m
sequence is greater than 0 resulting in use of Walsh codes instead of the m sequence.
The m sequence generator is an n-level shift register. It has two equivalent constitution
methods:
Simple code sequence generator (SSRG)
Its input is obtained after the mod-2 sum of the output of several levels in the
shift register. It is equivalent to the feedback input. The feedback input includes
at least the last level output.
The polynomial used to express the feedback input is called m sequence
generation polynomial.
f(x)=C0+C1x1+C2x2++ Cn-1xn-1+Cnxn
f(x) indicates the feedback input, x n indicates Level-n output, and C0~Cn
indicates the feedback. Note that the addition in the formula is mod-2 sum, and
the m sequence generator requires C0 and Cn to be 1.
Modular code sequence generator (MSRG)
Each level of output may be the next level of input after mod-2 sum of the last
level output. This m sequence generator structure is called modular code
sequence generator.
25
In actual application, there are some differences between the SSRG and the MSRG:
Because the mod-2 sums of multiple output levels are in serial connection, the
delay of the SSRG is high and the working rate is low.
The mod-2 sum action of the MSRG is concurrent, so its delay is low and the
working rate is high.
In the CDMA (IS-95), the MSRG is used to generate the m sequence.
The quadrature of the m sequence is not as good as the Walsh code. It is
reflected on the mutual correlation feature of the m sequence at the same level.
The correlation of the m sequence is larger than 0. This is the reason why the
Walsh code instead of the m sequence is used.
The m sequence features strong self-correlation. When series is high, the m
sequences of different phases are orthogonal.
The period of m sequence is 2r-1. Here, r stands for the shift register series. The
m sequence quantity relates to the series.
When r is 15, the m sequence is short PN.
When r is 42, the m sequence is long PN.
CDMA systems use two kinds of m sequences:
Short PN, with length of 215-1
Long PN, with length of 242-1
2.4.2.3 Application of the Three Codes in the 1x
The following describes the application of the three codes in the 1x.
The sequence period of the short PN is 215-1. After an all-0 state is inserted, the
formed sequence period is 215. Different forward phases are used to distinguish
different sectors.
The long PN is obtained through the mod-2 sum of output of the pseudo-random
binary sequence generated by a 42-bit shift register and a 42-bit long PN mask.
The long PN mask of each type of channel is different, and the long PN mask is
generated through the 42-bit shift register, with the length of 2 42-1. The different
phase offset of the 42-level long PN is used in the reverse direction to
distinguish users, and is used in the forward direction to implement interference
26
Chapter 7 Antenna
for the channel. For a specific conversation user, the forward and revere offsets
are the same, and are determined by the corresponding masks.
The quadrature feature of the Walsh code is used in the forward direction to
distinguish different channels, and is used in the reverse direction to distinguish
different channels of the same user.
2.4.2.4 Application of the Walsh Code in the EV-DO
The 1xEV-DO system supports multiple users in session activated state simultaneously.
To distinguish different users, the 1x EV-DO system uses 6bit MACIndex as the
identifier of the communication user or the forward channel ID.
The forward channel is distinguished through the Walsh code of their quadrature. Each
Walsh code is in one-to-one mapping relation with the MACIndex.
The mapping relation between the MACIndex of the MAC channel and the Walsh code
is as follows:
W64i/2
i=0,2,...,62
W64 (i-1)/2+32
i=1,3,...,63
MACIndex(i) =
In the formula, i is the value of the MACIndex.

The forward service channel consists of prefix and data. The prefix carries the channel
ID MACIndex. The mapping relation between it and the Walsh code is as follows:
W32i/2
i=0,2,...,62
W32 (i-1)/2+32
i=1,3,...,63
MACIndex(i) =
In the formula, i is the value of the MACIndex.

The control channel is used to transmit broadcast messages or specific terminal
messages, and it shares the same physical channel with the service channel in time
division mode. The terminal judges whether it is a control channel or a service channel
according to the channel ID MACIndex in the channel prefix.
Table 2.4 -3 shows the allocation of the channel ID MACIndex of the 1x EV-DO
forward MAC channel, service channel and control channel.
Table 2.4-3 MACIndex Allocation
MACIndex
Forward Channel
27
0~1
2
Control channel (76.8 kbit/s)
Control channel (38.4 kbit/s)
MAC channel (RA)
5~63
Service channel or MAC channel (RPC/DRC Lock)
The Walsh code in the reverse channel is used as the spread spectrum code. Table 2.4
-4 shows the Walsh codes used by the reverse channel.
Table 2.4-4 Walsh Codes Used by Each Reverse Channel
Walsh Code
Reverse Channel
16
Reverse access channel (pilot)
Reverse access channel (data channel)
16
Reverse service channel (pilot)
16
Reverse service channel (RRI)
W0
W2
W0
W0
16
Reverse service channel (DRC)
Reverse service channel (ACK)
Reverse service channel (data)
W8
W4
W2
2.5 Voice Coding Technology

CDMA system uses the most effective voice coding technology called Qualcomm
Code Excited Linear Predictive coding (QCELP).
QCELP voice coding standard development started in North America for 2G digital
mobile phones. Qualcomm owns the QCELP voice coding algorithm patent in the US.
This algorithm is applicable to both fixed rates 4 Kb/s, 4.8 Kb/s, 8 Kb/s, and 9.6 Kb/s,
and variable rates ranging from 800 Kb/s to 9600 Kb/s. Voice coding technology
lowers mean data rate, and increases the CDMA system capacity by two times
approximately.
2.6 Channel Coding Technology

Mobile communication systems have high channel coding requirements to achieve low
bit error ratio (BER). Key technology used is error control coding, also called errorcorrection coding. Error-correction coding methods include cyclic redundancy check
28
Chapter 7 Antenna
(CRC), convolutional coding, block interleaving, Turbo code, and scrambling.

Different systems adopt different error control coding methods. cdma2000 adopts
CRC, convolutional coding, block interleaving, Turbo code, and scrambling.
2.6.1 Mobile Communication Channel Features

Since radio signals may encounter various interferences during propagation, mobile
channels are the most complicated communication channels. Besides the interferences
encountered in cabled channels, radio signals may come across various obstacles, such
as terrain and buildings, during its propagation, which might induce multipath and
shadow effects on signals and make them disperse, diffract, and fade.
In addition, the weather change might also influence radio signals and make them fade
slowly. It is even worse when the mobile station is moving at a high speed, where
signals may have Doppler frequency shift effect.
All these factors may vary with the mobile stations movement; so mobile
communication channels have the following features:
Multipath propagation
Multipath interference refers to inter-symbol interference at the receiving end,
induced by radio waves arriving at different times from different paths. It may
attenuate the amplitude of transmitted data signals, broaden the waveforms, and
thereby limit data transmission rate.
The multipath in mobile channels is mainly caused by signal reflection on large
buildings. From the perspective of mobile station, it receives the same signal at
different times from different directions, as shown in Figure 2.6 -17.
29
Figure 2.6-17 Radio signal multipath propagation
Multipath significantly disperses the signal power and makes the mobile station
receive only a part of the transmitted signal power. Also, multipath signals
reach the mobile station at different times through different paths, resulting in
different phases. Thus, multipath signals will weaken each other, leading to
serious fading, big S/N drop, and bad receiving effect.
Furthermore, for wideband communication where signal frequency spectrum is
wide, frequency selective fading might also happen. This is mainly because in
different multipath situations, different frequencies may have a variable degree
of fading such that some frequency components are totally cancelled by
multipath effect. The details are shown in Figure 2.6 -18.
Figure 2.6-18 Real selective frequency Rayleigh fading channel
In the figure, the vertical axis indicates the gain in dB, and the horizontal axes
are frequency and time respectively.
We can see there are many valleys, where serious fading happens. The
Rayleigh
fading
means
the
probability
density
function
of
signal
electromagnetic strength complies with Rayleigh probability distribution of

multipath fading. Another major contributor to Rayleigh fading is Doppler
frequency shift effect.
Multipath is unavoidable in mobile communications. Although it seriously
interferes with communications, people can also take advantage of it. For
instance, when a mobile station moves to the back of a large building and enters
the signal shadow area, radio signals can only reach the mobile station by
reflection. People can make use of the reflected waves and/or wound waves to
guarantee voice continuity. The technical measures taken against multipath in
30
Chapter 7 Antenna
GSM and CDMA are time-domain equalization and receive diversity.
Doppler frequency shift

We all have experienced such a situation in our daily life. That is, as a police
car screams towards us, we feel the siren becomes louder and sharper; and as it
disappears, the siren dulls down. This is the frequency change resulted from
Doppler frequency shift.
Doppler frequency shift means multipath effect can change both the amplitude
and frequency structure of transmitted signals, making the phases going up and
down. This can cause the data signal receive errors.
The amount of Doppler frequency shift can be calculated using the following
formula:
Doppler frequency shift = (moving speed/wave length) * COS (angle formed
by incident wave and moving direction)
When people talk on mobile phones while walking slowly, Doppler frequency
shift can be neglected. But when people talk on mobile phones in a speedy car,
the influence of Doppler frequency shift has to be considered.
Signal shadow and transmission loss

Fading refers to the phenomenon that the amplitude of received signals keeps
going up and down at random. The duration of fading is used to distinguish fast
and slow fading.
Fast fading is mostly caused by multipath propagation. It seriously distorts
signals.
Slow fading is induced by various types of atmospheric reflection or obstacles
(such as terrain) in the environment of a moving mobile station.
With frequency increase, the curvature of signal levels varying with time
gradually approaches Rayleigh distribution. Therefore, Raleigh distribution can
be used to estimate the worst situation of fast fading.
2.6.2 Cyclic Redundancy Check

CRC uses cyclic code to check and correct both single random error and burst errors.
In hardware, the cyclic code implementation uses shift register with feedback. Due to
its clear algebraic structure, excellent performance, and simple coding and decoding,
31
cyclic code has become the most common anti-interference method used in data
communication systems. In actual applications, CRC detects errors.
2.6.3 Convolutional Coding

Convolutional coding technology effectively overcomes single data error generated. In
1995, Elias first put forth the convolutional code concept. Coding expressed in
convolutional calculation form is convolutional code.
Convolutional coding is a form of memory coding. It is a system with memory. For an
arbitrary time n outputs coded relate to both k inputs in that duration and m inputs
stored in the coder.
Encoding constraint length l = m + 1. Here m refers to the number of register bytes in
the encoder also called memory length.
Selecting a long encoding constraint length and coding rate for convolutional code
helps achieve good performance. However, increasing encoding constraint length
increases decoding complexity accordingly. A modern super-large integrated circuit can
implement convolutional coding with encoding constraint length of 9. Coding rate
depends on coherent time and channel interleaving length.
2.6.4 Block Interleaving Technology

Block interleaving technology aims to correct burst data errors in series with the
number of errors in each byte de-interleaved at the receiving end fewer than the
number of errors that error-correcting code can correct.
In a parameter-variable channel of land mobile telecommunication, bit errors usually
occur in series because a lasting deep attenuation valley point may affect a cluster of
bits. However, channel coding is valid only on detecting and correcting finite errors
and short error strings.
A method to separate successive bytes in a message enables sending successive bytes
in a message separately. Even though a string of errors occurs during transmission,
only one or several errors appear after restoring the message with a successive byte
string through de-interleaving.
After de-interleaving, error correction decoding corrects received bytes that contain
random errors and restores the original message.
32
Chapter 7 Antenna
Radio channels may experience burst errors. As interleaving technology randomizes

these burst errors, convolutional coding effectively prevents random errors. The
interleave plan blocks interleaving or convolutional interleaving. Cellular system
always adopts block interleaving.
Performance improvement due to interleaving depends on the diversity level and mean
fading interval of channels. Delay requirements of services determine interleaving
length. Voice service delay is shorter than that of data service. It is necessary to match
the interleaving length with different services.
2.6.5 Turbo Code

Implementation of Turbo code coding uses comparatively simple recursive system
convolutional (RSC) code and interleaver. Its decoding is implemented through
iteration and de-interleaving. Turbo code achieves error correction performance close
to the theoretical limit. It features high anti-fading and anti-interference capability.
Turbo code is one of the core systems of 3G mobile communication system.
As Turbo code decoding is very complicated, and decoding delay is very long, Turbo
code is applicable to data services that do not require short delay. For voice services
and data services that require short time delay, convolutional code works best.
2.6.5.1 Turbo Code Encoder
Turbo code encoder comprises two member encoders (RSC 1 and RSC2), a Turbo
interleaver, and a deletor, as shown in Figure 2.6 -19.
Nturbo
information
bit input
Turbo interleaver
RSC2
Figure 2.6-19 Turbo code encoder

33
Symbol deletion and repetition
RSC1
( Nturbo+6) /R
symbol output
1.
Member encoders
Each RSC outputs two check bits. The generator polynomial for RSC is G=[1,
15/13, 17/13]. The designed coding rate R can be 1/2, 1/3 or 1/4. Turbo encoder
takes Nturbo bit inputs, including information data, frame check (CRC), and two
reserved bits, and outputs (N turbo+6)/R symbols, the last 6/R bits of which are
tail bits containing the system bit and check bit. The tail bits are used to zero
out the encoder.
The encoding process starts from RSC 1 at the top of Fig 2.6-3 every time.
Before that, the RSC1 registers are initialized to zero. Then, the switch is turned
upward within the clock cycles from 1 to N turbo. The input data is fed to RSC 1 bit
by bit, and at the same time it is written to the Turbo interleaver. Within the
three clock cycles after Nturbo, the switch is turned downward, and the tail bits
are generated to zero out the RSC1.
RSC2 works the same way as RSC1 does, except that the input for RSC 2 comes
from the Turbo interleaver, and it has to wait until the Turbo interleaver
becomes full before it can start to work. The Turbo interleaver is a storage area,
which has its input data read-in in a normal sequence and its output read-out in
a pre-defined sequence.
Finally, the outputs from these two RSCs, including those corresponding to the
tail bits, are deleted and multiplexed to form an encoded Turbo code. Both of
the RSCs in the cdma2000 Turbo coding are zeroed out at the end of encoding,
but the tail bits do not participate interleaving. This is different from the
classic Turbo code published by C.Berrou.
2.
Interleaver
Turbo interleaver interleaves the input data, frame quality indicator bit (CRC),
and reserved bit. Its function is to sequentially read-in a frame of input bits and
read-out the whole frame of data in a pre-defined address sequence.
The interleaver size is Nturbo, and the input address is numbered from 0 to N turbo1. To define an interleaver is to determine the address numbers of N turbo outputs
for read-out. For example, if Nturbo=5, the input address is [01234]. We need to
define a group of 5 output addresses, for example, [10423]. The process in
which the read-out addresses are generated by a Turbo interleaver in cdma2000
is described as follows:
34
Chapter 7 Antenna
1)
Define interleaver parameter n. n is the minimum integer that satisfies

Nturbo<=2n+5.
2)
Construct an n+5 bit counter and initialize it to 0.
3)
Take out the high-end n bits from this counter, add 1, and then take the low-end
n bits of the sum.
4)
Use the low-end 5 bits of the counter as an index to search for the corresponding
Turbo interleaver parameter.
5)
Multiply the values obtained from step 3 and 4, and take the low-end n bits.
6)
Take the low-end 5 bits of the counter, and get its opposite bit by bit.
7)
Use the outcome of step 6 as high-end 5 bits and that of step 5 as low-end n bits
to form an n+5 bit address.
8)
If this address is valid (<Nturb), it is an output address; otherwise discard it.
9)
Add 1 to the counter, and repeat the operations from step 3 to step 8 until all the
Nturbo interleaver output addresses are obtained.
3.
Delete
The output symbols from the two member encoders must go through deletion
operation to form the final Turbo code block.
2.6.5.2 Turbo Code Decoder

The basic decoder structure is as shown in Figure 2.6 -20. Its main components are
two decoders for soft input/output and two encoder-related interleavers/de-interleavers.
Soft information
Check bit of
2nd encoder
DEC1
Soft information
Deinterleave
Interleave
Soft
information
DEC2
Received
information bit
Interleave
Check bit of 2nd encoder
35
Deinterleave
Decision
output
Figure 2.6-20 Turbo code decoder
The critical part of a Turbo decoder is the member decoders corresponding to the
encoders at the transmitter, that is, DEC1 and DEC2 in Figure 2.6 -20. Seen alone, RSC1
and RSC2 are the encoders directly corresponding to DEC 1 and DEC2 in Figure 2.6 -20.
But these member encoders must be able to output soft information and take input of
prior information. It can be seen from Figure 2.6 -20 that the member decoders have
three inputs. Besides the system bit and check bit inputs that all common decoders
have, there is one more prior information input.
The decoding process is as follows:
1.
Send the soft decision information corresponding to the system bit and check
bit of the first member encoder (RSC 1) to the first decoder unit (DEC 1) for
decoding.
The soft information output from DEC1 can be decomposed into two parts:
internal and external information. The external information is prior to DEC 2,
but sequentially; it must go through de-interleaving process so as to match the
system bit of DEC2.
2.
The second member decoder starts to decode.

Since the RSC2 system bit duplicates that of RSC 1, it is deleted at the
transmitting end. The interleaved system bit of RSC 1 can be sent to DEC2 as its
system bit input. The external information output from DEC1 is used as DEC 2s
prior information input.
The second decoder unit (DEC2) also outputs soft information at the end of
decoding. The external information parsed from it can be sent back to the first
decoder unit for the next round of decoding. The connection between the
rounds of decoding is attained through external information.
3.
The decoding process can be repeated many times. After iterating for a
specified times, make over-zero decision on the soft information to get the final
output.
36
3 Channel Composition and Function

Key Points:
Forward reverse channel of the IS-95 system
Forward reverse channel of the 1x system
Forward reverse channel of the 1xEV-DO
3.1 Introduction
The physical channels of CDMA include forward channels and reverse channels:
Forward channels provide support for communication from BTSs to Mobile
Stations (MSs).
Reverse channels provide support for communication from MSs to BTSs.
3.2 Basic Concepts of Spread Rate and Radio Configuration

The Spread Rate (SR) refers to the PN rate on the forward or reverse CDMA channel.
There are two SRs in the cdma2000 series standards:
SR1: It is marked as 1x usually, and the direct sequence spread spectrum with
chip rate of 1.2288 Mbit/s is adopted for all the single carriers.
SR3: It is marked as 3x usually. There are three carriers on the forward channel,
and the direct sequence spread spectrum with chip rate of 1.2288 Mbit/s is
adopted for each carrier. The reverse channel adopts the direct sequence spread
spectrum with chip rate of 3.6864 Mbit/s on the single carrier.
The radio configuration (RC) is a series of working modes of forward or reverse
channel, which is equal to the set of rate, coding, spread spectrum mode and
modulation mode. Each RC supports a set of data rates, and each set of data rates shall
use different physical channel configuration parameters, such as SR, modulation mode,
forward correction coding mode and sending diversity.
Table 3.2 -5 shows the RC of the forward service channel.
37
Table 3.2-5 Forward Service Channel RC
RC
SR
Maximum
FEC (Forward
Data Rate
Error Correction)
kbit/s
Frame Length
9600
1/2
14400
1/2
153600
1/4
307200
1/2
230400
1/4
307200
1/6
614400
1/3
460800
1036800
Allow TD
FEC Mode
(Transmit
Diversity) or Not
Convolutional
code
Convolutional
code
Convolutional/
Turbo code
Convolutional/
Turbo code
Convolutional/
Turbo code
Convolutional/
Turbo code
Convolutional/
Turbo code
1/4 (20 ms) or 1/3
Convolutional/
(5 ms)
Turbo code
1/2 (20ms) or 1/3
Convolutional/
(5ms)
Turbo code
Modulation
Mode
No
BPSK
No
BPSK
Yes
QPSK
Yes
QPSK
Yes
QPSK
Yes
QPSK
Yes
QPSK
Yes
QPSK
Yes
QPSK
Table 3.2 -6 shows the RC of the reverse service channel.

Table 3.2-6 Reverse Service Channel RC
RC
SR
Maximum
FEC (Forward
Data Rate
Error Correction)
kbit/s
Frame Length
9600
1/2
14400
1/2
153600
(307200)
307200
153600
(614400)
460800
Allow TD
FEC Mode
Diversity) or Not
Convolutional
code
Convolutional
code
Convolutional/
1/4 (1/2)
Turbo code
Convolutional/
1/2
Turbo code
Convolutional/
1/4 (1/3)
Turbo code
1/6 (1/2)
38
(Transmit
Convolutional/
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Modulation
Mode
64-order
quadrature
64-order
quadrature
QPSK + 1
pilot
QPSK + 1
pilot
QPSK + 1
pilot
QPSK + 1
Chapter 7 Antenna
RC
SR
Maximum
FEC (Forward
Data Rate
Error Correction)
kbit/s
Frame Length
(1036800)
Allow TD
FEC Mode
(Transmit
Modulation
Mode
Diversity) or Not
Turbo code
pilot
3.3 Forward and Reverse Channels of the 1x System

3.3.1 Forward Channels
3.3.1.1 Channel Types and Functions
Figure 3.3 -21 illustrates cdma2000 1x system forward channels.
Figure 3.3-21 cdma2000 1x Forward Channels
Table 3.3 -7 describes functions and features of forward channels in the cdma2000 1x
system.
Table 3.3-7 Functions and Features of cdma2000 1x Forward Channels
Channel
Function
Broadcasts frequency and phase information of the base
Forward Pilot Channel (F-PICH)
station, helping terminals to perform coherent demodulation
Forward Synchronization Channel
Broadcasts
synchronization
(F-SYNC)
parameters of the base station.
information
and
system
Broadcasts paging terminal information and system

Forward Paging Channel (F-PCH)
parameters of the base station, and transfers commands

issued by the base station.
Forward Traffic Channel (F-TCH)

Forward
Common
Assignment
Channel (F-CACH)
Transmits voice and data services.

Transmits assignment information for rapid response of
reverse channel and supports random access packet
transmission on reverse links.
Forward Common Power Control
Controls R-CCCH power when working in the power
Channel (F-CPCCH)
controlled access mode. Controls R-CCCH transmission

39
Channel
Function
power when working in reservation access mode.
Sends messages (paging message, response, channel
Forward Common Control Channel

Forward
Broadcast
assignment message, and short data burst) to designated MS.
Control
Sends common overhead message and short messages to the
Channel (F-BCCH)
system.
Base station uses this channel to indicate the timeslot where
Forward Quick Paging Channel (F-
the MS receives the control message of the F-PCH or F-
QPCH)
CCCH quickly. The MS need not take time to monitor the FPCH or F-CCCH timeslot. It helps save MS power.
3.3.1.2 Channel Encoding and Modulation

The encoding processes for cdma2000 1x air interface logic channels are
different from each other. The IS-95 channel encoding technique is still used for
the following forward channels: pilot, synchronization, and paging, and the
traffic channels with RC1. The encoding process for other logic channels is as
shown in Figure 3.3 -22.
F- QPCH
F- BCCH
F- CACH/ F- CCCH
F- FCH/ F- SCH
F- DCCH
Convolution
Convolution
Convolution
Convolution
Interleave
Interleave
Interleave
Code
repetition
Code
repetition
Interleave
Scrambling
Code
repetition
Scrambling
Power
control
Multiplex
Scrambling
Power
control
Multiplex
Scrambling
Figure 3.3-22 cdma2000 1x forward channel encoding process
1.
F-QPCH
The F-QPCH encoding process is rather simple. It does not involve
40
Chapter 7 Antenna
convolutional coding and interleaving. Symbol repetition turns the signals into
28800 bit/s, and then spread. The first F-QPCH is spread with W 80128. If there is
a second F-QPCH, it will be spread with W48128. If there is still a third F-QPCH,
it will be spread with
112
128
. The Walsh code bit rate is 1.2288 M bit/s. It is the
same for all the following channels and will not be explained hereinafter.
2.
F-BCCH
The encoding process for F-BCCH is as shown in Figure 3.3 -22.
1)
Convolution: The information on F-BCCH is convolutional coded (rate=1/2,

restraint length=9) and becomes 4800 bit/s, 9600 bit/s or 1920 bit/s signals.
2)
Interleave: The interleaving method is changed from IS-95 column access into
sequential array read-in, and the output is read-out in a sequence calculated from
a specified formula. The data is interleaved in groups of 1536 bits.
3)
Symbol repetition: After symbol repetition, the signals become 38400 bit/s.
4)
Scramble: The scrambling method is the same as paging channel.

The F-BCCH uses the following long code mask format:
41 ------ 29 28 ------ 24 23 ------ 21 20 ------ 9 8 ------ 0
1100011001101
01100
BCN
000000000000
PILOT-PN
Where, BCN stands for the channel number of F-BCCH. The system can
support a maximum of 8 F-BCCHs.
F-BCCH can only use the Walsh codes in rank 128.
3.
F-CACH
The encoding process for F-CACH is as shown in Figure 3.3 -22.
1)
Convolution: The information transmitted on F-CACH is convolutional coded

(rate=1/2, constraint length=9), and becomes 19200 bit/s signals.
2)
Interleave: The data is interleaved in groups of 96 bits with the method changed
from IS-95 column access into sequential array read-in. The output is read out in
a sequence calculated from a specified formula.
3)
Scramble: The scrambling method is the same as IS-95 paging channel. The FCACH uses the following long code mask format:
41 ------ 29 28 ------ 24 23 ------ 21 20 ------ 9 8 ------ 0
41
1100011001101
01100
CACN
000000000000
PILOT-PN
Where, CACN stands for the channel number of F-CACH. The system can
support a maximum of 7 F-CACHs.
F-CACH can only use the Walsh codes in rank 128.
4.
F-CCCH
The F-CCCH encoding process is as shown in Fig 4.4-1.
1)
Convolution: The information transmitted on F-CCCH is convolutional coded

(rate=1/4, constraint length=9).
2)
Interleave: Since the information on F-CCCH is transmitted at multiple rates:

9600 bit/s, 19200 bit/s or 38400 bit/s, the frame length varies, and so does the
length of data block for interleaving process. For example, for a F-CCCH frame
with a frame length of 20 ms and a rate of 9600 bit/s, the length of data block for
interleaving is 384 bits. The discussion on other cases will be omitted.
3)
Scramble: The scrambling method is the same as paging channel.

The F-CCCH uses the following long code mask format:
41 ------ 29 28 ------ 24 23 ------ 21 20 ------ 9 8 ------ 0
1100011001101
01100
000
000000000000
000000000
The F-CCCH can only use the Walsh codes in rank 128.
5.
F-DCCH
The encoding process for F-DCCH is as shown in Fig 4.4-1.
1)
Convolution: The F-DCCH is convolutional coded (rate=1/4, constraint

length=9), and becomes 38400 bit/s signals.
2)
Interleave: The length of data block for interleaving is 192 or 768 bits.
3)
Scramble: The scrambling method is the same as IS-95 forward traffic channels.
Similar to IS-95 reverse traffic channels; the F-DCCH uses the following long
code mask format for spreading:
41
------
32 31
1100011001101
------
0
Reorganized ESN
Similar to IS-95 forward traffic channels, the DCCH contains a power control
42
Chapter 7 Antenna
bit. The DCCH can only use the Walsh codes in rank 128.
6.
F-FCH
The encoding process for F-FCH is as shown in Fig 4.4-1.
1)
Convolution: The F-FCH is convolutional coded (rate=1/4, restraint length=9).
2)
Symbol repetition:
3)
Interleave: The length of data block for interleaving varies with the fame length.
4)
Scramble: The scrambling method is the same as IS-95 forward traffic channels.
The long code mask format is the same as F-DCCH.
Similar to IS-95 forward traffic channels, F-FCH contains a power control bit.
7.
F-SCH
The encoding process for F-SCH is as shown in Fig 4.4-1
1)
Convolution: The F-SCH frame is convolutional coded (rate=1/4, restraint

length=9) or Turbo coded (frame content at least 360 bits) and becomes 38400
bit/s signals.
2)
Interleave: The length of data block for interleaving varies with the fame
length.
3)
Scramble: The scrambling method is the same as IS-95 forward traffic

channels. The long code mask format is the same as F-DCCH.
Similar to IS-95 forward traffic channels, F-SCH contains a power control bit.
All the forward channels use the same modulation method, the process of which is as
shown in Figure 3.3 -23.
Parallel
conversion
YI
YQ
Figure 3.3-23 cdma2000 1x forward channel modulation process
3.3.2 Reverse Channels

Figure 3.3 -24 illustrates cdma2000 1x system reverse channels.
43
Figure 3.3-24 cdma2000 1x Reverse Channels
Table 3.3 -8 describes functions and features of reverse channels in cdma2000 1x

system.
Table 3.3-8 Functions and Features of cdma2000 1x Reverse Channels
Channel
Function
Through R-ACH, MS originates communication with base
Reverse Access Channel (R-ACH)
station and responds to paging channel messages from the

base station.
Reverse traffic channel (R-TCH
During call processing, MS sends user information and
RC1 - RC2)
signaling messages through R-TCHs to the base station.
Reverse Enhanced Access Channel

(R-EACH)
Reverse Common Control Channel
(R-CCCH)
Prior to establishing traffic channel, MS sends control

messages to the base station through R-EACH. It improves
the MS access capability.
Prior to establishing traffic channel, MS sends control
messages and short data bursts to the base station through
R-CCCH.
Reverse Traffic Channel (R-TCH
During call proceeding, MS sends user information and
RC3 - RC6)
signaling messages through R-TCHs to the base station.

In reverse channels, the access channel and the traffic channel for RC1 still use the
same encoding method as IS-95 channel. The encoding processes for other channels
are as shown in Figure 3.3 -25. All of them contain convolution coding, symbol
repetition, interleaving, and spreading. The significant difference from IS-95 lies in
that, like the base station, the mobile station also uses Walsh code to distinguish the
channels and therefore removes the orthogonal modulation process.
44
Chapter 7 Antenna
R-EACH/R-CCCH/R-DCCH/R-FCH/R-SCH
Convolution
Code
repetition
Interleave
Frequency
spread
Figure 3.3-25 cdma2000 1x reverse channel encoding process
1.
R-CCCH
Figure 3.3 -25 describes the encoding process for R-CCCH channel.
1)
Convolution: The R-CCCH frame is convolutional coded (rate=1/4, restraint

length=9).
2)
Symbol repetition: Due to the variable frame length on R-CCCH, all the data
rates after symbol repetition are turned into 38400 bit/s.
3)
Interleave: The block length for interleaving varies with the frame length. For
example, for a 20 ms, 9600 bit/s R-CCCH frame, the interleave block length is
3072 bits.
R-CCCH uses the following long code mask format for spreading:
41 ------ 33 32 ------ 28 27 ------ 25 24 ------ 9 8 ------ 0
110001110
RCCCN
FCCCN
BASE-ID
PILOT-PN
Here, RCCCN represents the reverse common control channel number; FCCCN
represents the forward common control channel number; BASE-ID represents
the base station number; and PILOT-PN represents pilot PN sequence offset
factor. The RCCCN corresponds to the FCCCN. One FCCCN can support up to
32 RCCCNs.
2.
R-EACH
Figure 3.3 -25 describes the encoding process for R-EACH channel.
45
1)
Convolution: The R-EACH frame is convolutional coded (rate=1/4, restraint

length=9).
2)
Symbol repetition: Due to variable R-EACH frame length, all the data rates after
symbol repetition are turned into 38400 bit/s.
3)
Interleave: The block length for interleaving varies with the frame length. For
example, for 20 ms, 9600 bit/s R-EACH frame, the interleave block length is
3072 bits.
R-EACH uses the following long code mask format for spreading:
41 ------ 33 32 ------ 28 27 ------ 25 24 ------ 9 8 ------ 0
110001101
EACN
FCCCN
BASE-ID
PILOT-PN
Here, EACN represents the R-EACH number; FCCCN represents the forward
common control channel number; BASE-ID represents the base station number;
PILOT-PN represents pilot PN sequence offset factor.
3.
R-DCCH
Figure 3.3 -25 describes the encoding process for R-DCCH channel.
1)
Convolution: The R-DCCH frame is convolutional coded (rate=1/4, restraint

length=9).
2)
Symbol repetition: The data rate after symbol repetition is 768000 bit/s.
3)
Interleave: The block length for interleaving varies with the frame length. For a
5 ms R-DCCH frame, the block length is 384 bits. For a 20 ms R-DCCH frame,
the block length is 1536 bits.
The R-DCCH uses the following long code mask format for spreading, which is
the same as IS-95 reverse traffic channels:
41
------
32 31
1100011000
4.
------
0
Reorganized ESN
R-FCH
Figure 3.3 -25 describes the encoding process for R-FCH channel.
1)
Convolution: The information on R-FCH is convolutional coded (rate=1/4,

restraint length=9) or Turbo coded.
2)
Symbol repetition:
46
Chapter 7 Antenna
3)
Interleave: The block length for interleaving varies with the frame length.
The R-FCH uses the following long code mask format for spreading, which is
the same as IS-95 reverse traffic channels:
41
------
32 31
1100011000
5.
------
0
Reorganized ESN
R-SCH
Figure 3.3 -25 describes the encoding process for R-SCH channel.
1)
Convolution: The information on R-SCH is convolutional coded (rate=1/4,

restraint length=9) or Turbo coded.
2)
Symbol repetition:
3)
Interleave: The block length for interleaving varies with the frame length.
cdma2000 1x uses a hybrid modulation method that combines BIT/SK and QPSK.
The advantages of HPSK (Hybrid Phase Shift Keying) are as following:
Lower the peak-to-average ratio of waveforms (that is, peak factor) in the
reverse link transmitted by mobile stations.
Lower the performance requirement for power amplifiers in mobile stations, and
make it simple and low-cost, and capable of effectively utilizing the battery
power.
Reduce the out-of-band radiation at CDMA signal margins: 4 dB.
3.4 Forward and Reverse Channels of the 1xEV-DO System

3.4.1 Forward Channels
Figure 3.4 -26 illustrates the cdma2000 1x EV-DO system forward channels.
47
Figure 3.4-26 cdma2000 1x EV-DO Forward Channels
Table 3.4 -9 describes the functions and features of cdma2000 1x EV-DO system
forward channels.
Table 3.4-9 Functions and Features of cdma2000 1x EV-DO Forward Channels
Channel
Function
Transmits pilot signals from AN to AT. The pilot signals carry
Pilot Channel (Pilot)
out system capture, clock synchronization, demodulation,

decoding, and C/I estimation.
Reverse Activity (RA) channel dynamically controls the
reverse channel load.
Forward Medium Access Control

Channel (Medium Access Control)
Inability of AN to receive DRC information from ATs results in

DRC Lock channel notifying specific ATs to stop sending DRC
information to the AN.
Reverse Power Control (RPC) channel performs AT power
control that sends data on the reverse channel.
Forward Traffic Channel (Traffic)
AN sends user data on traffic channels.

Control channel sends broadcast system common configuration
Forward
(Control)
Control
Channel
parameter messages from AN to AT. Non-activation of traffic

channels results in Control channel sending signaling messages
to the specific AT.
48
Chapter 7 Antenna

In comparison with 1x, the modulation mode was improved significantly in 1x EV-DO
in order to reach a high data throughput. Two efficient modulation modes (8-PSK and
16QAM) were introduced into AN side.
1.
8-PSK is an extension of QPSK. In 8-PSK modulation mode, eight different

carrier frequency phases correspond to eight different binary codes (000, 001,
010, 011, 100, 101, 110 and 111). The usage of band is improved as each
modulation signal is corresponding to a 3bit-data.
2.
16-QAM is another extension of QPSK. It uses two different amplitudes. Each

signal is corresponding to a 4bit-data. In other words, 16-QAM is a
combination of ASK and PSK.
1x EV-DO adopts QPSK,
8-PSK and 16-QAM as its modulation modes. Its
encoding technologies include interleaving, insertion, repetition and symbolmultiplexing. In addition, quadrature spread and Base Band filtering technologies were
also introduced into 1x EV-DO.
1.
Pilot Channel
Pilot signal is a unmodulated BIT/SK signal (Walsh code is 0).
2.
Forward control channel

The forward control channel and the forward traffic channel with same data rate
use the same modulation mode.
The transmission of forward control channel is different from that of the forward
traffic channel. It has a leading code which contains an MAC Index 2
(76.8kbits/s) or an MAC index 3 (38.4kbit/s) bi-orthogonal sequence.
It transmits every 400ms with duration of 13.33ms (76.8kbit/s) or 26.66ms
(38.4kbit/s). A circle period of the forward control channel is defined as 240
time slots which is synchronized with 1x EV-DO.
3.
Forward MAC Channel

The forward MAC channel is comprised of quandrature Walsh channels. It is
modulated (Inphase or Quandrature Phase) by BIT/SK at particular carrier
frequency.
Each Walsh is identified by a MAC Index value (0~63). This value determines a
49
unique 64bit Walsh cover and a unique modulation phase. If the value is an even
number, MAC channel is assigned to the in-phases, otherwise, assigned to
quadrature phases.
The relationship between MAC channel and MACIndex is shown in Table 3.4
-10.
Table 3.4-10 The MAC channel and MACIndex
MACIndex
The usage of MAC
The usage of leading
channel\
code
0 and 1
Not used
Not used
Not usde
76.8
kbit/s
control
kbit/s
control
channel
3
Not used
38.4
channel
RA channel
5~63
Not used
Available to the RPC
Available to the forward
channel and DRCLock
traffic channel for transfer
channel for transfer
RA channel adopts Walsh464 band spread technology and performs modulation

in BIT/SK mode at I channel. PRC channel and DRC locking channel take up
MAC channel in a time-sharing manner. Messages coming from different
terminals are identified by 64-level Walsh codes. These codes are used in
modulation by means of BIT/SK in I channels or Q channels. One AN is able
to provide 60 Walsh codes. In other words, one AN can serve up to 60 users
simultaneously.
4.
Forward traffic channel

The forward traffic channel (and control channels) needs some encoding
procedures such as Turbo encoding and interleaving. According to different data
transfer rate, the forward traffic channels firstly carry out QPSK, 8-PSK or 16QAM modulations. The modulated code elements are divided into 16 concurrent
data flows and each flow is identified by different 16-level Walsh code. These
16 concurrent data flows are modulated again after integration.
A symbol which is corresponding to a data packet will take up 1~16 time slots
when the modulated symbols are being mapped to channels. It depends on the
data rate and the number of bits a data packet contains. The leading codes (all
50
Chapter 7 Antenna
zeros) section must be added before mapping. The length of this section depends
on the data rate and the number of time slots of a data packet. The leading
sections of different user data and control data with different rates are identified
by 64-level Walsh codes.
The modulation parameters of forward traffic channels at different data rate are
indicated in Table 3.4 -11.In this table, the number of bits, modulation symbols,
as well as leading codes share a C data unit data packet.
Table 3.4-11 The modulation parameters of 1x EV-DO forward traffic channel
Rate( kbit/s)
Number
Number
of time-
of bit
Turbo code
Modulation
Modulation
Leading
mode
symbol
code
slot
38.4
16
1024
1:5
QPSK
2560
1024
76.8
1024
1:5
QPSK
2560
512
153.6
1024
1:5
QPSK
2560
256
307.2
1024
1:5
QPSK
2560
128
614.4
1024
1:3
QPSK
1536
64
307.2
2048
1:3
QPSK
3072
128
614.4
2048
1:3
QPSK
3072
64
1228.8
2048
1:3
QPSK
3072
64
921.6
3072
1:3
8-QPSK
3072
64
1843.2
3072
1:3
8-QPSK
3072
64
1228.8
4096
1:3
16-QAM
3072
64
2457.6
4096
1:3
16-QAM
3072
64
3.4.2 Reverse Channels

Figure 3.4 -27 illustrates cdma2000 1x EV-DO system reverse channels.
51
Figure 3.4-27 cdma2000 1x EV-DO Reverse Channels
Table 3.4 -12 describes the functions and features of cdma2000 1x EV-DO system
reverse channels.
Table 3.4-12 Functions and Features of cdma2000 1x EV-DO Reverse Channels
Channel
Reverse
access
channels
Function
Includes reverse pilot channel and data channel, through which ATs originate
calls or respond to AN paging message.
The pilot channel enables coherent demodulation.
RRI sub-channel indicates the rate of data transmitted on the data
Medium
channel of reverse traffic channel.
Access
AT uses DRC sub-channel to indicate forward traffic channel data
Reverse traffic
Channel
rate requested and the service sector selected by the forward
channels
(MAC)
channel. DRC channel carries two kinds of information: DRC Value

and DRC Cover.
AT uses ACK channel to notify AN correct reception of forward traffic channel

data packets. If incorrectly demodulated, AT sends the NAK bit.
Data channel transfers reverse service data packets.

1.
Reverse access channel

52
Chapter 7 Antenna
The reverse access channel encoding is shown in Figure 3.4 -28.
Figure 3.4-28 1x EV-DO reverse access channel encoding processes
(1) Pilot channel

The data in pilot channels are all zero. Encoding is not required as the spread
spectrum is performed straightforward by W016.
53
(2) Data channel

The data rate in data channels is 9.6kbit/s. Each frame contains 256 bits. It is
called an access channel packet. This packet is converted into a 38400bit/s
signal by performing 1/4 Turbo encoding and then interleaved. The data unit is
1024bit when interleaving. After completing 8 times code element repetitions on
the interleaved data, the W24 band spread is carried out.
2.
Reverse traffic channel

The reverse traffic channel encoding processes is shown in Figure 3.4 -29 and
Figure 3.4 -30.
Figure 3.4-29 Reverse traffic channel encoding processes (first half)
54
Chapter 7 Antenna
Figure 3.4-30 Reverse traffic channel encoding processes (second half)
Pilot channels, DRC channels and ACK channels all use Walsh functions (4, 8 or
16 in length) to implement quadrature band spread.
Aiming at different reverse channels, further explanations to the encoding
processes is given as follows:
1)
Pilot channel
55
Figure 3.4-31 The TDM assignment of Pilot channel and RRI channel
AT transmits un-modulated symbols. The values in the pilot channels are 0

(binary).
The transmissions of pilot channel and RRI channels is multiplexed (TDM)
on the Walsh W016 channel.
The emission power of pilot channel and PRI channel is the same.
2)
DRC channel
The forward traffic channel data transfer rate in DRC channel is in line with a
4-bit value which is defined by forward traffic channel MAC protocol.
DRC channel uses 8-level Walsh function to perform band spread.
The data rate of transferring DRC value is 600/DRCLength per second. The
DRCLength is the public data in forward traffic channel MAC protocol.
3)
RRI channel
The signal transmitted by AT is presented by a 3-bit RRI symbol (Physical
Layer pack a 3-bit symbol every 16 time-slots)
Each RRI symbol is converted into a 7-bit code word by a single encoder.
After this conversion, each code word repeats 37 times and the last 3 symbols
will be omitted. The acquired 256 binary symbols of each Physical Layer
packet and the pilot channels symbols are multiplexed (TDM). This is the
same as the period of the corresponding Physical Layer packet.
Table 3.4-13 RRI symbol and single encoder assignment

56
Chapter 7 Antenna
Data rate(kbit/s)
RRI symbol
RRI code word
000
0000000
9.6
001
1010101
19.2
010
0110011
38.4
011
1100110
76.8
100
0001111
153.6
101
1011010
Reserved
110
0111100
Reserved
111
1101001
The TDM pilot and RRI channel sequence use W 016 to fulfill band spread. It
generates 256 RRI code snippets every time-slot.
AT will transfer RRI code words on RRI channels at 0 data rate when
Physical Layer packets are not transferred on reverse channels.
The pilot channels and RRI channels perform transfer on I channels.
4)
ACK channel
Each forward traffic channels time-slot is related to the detected leading
codes that are sent to AT. AT will generate an ACK channel bit as the
acknowledgement to each forward traffic channels time-slot. Otherwise, the
ACK channels are closed.
ACK channels will generate a 0 bit if a forward traffic channels physical
layer packet is received successfully. Otherwise a 1 bit (NAK) will be
generated.
The time-slots in the head half of W48 channel are used when transferring
ACK channel bits.
BIT/SK is used to the ACK channels modulation.
5)
Data channel
AT is able to transfer data at 9.6kbit/s, 19.2k/bits, 38.4kbit/s. 76.8kbit/s and
153.6kbit/s on the data channels of reverse traffic channels. The data transfer
rates comply with the MAC protocol in reverse traffic channels.
The packed length is fixed at 26.67ms in order to achieve better time
diversity.
Turbo decoding uses concurrent connection codes (code rate = 1/2 or 1/4).
57
The performance is closed to the capacity.

Reverse channels interleaving and repetition are implemented to take the
advantages of time diversity.
Data transfer only starts from a particular time-slot to randomize user signals.
Frame Offset is the common data in reverse traffic channels. All the data
transferred on reverse traffic channels are encoded, code-block interleaved,
sequences repeated and as well as to use W24 function to realize quadrature
band spread.
58
4 Key CDMA Technologies

Key points
Soft Handoff principles
Power control principles
diversity technologies
4.1 Uniform Frequency Reuse

Figure 4.1 -32 illustrates traditional frequency reuse in FDMA and TDMA modes.
f2
f7
f3
f1
f4
f6
f2
f7
f5
f3
f1
f4
f6
f5
Figure 4.1-32 Frequency Reuse in FDMA and TDMA
As Figure 4.1 -32 illustrates, the traditional way is to divide the band allocated by
radio management department into seven sub-bands (f1, f2, f3, f4, f5, f6, and f7). A
hexagon represents a cell. Adjacent cells use different frequencies.
Frequency reuse theory states that transmitted power attenuation of microwave on
ground is about 4th power of distance. The transmission loss of radio signals is high and
happens very fast. After signal transmitted at a certain power, travels some distance, it
ceases to interfere with the same frequencies beyond that distance.
As Figure 4.1 -33 illustrates, CDMA adopts traditional cellular coverage. However,
59
each cell uses the same frequency (or carrier).
f1
f1
f1
f1
f1
f1
f1
f1
f1
f1
f1
f1
f1
f1
Figure 4.1-33 CDMA Frequency Reuse
In cdma2000 1x systems, each bandwidth carrier is 1.25 MHz. All users in different
cells use the same carrier to communicate. Since users use the same frequency, each
user signal tends to interfere with the others. The system uses short PN code, 2 15-1 long
to distinguish cells, Walsh code to distinguish channels, and long PN code, 2 42-1 long
to distinguish channels from different terminals.
Due to the unified frequency reuse, signals of different users interfere with each other.
Energy (power) determines location of user channel resources. Power decrease
suppresses interference and increases capacity that makes power control very important
to a CDMA system.
4.2 Power Control

A unified frequency reuse requires effective user power control. Power control enables
each user to receive and send information using minimum power. It suppresses user
interference and reduces MS recharge time.
If all MSs in a cell transmit signals at the same power, signals from MS near the BTS
are strong, and those MSs far from the BTS are weak. As a result, the strong signals
override the weak ones. In a CDMA system, stronger the power of signals transmitted
by MS, easier it is for the MS to receive signals. However, the MS also interferes
60
Chapter 7 Antenna
strongly with other MSs in the same band. Sometimes useful signals may deteriorate.
As a result, the communication quality of other users deteriorates, lowering system
capacity. To overcome this problem, adjustment of transmitter power on a real-time
basis according to the communication distance becomes necessary. This is the concept
behind power control.
4.2.1 1x Power Control Principle and Implementation Mode

4.2.1.1 Reverse Power Control
The reverse power control includes three parts: Reverse open loop power control,
reverse closed loop power control and reverse out loop power control.
1.
Reverse open loop power control

Each MS of the CDMA system calculates the loss of the path from it to the BTS
all the times. If an MS receives strong signals from the BTS, it indicates that
either the MS is very close to the BTS, or the transmission path is extremely
excellent. In this case, the MS can lower its transmitting power and the BTS
can still properly receive the signals. On the contrary, if an MS receives weak
signals from the BTS, the MS can increase its transmitting power to
compensate the loss. This process is called open loop power control.
Reverse open loop power control is simple and direct, without needing
exchange of control information between the MS and BTS. In addition, it
features a higher control speed and needs few overheads.
However, in the CDMA system, forward transmission and reverse transmission
use different frequencies (with a frequency difference of 45 MHz as specified
by the IS-95). The frequency difference is far above the coherent bandwidth of
the channel. Therefore, it cannot be assumed that the attenuation feature of the
forward channel is equal to that of the reverse channel. This is the limitation of
the reverse open loop power control.
The reverse open loop power control is completed through the reverse open
loop power control algorithm. The control is implemented through the constant
which is the sum of the forward receiving power and reverse transmitting
power of the MS. The specific implementation involves the key technical
design such as open loop response time control, open loop power evaluation
correction factor.
61
The following focuses on the principle of the open loop power control of each
reverse channel in the 1x system.
For different reverse channels, the offset values for calculating the output power of the
open loop control are different. Table 4.2 -14 shows the Offset_power values in the
reverse channel in the 1x system.
Table 4.2-14 Offset_power Value in Open Loop Power Control
Band Class
Forward
Reverse
Spreading
Spreading
Rate
Rate
Offset
Reverse Channels
Power3
Access Channel Reverse Traffic Channel

(RC=1, 2)
1
Enhanced
Access
Channel
Reverse
Common Control Channel Reverse Traffic
0, 2, 3, 5,
-73
-81.5
Channel (RC=3, 4)
7, 9
1
3
Reverse Traffic Channel (RC=3, 4)

Enhanced
Access
Channel
-76.5
Reverse
-76.5
Channel (RC=5, 6)
Access Channel Reverse Traffic Channel
(RC=1, 2)
1
Enhanced
Access
Channel
-76
Reverse
-84.5
Channel (RC=3, 4)
1, 4, 6, 8
1
3
Reverse Traffic Channel (RC=3, 4)

Enhanced
Access
Channel
-79.5
Reverse
-79.5
Channel (RC=5, 6)
1)
Open loop control of access channel

Before establishing the reverse service channel, the AT first sends the random
access trial sequence to connect the AN. The initial transmitting power of the
access channel is as follows:
mean output power (dBm)=
-mean input power (dBm)
+offset power (see Table 4.2 -14)
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Chapter 7 Antenna
+interference correction
+NOM_PWRs-16NOM_PWR_EXTs
+INIT_PWRs
+PWR_LVLPWR_STEPs
Where, interference correction = min (max (-7-Ec/Io,0),7), as shown in Figure
4.2 -34. This parameter is a factor for correcting the interference according to
the strength of the pilot frequency at the receiving point. This correction factor
is introduced earlier in the IS95B. Obviously, the lower the signal noise ratio,
the larger the correction factor. The access success ratio in this environment is
higher.
Interference Correction
7
-14
-7
EcIo
Figure 4.2-34 Interference Correction Factor of the Open Loop Power Control of the Access Channel
Varies with the Receiving Pilot Strength
NOM_PWRs and INIT_PWRs have the same meanings as in IS95A.

NOM_PWRs are used to offset the difference between the forward and reverse
links, and INIT_PWRs are used for increasing the access completion ratio.
When it works at bands 0, 2, 3, 5, 7 and 9, NOM_PWR_EXTs=0. When it
works at bands 1, 4, 6 and 8, NOM_PWR_EXTs=1.
PWR_LVL and PWR_STEPs indicate the number of trial access and each
access trial increase power.
These parameters can be obtained from the access parameter message of the
paging channel. This message has the same structure as in the IS95 system.
2)
Open loop power control of reverse service channels (RC1, RC2)

When the reverse service channel adopts RC1 and RC2, the initial transmitting
power is as follows:
63

+ACC_CORRECTIONS
+RLGAIN_ADJs
Where,
Interference
Correction
MIN(MAX(-7
ECIO,
0),
7),
ACC_CORRECTIONS is the accumulated value of the power adjustment

before entering the service channel.
Upon receiving the first power control bit, the mean output power is:
+offset power(see Table 4.2 -14)
+ACC_CORRECTIONS
+RLGAIN_ADJs
+the sum of all closed loop power control corrections (dB)
+10log10 (1+NUM_RSCCH)(dB)
Where, NUM_RSCCH is the number of transmitting Reverse Supplemental
Code Channel, ranging from 0 to 7. Upon receiving the first power control bit,
the MS will not update the interference correction factor.
The parameter RLGAIN_ADJ is the adjusted value of the transmitting power of
the traffic channel relative to the access channel or enhanced access channel. It
is sent to the MS through the extension channel assignment message on the
PCH.
3)
Open loop power control of reverse service channel (RC3, RC4)

If the reverse service channel is RC3 or RC4, the transmitting power of the
initial reverse pilot channel is:
mean pilot channel output power (dBm)=
64
Chapter 7 Antenna

+offset power see Table 4.2 -14)
+ACC_CORRECTIONS
+RLGAIN_ADJs
Where, Interference Correction = MIN (MAX (IC_THRESHs - ECIO, 0), 7).
Figure 4.2 -35 shows the waveform.
Interference Correction
7
IC_THRES
EcIo
IC_THRES
Figure 4.2-35 Power Control Interference Correction Factor of Traffic Channel Rc3 and Rc4 Varies
with Receiving Pilot Strength
Similarly, the ACC_CORRECTIONS is the accumulated value of the power

adjustment before entering the service channel. In the 1x stage, the enhanced
access channel and reverse public control channel are not implemented. Set
ACC_CORRECTIONS
to
NOM_PWRs
16NOM_PWR_EXTs
INIT_PWRs + PWR_LVL* PWR_STEPs.

After an efficient power control bit is accessed, the average output power is as
follows:
mean pilot channel output power (dBm)=
+ACC_CORRECTIONS
+RLGAIN_ADJs
65
+the sum of all closed loop power control corrections

The MS keep updating the interference correction factor.
Where, the IC_THRES is the threshold value level for starting to use the
interference correction which is a negative value. The enhanced access
parameter message of this parameter on the forward BCCH is sent to the MS. In
the 1X stage, the BCCH is not supported, so the IC_THRES cannot be
modified, but the protocol stipulates that it will be set to -7 each time a
parameter message is received.
2.
Reverse closed loop power control

Also known as reverse inner loop power control, the reverse closed loop power
control is a mechanism where the BTS detects the signal power or SNR from
the MS, compare the measured results with the predefined standard values to
create the power adjustment instructions, and notify the MS to adjust its
transmitting power through the forward power control sub-channel.
When the MS works in the non-threshold mode, the BS sends a power control
bit to the MS through the forward power control sub-channel at the rate of 800
bit/s (reverse pilot channel threshold=1).
When the MS works in the threshold mode, the BS sends a power control bit to
the MS through the forward power control sub-channel at a rate of 400 bit/s
(reverse pilot channel threshold=1/2) or 200 bit/s (reverse pilot channel
threshold=1/4).
Figure 4.2 -36 shows the time slot mode in various threshold modes of the
forward power control sub-channel.
66
Chapter 7 Antenna
Figure 4.2-36 Time Slot Mode of the Forward Power Control Sub-channel in Various Threshold Modes
The Power Control Groups (PCG) in a 20ms frame is numbered from 0 to 15.
When the MS works in the 1/2 reverse pilot channel threshold mode, the
forward power control sub-channel sends the power control bits only at the
PCGs with even numbers. When the MS works in the 1/4 reverse pilot channel
threshold mode, the forward power control sub-channel sends power control
bits only at the 1st, 5th, 9th and 13th PCGs.
When the wireless configuration is RC3~RC6, and the MS uses the threshold
mode, the BS starts to send power control bit in the PCG within T ms after the
transmitting of the MS ends. T= (REV_PWR_CNTL_DELAY+ 1) 1.25.
The bit "0" indicates the MS to increase the average output power. The bit "1"
indicates the MS to reduce the average output power.
3.
Reverse closed loop power control response in unlocked state

Because the reverse data burst randomization (DBR) exists, the power control
67
bits corresponding to the PCGs without transmission power will be ignored.

When all Fingers of the receiver of the BS are in unlocked state, to control the
power of the MS, that is, to maintain a certain proportion of rising/falling
power control bits for all frame rates, the function of the DBR should be offset.
The reverse closed loop power control response in the unlocked status in the
CSM5000 is used to implement this function.
In unlocked state, there are four reverse closed loop power control response
options, as shown in Table 4.2 -15. These four options are determined by the 2bit PC_GAIN domain in the CHAN_ELEM_INFO2 register.
Table 4.2-15 Reverse Closed Loop Power Control Response in Unlocked State
PC_GAIN Value
Unlocked Power Control Response
00
+0 dB/sec gain
01
+25 dB/sec gain
10
+50 dB/sec gain
11
+100 dB/sec gain
PC_GAIN=00 corresponds to a gain of +0dB/sec. If the number of increase

power control bits is set as equal to the number of rising/falling power control
bits per frame, the MS transmitting power will remain unchanged.
If PC_GAIN=01, the 8th falling power control bit of each 4 th frame is replaced
by rising bit, which will result in a gain of +2 dB per four frames, namely, a
total gain of +25 dB/sec.
If PC_GAIN=10, the 8th falling power control bit of each 2nd frame is replaced
by rising bit, which will result in a gain of +2 dB per two frames, namely, a
total gain of +50 dB/sec.
If PC_GAIN=11, the 8th falling power control bit of each 8th frame is replaced
by rising bit, which will result in a gain of +2 dB per frame, namely, a total gain
of +100 dB/sec.
4.
Reverse outer loop power control

For reverse closed power control, the SNR threshold is not constant, but in
dynamic adjustment. This dynamic adjustment process is reverse outer loop
power control.
68
Chapter 7 Antenna
In reverse outer loop power control, the BTS calculates and receives the Frame
Error Rate (FER) of the reverse channel.
If the FER is higher than its threshold, it indicates that the reverse channel has
large attenuation, so the transmitted power of the MS is enhanced by increasing
the SNR threshold.
On the contrary, if the FER is lower than the FER threshold, the transmitted
power of the MS is lowered by decreasing the SNR threshold.
The adjustment of the closed-loop power control based on the FER statistics is
achieved through the reverse external-loop power control algorithm. The
algorithm includes three states: variable rate running state, full rate running
state and deletion running state. These three states fully reflect the actual
working status of the MS, and the power thresholds are adjusted differently at
different states.
To ensure the best quality of the voice frame at 9600 bit/s, many criteria, such
as 1% FER threshold, are added at the full rate operation state.
This algorithm involves such main technologies as step length adjustment, state
transition, accidental error judgment and soft handoff FER statistics control.
In practice, reverse power control is achieved through the above three power control
modes together. In other words, first open-loop estimation is conducted for the
transmitting power of the MS, and then the open-loop estimation is further corrected by
the closed-loop power control and external-loop power control, which try to achieve
accurate power control.
4.2.1.2 Forward Power Control
On the forward links:
When an MS moves to the edge of a cell, the MS receives obviously stronger
interference from the adjacent cell.
When an MS moves to the BTS, the MS receives stronger multi-path
interference from the same cell.
These two kinds of interference affect the reception of the signals, hence degrading the
communication quality, and even causing link setup failure. Therefore, power control is
introduced to the forward channel of the CDMA system.
69
Forward power control ensures the communication quality of each user by

appropriately allocating the power among the forward traffic channels. This minimizes
transmitting power in the forward traffic channel, provided that it meets the minimum
SNR required by the demodulation of the MS, for minimum interference to the traffic
channel in the adjacent cells and maximum user capacity of the forward link.
In an ideal single cell model, the forward power control is not mandatory. When intercell interference and heat noise are taken into account, the forward power control
becomes an indispensable key technology because it can deal with the following
abnormalities occurring in the communication process over the forward link.
If an MS is as near to one or more adjacent BTSs as to its home BTS, the MS is
more seriously interfered by the adjacent BTSs, and the change of such
interference is independent of the signal strength of its home BTS. In this case,
the home BTS of the MS shall increase the signal power by several decibels to
maintain the communication.
If an MS is just located at a converging position of several strong multi-path
interferences, the interference on the signal may exceed the allowable limit. In
this case, the home BTS of the MS shall also increase the signal power.
If an MS is located at a place with excellent signal transmission performance,
the signal transmission loss is decreased. The BTS of the MS can lower the
power of the signals to the MS, provided that appropriate communication quality
is maintained. Due to the limited total transmitting power of the BTS, the
capacity of the forward link can be increased, and the interference to other incell and out-cell users can be reduced.
Similar to reverse power control, forward power control involves forward closed loop
power control and forward outer loop power control. In the 1x system, forward rapid
power control can also be introduced.
1.
Forward closed loop power control

The closed loop power control compares the E b/Nt (where Eb means the average
bit energy, and Nt means the total noise, including white noise and noise from
other cells) of the signal received by the forward service channel with the
corresponding set value for outer loop control power, to determine the power
control bit value transmitted from the reverse power control sub-channel to the
BTS.
70
Chapter 7 Antenna
The reverse power control sub-channel is the sub-channel of the reverse pilot
channel. Figure 4.2 -37 shows its structure.
Figure 4.2-37 Structure of Reverse Power Control Sub-channel
On the reverse pilot channel, each PCG contains 1536 * N PN chips, of which
N is the Spreading Rate number. (When the Spreading Rate is 1, N is equal to
1. When the Spreading Rate is 3, N is equal to 3.) Where, the first 1152*N PN
chips are used to send pilot signals, and the last 384*N PN chips are used to
send other signals generated by the MS. The content of the signal is related to
the forward power control mode (FPC_MODEs). For details, see Table 4.2 -16.
Table 4.2-16 Signal Content Transmitted Through the Reverse Power Control Sub-channel in
Different Power Control Modes
FPC_MODEs
000, 001, 010
Signal Content Transmitted Through the Reverse Power Control Sub-channel.

The last 384*N PN chips of each PCG repeatedly transmit the forward power
control bits generated by the MS.
The last 384*N PN chips of each PCG repeatedly transmit the erase indicator bit
011, 100, 101
(EIB) generated by the MS and the quality indicator bit (QIB) in the 3GPP2
C.S0002-A.
110
Every 384*N PN chips of the reverse primary power control sub-channel

repeatedly transmit the forward power control bits generated by the MS, while
every 384*N PN chips of the reverse secondary power control sub-channel
71
FPC_MODEs
000, 001, 010
Signal Content Transmitted Through the Reverse Power Control Sub-channel.

The last 384*N PN chips of each PCG repeatedly transmit the forward power
control bits generated by the MS.
repeatedly transmit the erase indicator bit (EIB) generated by the MS.
All the PN chips must be sent at the same power from each PCG on the reverse
pilot channel.
The forward power control algorithm of RC1 and RC2 in the 1x is as follows:
1)
Forward Power Control Algorithm of RC1

The core idea of the RC1 algorithm can be described with the following two
rules:
Rule 1: If the power measurement report is received, the transmitting power is
increased.
Rule 2: If no power measurement report is received, the transmitting power is
decreased.
During voice communication, what actually affects the voice quality is Frame
error rate. When the FER is high, people hear voices with poor quality; when
the FER is low, people enjoy high-quality voices. In the CDMA system based
on the IS-95, to guarantee the voice quality to some extent, the uplink and
downlink FER is defined with a threshold value, usually 1%. This threshold
value can be implemented by determining the ratio between the amplitude of
power increase and the amplitude of power decrease. In this case, an ideal
parameter setting is as follows: If the communication link receives power
measurement report, this channel transmitting power increases 1 dB; if no
power measurement report is received, the forward channel transmitting power
decreases 0.01 dB.
During the communication process, the environment tends to deteriorate
occasionally, so the above algorithm will continuously increase the power at a
great step size to resist the fast depth fading. After the environment returns to
normal, the algorithm will slowly decrease the transmitting power.
2)
Forward Power Control Algorithm of RC2

As specified in IS-95A, for the rate set 2, the MS uses EIB to indicate the
quality of forward link frames and sends it to the BS through the reverse link.
72
Chapter 7 Antenna
For our integrated forward power control algorithm, the controller obtains the
EIB value at the BSC through the reverse layer 3 data and performs the
corresponding forward power control.
The basic idea of the algorithm is similar to the forward power control
algorithm for configuring the 8K vocoder. It can be described with the
following two rules:
Rule 1: Increase the transmitting power if the received EIB is equal to 1.
Rule 2: Decrease the transmitting power if the received EIB is equal to 0.
If a 13k vocoder is used, because power measurement report is not required for
the control and the MS can provide EIB in each frame, the forward power
control can be performed quickly. Therefore, we can enlarge the dynamic range
of the forward power control, usually to about 20 dB.
Due to the large dynamic range of the algorithm, the algorithm shall support
variable steps, and the power increase step is in reverse proportion to the
transmitting power at the adjustment time. To speed up the calculation, the
following non-linear function is used as the relationship between the power
increase step and the transmitting power at the adjustment time:
Smallup _ delta power ( Pnormal Pmax ) / 2

up _ delta Normalup _ delta ( Pnormal Pmin ) / 2 power ( Pnormal Pmax ) / 2
Bigup _ delta power ( Pnormal Pmin ) / 2
Smallup _ delta Bigup _ delta normalup _ delta Where, the values of Smallup _ delta ,
Bigup _ delta and normalup _ delta are 0.5 dB, 3 dB and 1 dB respectively.
2.
Forward outer loop power control

Forward outer loop power control is implemented at the MS. What the BTS
needs to do is to transmit the threshold values for outer loop control to the MS
in a paging message. The threshold values include outer loop upper and lower
thresholds and initial threshold for the FCH and SCH.
In the outer loop power control, the thresholds to be set are estimated according
to the Eb/Nt required to achieve the target FER for the assigned forward traffic
channel. This set value either indirectly notifies the BTS to perform power
control through the closed loop, or, if no closed loop exists, notifies the BTS
through messages to control the transmitting power according to the difference
73
of the set value.

3.
Forward rapid power control

When the forward outer loop power control is enabled, the forward outer loop
power control and forward closed loop power control work at the same time to
achieve the forward rapid power control. Figure 4.2 -38 shows the principle.
Receiving forward
link frame quality
information
Outer loop
adjustment
Outer loop
adjustment
algorithm
Insert the control bit

with rising
characterization
power
MS
demodulation
and
measurement
Insert the control bit
with falling
characterization
power
MS
Insert it to the power

control sub-channel
and send it
BS
Power control
command detection
Transmitting
power adjustment
Figure 4.2-38 Forward Rapid Power Control Principle
Although the forward quick power control takes effect at the BTS side, the
power control outer loop parameters and the power control bits are the output
results after the MS checks the signal quality over the forward link, and the
final results are transmitted to the BTS through the power control sub-channel
in the reverse pilot frequency channel.
The reverse pilot channel is added to the reverse channel of RC3~RC6. The
base of the forward rapid power control also lies in the reverse channel, because
the power control bit which implements the forward rapid power control is sent
to the BS by the reverse power control sub-channel on the reverse pilot.
74
Chapter 7 Antenna
4.2.1.3 Cell Breath Power Control

Cell breath is an important function of the CDMA system, which is mainly used to
adjust the load of each cell of the system.
The forward link border indicates a physical place between two BTSs. If an MS is
located at this place, the receiver has the same performance regardless of the BTS from
which the signals are received. The reverse link handover boarder indicates that the
receivers of the two BTSs have the same performance for the MS located at this place.
BTS cell breath control is to keep the overlap of the handover borders between the
forward link and the reverse link, to maximize system capacity and avoid handoff
failures.
The cell breath algorithm exercises control, based on the fact that the sum of the BTS
reverse power and forward pilot transmitted power is a constant. It controls the cell
coverage area by adjusting the percentage of the pilot signal power over the total
transmitted power of the BTS.
The cell breath algorithm involves such techniques as initial state adjustment, reverse
link monitoring, and forward pilot power gain adjustment.
4.2.2 1xEV-DO Power Control Principle and Implementation Mode

4.2.2.1 Forward Power Control
The forward power control involves the forward power adjustment and forward rate
adjustment. Because the forward rate of the EV-DO varies with the forward link
quality, the forward rate of the forward power control shall be adjusted. Figure 4.2 -39
shows the dynamic modulation procedure of forward rate varying with the forward link
quality in a test.
75
Figure 4.2-39 Dynamic Modulation Procedure of the Forward Rate Varying with the Forward Link
Quality
FL C/I indicates the signal noise ratio of the forward link. Request Rate indicates the
forward rate applied by the AT.
As shown in the figure, the required forward rate increases with the rising of the signal
noise ratio of the forward link. The following describes the interaction procedure of the
forward rate adjustment. First, describe the features of the forward power control.
Because the forward link of the EV-DO transmits signals with the full power at any
time, it has the following features, in comparison to those in the 1x:
1.
The forward link transmits with the full power at any time, so there is no
forward power control.
2.
The forward transmitting power satisfies the requirement of the single user for
full rate transmission, so there is no forward power overload control mechanism.
3.
The forward data rate can be adjusted according to the quality of the forward
link, while, in the 1x, the data rate in the supplementary channel setup and
supplementary channel release procedure cannot be modified.
The reason why the EV-DO forward link can transmit with full power at any time is
related to the forward CE occupied by the time division of each channel of the forward
link. Different from the 1x, the EV-DO service channel is scheduled through the
scheduling program to use the forward CE in turn. For the CSM5000 channel board of
76
Chapter 7 Antenna
the EV-DO, there shall be only one CE. The decoding function of this CE is powerful,
and it supports a decoding rate of up to 2M. Because there is only one forward CE, the
demodulation can be implemented for only one user at a time when each service
channel occupies the forward CE based on time. The forward design is full power
transmission plus time division occupation. This not only satisfies the requirements of
forward data rate transmission, but also avoids the power control.
Figure 4.2 -40 shows the forward channel occupation of the forward user.
Figure 4.2-40 Forward Channel Occupation of the Forward User
As shown in the figure above, AT1 and AT2 communicate with BS1. AT1 uses the
forward time slots in blue of BS1, and AT2 uses the time slots in red of BS1. AT3 and
AT4 communicate with BS2. AT3 uses the time slots in pink, and AT4 uses the time
slots in brown.
For the above-mentioned time division multiplexing of the forward service channel, the
scheduling program of the forward channel determines to which user the BS sends data
at a time through the scheduling policy. The current scheduling policies are as follows:
1.
Simplest policy: Round Robin mode.
2.
If the policy is to keep the highest throughput rate of the whole sector, the data is
sent to the AT whose requested transmitting rate is high.
3.
If the policy is to give attention to both the efficiency and the equity, it is
77
required to consider the recent total data throughput scheduling policy of the AT
by modifying the API function provided by Qualcomm. The scheduling program
runs in the memory of the channel board.
The rate evaluation of the forward link is completed by AT. This is similar to the
forward closed loop of the 1X. After evaluating the forward rate, the AT also shall
schedule through the scheduling algorithm of the AN, so this rate may not be achieved
actually. The forward rate of the EV-DO shall be the specified rate as possible as it can
be. The procedure for the AT to adjust the forward link rate is as follows:
1.
The AT estimates the maximum rate that it can receive data next time according
to the quality of the forward channel, and notifies the AN of the information
through the DRC channel.
2.
When it is scheduled to the AT, the AN sends the forward service packet to the
AT according to the specified rate of the AT.
3.
The AT feeds back the receiving status to the AN through the Ack channel. If the
AT cannot demodulate the current packet correctly, it sends the Nak bit. If it
demodulates the current packet correctly, it sends the Ack bit.
4.
If the AN receives the Ack bit of the AT, it stops sending the current packet but
starts sending the next packet.
4.2.2.2 Reverse Power Control

The EV-DO reverse power control mechanism is the same as that of the 1x, which
includes open loop control, closed loop control and out loop control. The following
describes the rate adjustment mechanism of the reverse link.
1.
The dynamic assignment of the EV-DO reverse rate is completed by the AT. The
AT determines its own transmitting rate according to the data to be sent,
maximum rate restriction and busy/idle status (RAB) of the reverse channel.
2.
The AT transmits the current reverse rate to the AN through the reverse RRI
channel, and the AN does not need to calculate its own reverse rate.
3.
The AT determines the reverse rate according to the volume of transmitted data.
Higher the transmitted data volume, the higher is the rate. In addition, the user
can modify the parameters to restrict the maximum reverse rate of the AT. The
busy/idle status of the RAB is obtained by the AT by monitoring the forward
RAB channel.
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Chapter 7 Antenna
The busy/idle status of the RAB means whether the reverse channel is overloaded. By
measuring the reverse power, the AN transmits 0 or 1 in the RAB channel. When the
reverse channel is overloaded, the AN transmits 1. After the AT receives 1, it drops
down the rate according to the probability q. When the reverse channel is not
overloaded, it transmits 0. After the AT receives 0, it increases the rate according to the
probability p. Figure 4.2 -41 shows the procedure.
Figure 4.2-41 Rate Adjustment Mechanism of the Reverse Link
To introduce the rising and falling probability is to add the manual adjustment factor to
the reverse rate adjustment. When the reverse channel is most likely to be overloaded,
you can increase the falling probability, or drop down the rising probability. In this
way, there will be less reverse overload. Similarly, when the reverse rate is too low, you
can increase the rate rising probability or drop down the rate falling probability, to get
higher reverse rate.
4.3 Soft Handoff

Soft handoff is the unique characteristic of CDMA mobile communication system. Its
basic principles are as follows: When the MS is located in the area between adjacent
BTSs under the control of the same BSC. The MS maintains the wireless connection
with the source BTS, and sets up the wireless connection with the destination BTS, and
then releases the wireless connection with the source BTS. The soft handoff between
different sectors of the same BTS under the control of the same BSC is called softer
handoff.
There are the following soft handoff modes:
Handoff in the same carrier of different sectors of the same BTS, which is called
softer handoff
79
Intra-frequency handoff occurs between different BTSs in a BSC

Handoff in the same carrier between different BSCs of the same MSC
4.3.1 Soft Handoff in the 1x System

Before describing the soft handoff flow, introduce some concepts: Pilot set, search
window and handoff parameter.
1.
Pilot Set
Just like standby handoff, CDMA system handoff has the pilot set concept.
According to pilot PN sequence offset, MS classifies the pilot signals into four
categories:
Active set: Pilot set corresponding to the current forward traffic channel.
Candidate set: The candidate set does not belong to the active set. However, the
signals are strong enough for normal service processing.
Neighbor set: Pilot set designated by the neighboring base station cell list
message.
Remaining set: Set of pilots excluded from the above three sets.
During pilot search, MS measures the pilot strength in the sequence of active
set, candidate set, neighbor set, and remaining set. Assuming the active set and
candidate set has PN1, PN2 and PN3, the neighboring set has PN 11, PN12, PN13,
and PN14, and the remaining set has PN', ..., MS measures the pilot signals in the
following order:
PN1, PN2, PN3, PN11,
PN1, PN2, PN3, PN14, PN',
PN1, PN2, PN3, PN12, ...
The probability to search pilots in the remaining set is less probability
compared to those in the active set and candidate set.
2.
Search Window
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Chapter 7 Antenna
Besides the number of pilot searching times, another factor considered is the
search range. When MS communicates with the base station, there is delay. As
Figure 4.3 -42 illustrates, the signal delay between AT and BS1 is t1, and that
between the AT and BS2 is T2.
t2
t1
BS1
BS2
AT
Figure 4.3-42 Delay Difference Between BSs
Assuming AT is synchronous with BS1, if the distance between AT and BS1 is shorter
than that between the AT and BS2, t 1 must be shorter than t 2 (t1 t2). BS2 pilot signal
reaches t2-t1 time later to the AT than reference time. If the distance between the AT and
BS1 is longer than that between the AT and BS2, t1 must be longer than t2 (t1 t2). Pilot
signal of BS2 appears t1-t2 to the AT, ahead of reference time.
When detecting pilot strength, the AM searches in a range to avoid loss of any pilot
signal in each set. AT uses the search window to capture the pilot. AT sets an offset for
a PN sequence and search for pilots ahead or behind a chip time segment.
As shown in the figure below, AT uses short code phase as the center and searches for
pilot signals in the short code range ahead and behind half the search window.
Figure 4.3-43 Search Window and Pilot Signal
Larger the search window, slower is the search. However, if the search window is too
small, the pilot with large delay may escape the search. For each pilot set type, base
81
stations define the search window size for ATs.

SRCH_WIN_A: Pilot search window size for active set and candidate set.
SRCH_WIN_N: Pilot search window size for the neighboring set.
SRCH_WIN_R: Pilot search window size for the remaining set.
SRCH_WIN_A is set according to transmission environment forecast. It must be large
enough to capture all multi-path pilot signals of the target base station. It must also be
small enough to optimize the search window performance.
Generally, SRCH_WIN_N is larger than SRCH_WIN_A. Its size is set according to the
physical distance between current base station and neighboring base station. It is
normally larger than two times of the maximum signal delay.
Generally, SRCH_WIN_R setting is similar to SRCH_WIN_N. If not using the
remaining set, set the SRCH_WIN_R to a very small value.
3.
Handoff Parameters
T_ADD: Pilot signal monitoring threshold. When MS detects base station pilot
strength of a neighboring set or remaining set is higher than T_ADD, it adds
pilot to the candidate set.
T_DROP: Deteriorated pilot signal threshold monitoring. When MS detects that
pilot strength of the active set or candidate set base station is lower than
T_DROP, it activates the related base station handoff drop timer.
T_TDROP: Deterioration of timer preset value of the timer that monitors the
pilot signal. If the strength of the pilot in the active set falls below T_DROP, MS
activates T_TDROP timer. If timer expires, the pilot returns to the neighboring
set from the active set. If the pilot strength rises above T_DROP before
T_TDROP timer expires, the timer gets deleted automatically.
T_COMP: Threshold comparison between pilot signal strength in the active set
and candidate set. When MS detects that the base station pilot strength in the
candidate set is T_COMP x 0.5 dB higher than the pilot strength in the active
set, it sends a pilot strength measurement message (PSMM) and starts handoff.
4.
Soft Handoff Flow

The receiver calculates the Eb/Io value of the searched pilot signal (as the pilot
strength). Figure 4.3 -44 shows the soft handoff flow.
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Chapter 7 Antenna
Pilot
Strength
P1
P2
T_ADD
P2
T_DROP
P1
1
Neighbor
Set
Candidate
Set
Active Set
Candidate
Set
time
Neighbor
Set
Figure 4.3-44 Soft Handoff Flow
As Figure 4.3 -44 illustrates, P1 is the source cell pilot, and P2 is the target cell pilot.
1)
On detecting P2 strength higher than T_ADD, MS moves it to the candidate set.
2)
On detecting P2 strength higher than [(SOFT_SLOPE/8) x 10 x log10 (PS1)

+ADD_INTERCEPT/2], MS sends a Pilot Strength Measurement Message to
the base station.
3)
MS receives Extended Handoff Direction Message returned by the base station,

adds P2 into the active set, and sends a Handoff Complete Message.
4)
On detecting P1 weaker than [(SOFT_SLOPE/8) x 10 x log10 (PS2)

+DROP_INTERCEPT/2], MS activates the T_TDROP timer.
5)
On detecting T_TDROP timer expiry, MS sends Pilot Strength Measurement

Message to the base station.
6)
MS receives Extended Handoff Direction Message returned by the base station,

moves P1 to the candidate set, and sends a Handoff Complete Message.
7)
On detecting P1 weaker than T_DROP, MS activates T_TDROP timer.
8)
In detecting T_TDROP timer expiry, MS moves P1 from candidate set to

neighbor set.
5.
Softer Handoff
83
Softer handoff is implemented by the BS without notifying the MSC. For the same MS,
the signals received at antennas of different sectors are equivalent to different multipath components as far as the BS is concerned. These signals are combined into one
voice frame, and sent to the selector as voice frame of the BS. However, soft handoff is
completed by the MSC, where all the signals from different BSs are sent to the selector,
and the selector will choose a best channel of signals for voice encoding/decoding.
The procedure of softer handoff is not described any further here, because it is included
in the above soft handoff procedure.
The above section describes the types of handoff, procedure of handoff, and the
concept of softer handoff. During the system operation, these handoffs occur in
combination, that is, soft handoff, software handoff, as well as hard handoff may be
active at the same time.
For example, when an MS is at the boundary between two sectors of one BS and
another BS, both soft handoff and softer handoff will happen. If the MS is at the
boundary of three BSs, three-party soft handoff will happen.
Both soft handoff and softer handoff are based on the condition that the carriers of the
BSs with the same carrier have free capacity. If the adjacent BS with the same carrier is
in full load, the MSC will ask the BS to instruct the MS to hand off to the other carrier
of that adjacent BS, which is known as hard handoff.
In a third-party handoff, soft handoff is preferred as long as the capacity of one of the
other two parties is sufficient. That is, only when soft handoff is impossible will hard
handoff be considered. If, however, the adjacent BSs happen to be in different MSCs,
even when they are at the same carrier, at present only hard handoff is available. This is
because the vocoder needs to be changed. In the future, if the IPI interface and ATM
are used between BSCs, the soft handoff between MSCs will be available.
4.3.2 Soft Handoff in the 1xEV-DO System

Similar to that in the 1x system, the 1x EV-DO handoff control supports various
soft/softer handoffs. In addition, the 1x EV-DO introduces a new handoff mode:
Forward virtual handoff (Virtual Handoff).
The forward virtual handoff means that,, at any time, only one of the sectors transmits
data on the forward channel to the terminal. The terminal can use the DRC Cover in the
DRC channel to specify the expected sector to send the data according to the quality of
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Chapter 7 Antenna
the received pilot signals. The sectors in all efficient sets in the network are monitoring
the reverse channel of the terminal. According to the received DRC channel, the
network determines which sector is the serving sector of the terminal.
During the forward virtual handoff, the terminal and network does not exchange any
signaling message during the forward virtual handoff procedure. The procedure is very
fast. During the handoff persistence, the forward air resources of only one sector are
used at any time during the handoff. This greatly increases the utilization rate of the
forward channel.
4.4 Diversity Reception

Mobile communication channel is a type of multi-path fading channel. Transmitted
signals pass multiple transmission paths, such as mirrored, reflected, and scattered,
before arriving at the receiver. With the movement of the mobile station, the amplitude,
the delay, and the phase of the signals on the various transmission paths always change.
Accordingly the level of the received signals is neither flat nor stable. These multipaths are superimposed and fading appears. The change of the superimposed signal
amplitudes satisfies the Rayleigh distribution, and thus it is called Rayleigh fading.
When Rayleigh fading changes sharply with time, it is called quick fading. In serious
fading, the fading depth is 20 ~ 30 dB. However the median field strength of Rayleigh
fading changes smoothly, which is called slow fading. This fading complies with the
logarithm normal distribution.
The preceding two types of fading are key factors causing the instability of received
signals in mobile communications. Received signals are greatly degraded. Although
improvement has been achieved to some extent by adding transmit signal power,
antenna size, and antenna height, those approaches are very expensive and sometimes
unpractical in mobile communications.
The diversity technology is a good solution to overcome the fading influence. On
several tributaries, signals carrying the same message but with little relativity are
received, and then through the combination technology the tributary signals are
combined and output, thus greatly reducing the probability of deep fading at the
receiver. This is the diversity technology.
To obtain at the receiver different multi-paths that are nearly independent of each other,
a variety of methods can be used in terms of space, time, and frequency. The most basic
types of diversity reception include time diversity, frequency diversity, and space
85
diversity.
4.4.1 Time Diversity

Due to the movement of the mobile station, Doppler frequency shift occurs to received
signals. In the multi-path environments, the frequency shift results in Doppler spread.
The reciprocal definition of Doppler spread is coherent time which represents the
fading meter of the time varies channel on the signals. This type of fading occurs at a
particular time point of the transmission wave, which is called time-selective fading. It
has an outstanding effect on bit errors of digital signals.
If sequential sampling is adopted on the amplitude, two sample points with enough
large time intervals (greater than the coherent time) are not associated. Therefore, time
diversity can be used to reduce the influence. For example, a given signal is repeatedly
transmitted for N times every time after a particular time interval. As long as the time
interval is greater than the coherent time, independent N diversity tributaries can be
obtained.
The convolutional coding, interleaving, and error correction coding technologies in the
CDMA can be used to achieve time diversity.
The convolutional coding technology can effectively eliminate random individual data
errors. Convolutional code was put forward by Elias in 1955. It was named for its
coding method can be expressed in the form of convolution operation. Convolutional
code has a memory. For any given time segment, the n coded outputs are not only
associated with k inputs during this time segment but also associated with the m inputs
saved in the encoder. Convolutional code needs to select encoding constraint length
and code rate. The constraint length should be set as large as possible to obtain good
performance. However with the increasing of the encoding constraint length, decoding
complexity is increased.
The purpose of the block interleaving technology is to avoid continuous burst data
errors as much as possible so that the number of the errors in each receive field after
de-interleaving at the receiver is not greater than the number of the correctable error
correcting codes. In land mobile communications, bit errors continuously appear on
this type of parameter vary channel because a continuously lasting deep fading value
point affects a string of bits. However, channel code is valid only when detecting and
correcting a limited number of errors and a string of errors which is not very long. To
solve that problem, an approach is expected to separate consecutive bits in a message,
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Chapter 7 Antenna
that is, to transmit the consecutive bits in the message in a non-consecutive

(distributed) way. In this way, even though a string of errors appear in the transmission,
only a single error or several errors can be encountered when the message with a string
of consecutive bits is regenerated after de-interleaving. This method is called the
interleaving technology. After de-interleaving, the receive field containing random
errors is corrected through error-correcting code and the original message is recovered.
Performance improvement brought by interleaving depends on the diversity level and
the average fading interval of the channel. The interleaving length is subject to service
delay requirements. The delay for voice service is shorter than that for data service.
Therefore, it is required to match interleaving depth with different services.
4.4.2 Frequency Diversity

The frequency diversity technology refers to modulating information to be transmitted
on different carriers before being transmitted to the channel. Because fading has
frequency selection ability, two frequencies with a separation larger than the correlated
bandwidth receive different fading effects. In other words, carrier separation f should
be large enough and is larger than the correlated bandwidth, that is,
f F 1 L
Where, L is the bandwidth of receive signal delay power spectrum.

For example, in the 800 ~ 900 MHz frequency band transmission environments, a
typical delay diffusion value is 5 s. In this case,
f F 1 L 1 5s 200kHz
That is, the carrier separation in frequency diversity should be larger than 200 kHz.
The correlated bandwidth is about 50 kHz in urban area and about 250 kHz in rural
area. For broad frequency signal, fading is like a trap filter. Trap is only a part of broad
frequency signal on the spectrum. The signal bandwidth in the CDMA is 1.23 MHz. It
far satisfies the requirement for the correlated bandwidth no matter whether it is in
urban area or rural area. Therefore, being a broadband system, the CDMA can achieve
frequency diversity by itself.
4.4.3 Space Diversity

More than one horizontally or vertically spacing antenna are built at the receiver to
reduce fading influence by making use of incomplete coherence of signals when
87
electromagnetic waves arrive at respective receive antennas. This is space diversity. In

the case of multi-path fading, deep fading occurs to signals of one receive antenna but
the signals received at the other antenna can retain the same.
There are two types of space diversity: horizontal space diversity and vertical space
diversity. If the spacing distance between vertical space diversity antennas is too great,
the difference between diversity antenna coverage areas is great; if the spacing distance
is too small, the effect of diversity gain is small. Therefore, vertical diversity is not
practical in actual applications. Typically, horizontal space diversity is employed.
Antenna horizontal space diversity gain is affected by a number of factors including:
1.
Antenna height (h);
2.
Distance between antennas (d);
3.
Inclination between the mobile station and the perpendicular bisector of the
4.
Number of used antennas (synthesis gain);
5.
Gain difference between antennas (caused by the movement of the mobile
connection line of the two antennas ( );
station around the base station).

Diversity gain and antenna height are associated with distance between antennas,
which can be used to define a parameter
as in:
h
d
According to the analysis of horizontal space diversity gain, we believe the following
points:
1.
A number of factors affect horizontal space diversity gain. The synthesis gain of
diversity antennas has the greatest effect on diversity gain of the system. The
greater the number of diversity antennas (N), the better the diversity effect.
However non-diversity difference and diversity difference are great, which is a
qualitative change. Diversity gain is in direct proportion to the number of
diversities (N). Only limited improvement can be achieved, which is a
quantitative change. In addition, the improvement reduces when the number of
diversities (N) increases. Typically N is specified to be 2 ~ 4, which takes both
performance and complexity into account.
2.
In a 400 MHz system, when

88
is greater than 10, 4 dB gain is achieved by
Chapter 7 Antenna
using the horizontal space diversity technology. In an 800 MHz system, when
is greater than 20, 4 dB gain is achieved by using the horizontal space
diversity technology.
3.
According to analysis, it is recommended to specify
to be 5.5 in a 400 MHz
system and 11 in an 800 MHz system. In this case, diversity gain is about 4.7
dB. When designing the horizontal diversity distance for a station, select a
suitable value for
according to the actual engineering conditions so that the
effect of diversity gain can be achieved and the actual engineering conditions
can be satisfied.
Space diversity has two variants as follows:
1.
Polarization diversity: Signals transmitted from two antennas with mutually

orthogonal polarization directions at the same site can show irrelative fading
features for diversity reception. That is, orthogonal polarized antennas are built
on transmit and receive antenna, and thus polarization diversity can be
performed on the two channels of signals received with irrelative fading
features. Polarization diversity has some advantages (compact structure and
saved space) and some disadvantages (3 dB loss due to distribution of transmit
power onto two antennas).
2.
Angle diversity: In different receive environments such as topography,

physiognomy, and buildings, different path signals received at the receiver
might be from different directions. In this case, directional antennas can be used
at the receiver, respectively pointing to different directions. Multi-path signals
received at each directional antenna are irrelative.
Soft handoff unique to the CDMA can also be considered as a type of space diversity.
After the mobile station communicates with the new base station in a soft handoff, the
mobile station can keep contact with the original base station to obtain high quality of
communications. The mobile station selects the better from two channels of signals.
The BSC selects to receive frames with higher quality. The two BTSs participating in
the soft handoff look like two diversity antennas.
On a reverse channel, useful signals from the mobile station are received in two cells.
The signals are translated in frames and then transmitted to the BSC. The
selector/vocoder in the BSC checks the quality of both frames through the CRC code
following the data in each frame. If only one frame is good, the vocoder selects it for
89
vocode change. If both frames are good, the vocoder selects any one of them for
vocode change. If both frames are bad, the vocoder abandons the current frame and
takes one earlier good frame for vocode change to guarantee the best reception. On a
forward channel, the base stations in both cells transmit useful signals to the mobile
station. The mobile station conducts diversity reception, considering valid channels
from one cell as a multi-path signal. Subsequently the mobile station performs multipath combination to obtain the gain. Therefore, soft handoff can greatly improve the
quality of communications of the mobile station at the edge of a cell.
4.4.4 Rake Receiver

Spread spectrum signals from a transmitter are reflected and refracted by various
barriers such as buildings and hills during the transmission. Each wave packet arriving
at the receiver has a different delay and generates a multi-path signal. If the delay of
different path signals exceeds the chip delay of a pseudo code, different wave packets
can be distinguished at the receiver. The different wave packets are guided along
different delay lines, aligned, and then combined. In this way, the originally interfering
signals are processed to be useful signals and combined. This is the basic principle of a
rake receiver. In other words, the space diversity technology is employed in a rake
receiver. (Author: It is said to be time diversity in some documents because what the
rake receiver process and combine are signals with different delays.)
Figure 4.4-45 Principle of rake receiver
A rake receiver is typically composed of three modules: searcher, finger, and combiner.
A searcher searches paths under the key principle of self-correlated and crosscorrelated features of codes. A finger dispreads and demodulates signals. The number
of fingers determines the number of demodulation paths. Usually one rake receiver in a
CDMA base station system has four fingers and one mobile station has three fingers. A
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Chapter 7 Antenna
combiner combines outputs from multiple fingers. Universal combination algorithms

include selective addition combination, equal gain combination, and maximum ratio
combination. Combined signals are output to a decoder element for channel decoding
processing.
Specifically, each tributary of a rake receiver uses a correlator to dispread the received
signals. For coherent demodulation, dispread signals are multiplied by complex
amplitude to correct phase errors and each tributary is weighted according to a selected
combination policy (maximum ratio combination or equal gain combination). The
pulse response measurement module continuously measures multi-path profile. When
the pulse responses delay changes, the measurement module allocates a new code
phase to the code trace module to trace minute changes. Signals of different rake
tributaries are combined before interleaving and translation of channel codes. In
addition, a searcher continuously scans pilot signals of adjacent cells to provide
measurement of pilot signals for handoff. The number of rake tributaries depends on
channel profile and chip rate. If the chip rate is high, relatively many paths can be
separated. However, when there are a number of rake tributaries, a great deal of energy
has to be obtained from the channel to maintain good performance. When there are a
large number of rake tributaries, combination loss occurs.
Lets further describe pulse response measurement, code search and capture, code
trace, complex amplitude estimation, and searcher. Pulse response measurement refers
to correlating pilot codes of different phases with received signals to find multi-path
components. Measurement speed required in pulse response measurement depends on
the speed of the mobile station and the radio environments. The higher the speed of the
mobile station is, the quicker the measurement is required to complete, so that the rake
tributary can obtain the best multi-path component. However a wide scan widow is
required in long delay extension environments. Besides the measurement function, the
module is responsible for allocation of rake tributaries, that is, allocating multi-path
components to rake tributaries. Different policies can be applied to the allocation of
codes. The allocation is implemented after the whole pulse response measurement is
completed or an enough strong multi-path component is found. Code search and
capture is implemented before synchronization search and capture of the system.
The mobile station scans pilot signals. The sequence of pilot signal priorities can be
determined based on the nearest or adjacent pilot signal. If a link is lost for some
reason, the scan starts from the pilot signal with the highest priority. In strong
91
interference situations, code search and capture might be a bottleneck. A match filter
can be used for quick code search and capture. A typical code trace loop is to pilot the
early, delay the later, and lock the loop. It involves two correlators (one for piloting the
early and the other for delaying the later). A chip allocated by them is different from
the standard aligned chip by half a chip. According to the related results, the code
phase is adjusted. The performance of the trace loop depends on the bandwidth of the
loop. If update is quicker than the movement of multi-path component delay,
synchronization error can be ignored. Otherwise, loop noise will be increased. This
requirement also depends on the policy for detection that is, applying routine or multiuser detection.
Complex amplitude estimation includes amplitude estimation and phase estimation. In
the maximum ratio combination, signal weight is the complex conjugate of complex
amplitude. In the case of equal gain combination, only phase errors are corrected. For
each rake tributary, it can be considered to be equally weighted. Complex amplitude
estimation should be averaged in a reasonable period length. In this case, the coherent
time is set to be the upper limit of the average time. A searcher scans pilot signals of
other cells. During call conversation, the mobile station scans pilot signals; measures
downlink interference, and possibly receive uplink interference results. Because the
number of pilot signals is very large, long time might be required to notice a pilot
signal in the neighboring set.
Therefore, search time might limit the performance of the system especially in
microcell environments where a new base station will quickly become active due to
corner effect. An approach to reduce required hardware components is to flexibly
allocate rake and searcher tributaries. The number of tributaries required for scan
depends on the expected speed of scanning pilot signals.
4.5 Key 1x EV-DO Technologies

This section introduces key 1x EV-DO system technologies.
4.5.1 Reverse Link Power Control

Power control maximizes system capacity. In 1x EV-DO system, there is no forward
link power control because forward link power is constant. Reverse link follows power
control.
Reverse link power control aims to control output power of ATs while minimizing
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interference, maintaining high reverse data link quality. When reverse link signal-tonoise ratio (SNR) per user is lowest for acceptable performance, capacity is highest.
4.5.2 Reverse Link Rate Control

In 1x EV-DO standard, AT can adjust reverse rate ranging from 9.6 Kb/s to 307.2 Kb/s.
The system must control the load on reverse links to avoid too many users in the same
sector transmitting data to AN at a high rate. This leads to all ATs becoming
unavailable.
AN follows the two mechanisms described to control the AT transmit rate:
Reverse rate limit (RRL): AN restricts the maximum reverse rate of AT to a level below
307.2 Kb/s using BroadcastReverseRateLimit or UnicastReverseRateLimit.
Reverse activated bit (RAB) and transition probability. On detecting low reverse link
load, the sector sets RAB to 0. ATs in that sector increase the reverse rate according to
a group of probable values like Transition009k6_019k2, Transition019k2_038k4,
Transition038k4_076k8, and Transition076k8_153k6. On detecting that high reverse
link load, the sector sets RAB to 1. All ATs must decrease the transmit rate according to
a group of probable values
Transition019k2 _ 009k6, Transition038k4 _ 019k2,
Transition 076k8 _038k4, and Transition153k6_076k8. If AT is in soft handoff mode,

any sector with RAB of 1 can decrease AT rate.
The key to reverse link rate control is to determine reverse link busy or idle state. A
more accurate method is to measure Rise over Thermal (ROT) at the receiving antenna
of each sector.
4.5.3 Forward Link TDM

Different from 1x TDM, 1x EV-DO forward links follow Time Division Multiplexing
(TDM) to serve all ATs. Within the same sector, one timeslot can serve one user only.
Same as IS-95/1x, 1x EV-DO forward pilot channel helps AT complete channel
estimation in system capture and demodulation.
In 1x EV-DO systems, AT determines the serving sector and maximum sector rate.
Measuring forward pilot and radio channel quality of ATs determine its implementation
standards. Since all BTSs send pilot at the same time, and the pilot transmits at full
power, AT can calculate accurate pilot strength and reflect BTS signals and interference
rapidly.
93
4.5.4 Forward Link Scheduling Strategy

To ensure maximum service rate provision to users, AT requests for the best data rate
according to C/I measured in the AN. According to the AT request, AN determines the
service provided to different users through scheduling algorithm.
Purpose of scheduling algorithm is to maximize system throughput and ensure service
provisioning to all users. Due to radio environment complexity, AT informs the system
of the highest acceptable data rate through the DRC channel. In the process of reaching
maximum throughput, the system sends data to the AT that reports maximum DRC
Value. However, other users are unable to use system services. The scheduling
algorithm aims to equalize throughput.
4.5.5 Forward Link Virtual Soft Handoff

Besides supporting various soft/softer handoffs like 1x system, 1x EV-DO introduces a
new handoff forward virtual handoff.
Forward virtual handoff enables only one sector to send data through forward channel
to the terminal at any time in the active set through forward channel. According to
received pilot signals quality, the terminal uses DRC cover of DRC channel to
designate the sector expected to send data. All sectors in the active set monitor reverse
channel of the terminal. Upon receiving DRC channel, the network determines serving
sector of the terminal. During forward virtual handoff, the terminal does not exchange
any signaling with the network. Entire handoff flow is very fast. In addition, handoff
requires use of only forward air resources of one sector. It increases utilization of
forward channels.
4.5.6 Adaptive Modulation Coding Technology

According to forward RF link transmission quality, the AT can request nine data rates.
The lowest rate is 38.4 Kb/s, and highest rate is 3.1 Mb/s. High-speed data
transmission on 1.25 MHz is because of high modulation and demodulation order as
well as the error correction coding technology.
4.5.7 R-P Session Establishment

In 1x EV-DO network, since routing does not use IMSI and MIN, 1x EV-DO AT need
not allocate IMSI/MIN in advance. R-P session handoff between BSC and PDSN
necessitates a new solution. Successful transfer session between BSCs in the same
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Chapter 7 Antenna
PDSN requires IMSIs of ATs to be the same.

Since AT has no IMSI, a session initiated between AT and PDSN leads BSC to assign
an IMSI to AT. 1x EV-DO standard introduces the new A12 interface, which interfaces
BSC and AN-AAA server.
The AN-AAA implements the following functions:
1.
AT authentication implementation.
2.
Sending IMSI in the authentication accept message to BSC. This IMSI

establishes R-P session between BSC and PDSN.
If not deploying AN-AAA server in the 1x EV-DO network, the BSC uses other
methods to allocate IMSI to ATs. However, IMSI must be unique in the entire network.
Without AN-AAA server, the R-P session handoff implementation between 1x EV-DO
BSC and 1x BSC is not possible. AT can use mobile IP only to keep its IP address
unchanged when passing through the network edge. AN-AAA deployment enables fast
handoff and improves AT performance when passing through the network edge.
4.6 Key PTT Technologies

Push-to-Talk (PTT) is one of the most remarkable trunking communication features in
communication networks. Trunking communication system is a key mobile
communication system branch. However, its application is still restricted to mobile
communication.
4.6.1 Channel Sharing

An important PTT feature is the forward traffic channel sharing. Channel sharing is the
premise of trunking communication. When one person in a group speaks, the other
members within the same group are unable to hear at the same time.
cdma2000 standard optimizes two forward system traffic channels and one reverse
traffic channel, enabling forward traffic channel sharing.
1.
Forward Dedicated Control Channel (F-DCCH): Establishment of independent

F-DCCH for each user enables transfer of signaling messages and power control
information.
2.
Forward Supplemental Channel (F-SCH): Transmits user voice data where FSCH assignment to each user in the same group has the same long code mask
95
and Walsh code. AT assigned to F-SCH in a group within a particular carrier

decodes F-SCH and implements F-SCH sharing. Energy received by each AT is
the energy of F-SCHs overlaid in the group within that carrier. Channel sharing
is the sharing of channel power and is a standard CDMA feature. Each F-SCH in
a group sends the same voice and data packet in the air. All F-SCHs send voice
and data in-sync.
3.
Reverse Dedicated Control Channel (R-DCCH): Transmits user signaling

messages and reverse voice data. Each activated user in a group has an assigned
R-DCCH. Only the terminal that receives authorization information from PDS
transfers voice on this channel.
4.6.2 Fast Connection

Another important PTT service feature is the fast group call and private call
connection.
Instead of traditional circuit connection mode, cdma2000 standard uses data channel to
set up fast call connection. Fast call connections reduce channel time as it does not
require PPP link establishment on data channel.
In terms of base station processing, cdma2000 standard implements concurrent
processing, which saves access time of users. For called group member, PDS obtains
local information of group members from the dispatched database and sends it to PDC,
facilitating BSC to page other members in the group quickly.
Although cdma2000 standard provides no PPP link, Common Trunking Message Link
(CTML)/Shared Trunking Data Link (STDL) and F-SCH sharing are standard features
of PTT. These features enable group users to remain online permanently.
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5 CDMA2000 1x EV_DO Theory & Key

Technologies
Knowledge Points:
Understand the history and future direction of EVDO technology
Understand the names and meanings of main network nodes and interfaces, the
main functions of protocol layer at EVDO network.
5.1 Development of CDMA2000 1x EV_DO

5.1.1 Overview
The initial name of 1x EV_DO is called High-Speed Data Rate (HDR, High Data
Rate). On August 1997, Qualcomm proposed the concept to CDMA Development
Group (CDG) and during the next few years, the technology has evolved into a
product, and the system demonstration of which is also performed. On March 2000,
3GPP2 formed a team to start working on the standardization of HDR. The name 1xEV
was obtained during the standardization process. Oct 2000, the standards on 1x
EV_DO was approved and numbered IS-856 at TIA/EIA and C.S0024 at 3GPP2. 1x
EV_DO is also called High-Speed Packet Data (HRPD, High Rate Packet Data) in
relevant standards published by 3GPP2.
The concept of 1x EV_DO was proposed under following considerations:
Packet data services and voice services have completely opposite requirements on
resources: Packet data services usually feature data bursts, able to tolerate delay and
delay variation and sensitive to errors. They have asymmetric forward and reverse
requirements, various QoS classes and target at maximum system throughput. Voice
services are relatively continuous, sensitive to trials and jittering and able to tolerate
errors. They have symmetric forward and reverse requirements, relatively simple QoS
classes and target at maximum Erlang capacity. Judging from the technology of that
time, if voice and data are provided on the same carrier, they will affect each other and
require complex mechanism to coordinate. If the two services are provided on different
carriers and use different transmission and control methods, system architecture and
97
resource control software will be greatly simplified, which helps voice and data to
obtain better service quality.
Although 1x EV_DO transfers packet data services on different carriers and does not
support voice, it has similar frequency features with IS-95/CDMA20001x, such as the
below:
Same chip rate
Compatible link budget
Same frequency for network and terminal devices
Therefore, original plan can still be adopted during actual deployment to provide better
backward compatibility and guarantee smooth transition.
In regard of the characteristics of high-speed packet data transmission, 1x EV_DO uses
various technologies on Forward Link which are very different from CDMA2000 1x,
such as high order modulation, dynamic data rate control, fast cell selection and time
division scheduling, etc. Meantime, to support data transmission on Forward Link,
some new measures are adopted on Reverse Link (RL). While evolving to RevA
version, RL uses a completely new data transmission mechanism to greatly improve
reverse link throughput.
To separate itself from 1x voice services, 1x EV_DO standard uses AN and AT as its
Network Element instead of BS (Base Station) and MS (Mobile Station). AN refers to
Access Network, which is equivalent to a Base Station. AT refers to Access Terminal,
which is equivalent to a Mobile Station.
As an important member of CDMA2000, EV-DO technology is continuously evolving.
Up until year 2007, world-wide and commercially used EV-DO standards consist of
DO Rev0 and DO RevA. Due to the huge discrepancy existing between FL and RL,
DO Rev0 is suitable for asymmetric high-speed downlink services. DO RevA standards
has recently adopted many key technologies to promote RL throughput to a great extent
and greatly improve link delay. For example, QoS is a key technology adopted by DO
RevA standard to provide better customer experience within fixed wireless bandwidth.
5.1.2 Air Interface Evolution

Overall
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Chapter 7 Antenna
EV-DO Rev.0, 1st version for Air Interface Protocol released on Oct. 2000.
EV-DO Rev.A, 1st version for Air Interface Protocol released on Jun. 2004.
EV-DO Rev.B, 1st version for Air Interface Protocol released on Jun. 2006.
UMB (Ultra Mobile Broadband), 2.0 version for Air Interface Protocol
publicized on Aug. 2007.
Cdma2000 1x: currently consists of release0 and releaseA, the difference of which
being 307.2kbps and concurrent service support. ZTE products are able to support 1x
RevA at 2004.
After 1x, there are two directions for development: DO and DV. DV consists of
Release C (V1.0 released on May 2002, V2.0 released on Aug 2004, focusing on the
standardization of FL) and Release D (released on Mar 2004, focusing on the
standardization of RL).
Compared with DV, DO is gradually dominating. By year 2005 when Sprint switched
to deploy EVDO, subsequent progress of EVDV stopped.
After EVDO RevA, there is first RevB, which has completed standardization at 2006.
It mainly features scalable bandwidth, able to bind as many as 15 RevA carriers and
occupies 20M bandwidth to provide 46.5M FL throughput (or 73.5Mbps if using
64QAM).
After EVDO RevB, there is EVDO RevC, which is now renamed UMB. The
standardization of UMB is completed at 2007.
The most obvious characteristic for Cdma2000 standard evolution is its smoothness.
99
Only one signaling board need to be replaced during the evolution from IS-95 (2G) to
CDMA2000 1x (3G) along with software upgrade. It takes a bit more effort during the
evolution from 1x to DO because DO is incompatible with 1x. However due to same
radio frequency, system equipment upgrading and terminal dual-mode is very nature.
Again, only one signaling board needs to be replaced during the evolution from DO 0
to DO A, plus software upgrade. Since all standards use the same 1.25M bandwidth,
such in-band migration is convenient for engineer and frequency planning.
Comparatively speaking, the above stages is equivalent to WCDMA-1x, HSDPA-DO 0
and HSUPA-DO A of 3GPP.
5.1.3 Network Reference Model

EV_DO reference model is shown as below, which consists of the following function
units.
Figure. 5.1-1 EV-DO Network Structure Reference Model
Table 5.1-17 NE Description
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Chapter 7 Antenna
AAA
Authentication, Authorization and Accounting

Access Network works together with Access Terminal (AT) to complete the access function of wireless
AN
communication. One AN equals to one BSS of 1x system. Besides, AN also logically consists of
session control and mobility management.
AN AAA
An entity to perform Authentication of access equipment within RAN.
AT
Access Terminal, capable of both 1x and HRPD.
MSC/MSCe
Mobile Switch Center
PCF
Packet Control Function, responsible for data transmission from AN to PDSN.
PDSN
Packet Data Service Node
Table 5.1-18 Interface Description

A8
A9
A10
A11
To bear data transmission between AN and PCF

To bear signaling transmission between AN and PCF and to maintain A8 data connection between An
and RCF
To bear data transmission between PCF and PDSN
To bear signaling transmission between PCF and PDSN and to maintain A10 data connection between
PCF and PDSN
To connect AN and AN AAA and transfers only signaling. A12 mainly completes the authentication of
A12
Access Terminal at AN level and after successful access authentication of MS/AT, AN AAA will return
MNID to AN for the interface between A8/A9 and A10/A11. A12 interfaces adopt RADIUS (Remote
Authentication Dial-In User Service) protocol.
A13
A16
To support AT-related information exchange between source AN and destination AN while AT is

roaming.
To support hard hand-off among AN, signaling bearer, and transmit connected session information
between source and destination AN.
To support soft/softer hand-off among AN, signaling bearer and is used as dedicated endpoint for A18
A17
and A19 interfaces. Also A17 interface is used as forward control signaling channel between source
and destination AN.
A18
A19
Used for data bearer during soft/softer handoff among ANs. The endpoint of A18 interface is
established through A17 interface.
Used for soft/softer handoff among ANs, transmission between source and destination BTS and
sending related control signaling to BS.
5.1.4 Air Interface Protocol Layer

EV_DO air interface is divided into 7 layers, as shown below. Each layer consists of
one or more protocols which can be negotiated separately.
101
Figure. 5.1-2 Architecture of DO Air Interfaces
The protocols described above are:

Application Layer: provides multiple applications, such as transmitting messages and
packet data. This layer is mainly responsible for the reliable transmission of signaling
and packet data.
1.
Stream Layer: provides a priority mechanism for current dividing and

multiplexing of application layer services and signaling.
Session
Layer:
provides
address
management,
protocol
negotiation,
configuration and status maintenance.

Connection Layer: provides air interface link establishment and maintenance.
Security Layer: provides encryption and authentication.
Medium Access Control Layer (MAC layer): defines the process that receives
from and transmits to Physical Layer.
2.
Physical Layer: specifies forward and reverse channel structure, code and
modulation, etc.
5.2 Advantages of EVDO RevA over EVDO Rls0

There are two EVDO commercial versions: Rls0 and RevA. EVDO RevA has
commercially developed in large-scale since 2006 and has gradually replaced Rls0
globe wide. Main advantages of RevA are reflected at following aspects.
1.
In Terms of Data Rate

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Chapter 7 Antenna
RevA version has improved RL throughput with maximum data rate reaching
1.8Mbps/s. RL adopts adaptive modulation and includes high-order modulation.
On the other hand, RL uses H-ARQ mechanism and under the wireless
environment of constantly changing channel status, it terminates frame
transmission early. Due to the high probability of RL package early termination,
now only 8 slots are required to send the package compared with 16 slots before,
therefore improving RL throughput.
The highest data rate of FL has also improved, reaching 3.1Mbit/s. RevA
forward and reverse service channels support longer and smaller packets, while
FL also supports multi-user packet. Between the lowest and highest data rate,
multiple non-nominal data rate classes are derived since forward and reverse
link uses HARQ and early termination techniques. This has realized more
flexible service rate adaptation and enhanced spectrum efficiency.
2.
In Terms of Physical Structure

Subtype 2 at the Physical Layer of RevA is very different from that of Rls0,
adding many new features and characteristics: it has enhanced functions for
access channel and control channel. Besides, it has defined new structure of
RevA forward and reverse service channel.
Newly added RL Auxiliary Pilot channel;
Newly added FL ARQ channel to realize the H-ARQ function of Physical Layer
reverse channel;
Reverse Capacity/Latency trade-off;
Newly added RL DSC channel to realize FL Seamless Server Selection;
Application and fast connection of Short Packets
3.
In Terms of Supporting QoS

Release 0 adopts Best Effort Mechanism and doesnt take into too much
consideration for QoS.
However, RevA enhances QoS support and has made improvement on Physical
Layer, MAC Layer and higher layers. It can support much smaller data packets
on FL and forward multi-user simultaneous transmission. Also, RLP and MAC
support multiflow classification. RL adopts sub-packet transmission in order to
reduce average transmission delay (8solt reduced to 2solt). MAC Layer uses
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T2P (Traffic-to-Pilot) to effectively reduce the time delay and jitter of delay
sensitive services. Newly added DSC channel can improve switch-over speed,
while the newly added Multi Flow Packet Application enables multi-RLP
applications to work simultaneously for one user connection. Therefore, one
instance corresponds to one application and each application has individual QoS
strategy so as to realize user QoS management. Also, enhanced RLP supports
flexible QoS and enhanced timeslot mode reduces connection setup time for
delay-sensitive services.
4.
In Terms of Protocol Structure

Besides supporting all protocols of Release 0, many new protocols are also
added in RevA version to realize new functions (shown in following
diagram).
Figure. 5.2-3 Newly Added Protocols of DO RevA
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Chapter 7 Antenna
RevA better supports the dual-mode operation between 1x and DO. In order to obtain
circuit domain information and set up connection between the circuit network of DO
and that of 1x, network-side structure is modified to enable EV-DO BSC to support
IOS A1 interfaces of 1x system and to receive paging and SMS messages sent by 1x
MSC. Air Interface Application Layer has added CSSNP (Circuit-Switched Service
Notification Protocol) to encapsulate circuit domain messages into specified data
packets and then transmit to dual-mode terminal through tunnel protocols defined at
EV-DO air interface.
5.3 EVDO RevA Physical Layer

Knowledge Points:
Understand the channel structure of EVDO Physical Layer FL and RL and the
main functions of each channel
Understand the formation mechanism of service data rate of EVDO Physical

Layer FL and RL
There are three sub-types of DO RevA Physical Layer: Subtype0, Subtype1 and
Subtype2. Subtype0 is the same as DO Rls0, while Subtype 1 only differs from Rls0 at
access channel. The main characteristics of RevA are reflected at Subtype2.
5.3.1 Forward Channel

Lets introduce the timeslot structure for FL first and then the structure for each
channel.
EVDO forward physical layer channel consists of pilot channel, MAC, service and
control channel, with time division multiplexing among the channels. The frame length
of FL is 80/3ms, with each frame consisting of 16 slots. The length of each slot is
(80/3)/16=5/3ms, i.e. one second consists of 3/0.080=37.5 frames and 37.516=600
timeslots.
105
Figure. 5.3-4 Forward Link Timeslot Structure
The above figure shows forward link timeslot structure with each time slot consisting
of 2048 chips. Chip rate is 16*2048/(0.080/3)=1.2288Mcps, same as that of IS95/CDMA2000 1x chip. Each half-slot consists of 1024 chips, including one-time pilot
burst of 96 chips that occupy the center of the half timeslot. MAC messages burst twice
every half timeslot, with 64 chips each time, occupying the front and back of pilot. The
upper half part of the figure shows active timeslot, consisting of not only pilot burst,
MAC message, but data stream. The signaling and packet data on forward control
channel and service channel share the timeslots of data stream. The lower half part of
the figure shows idle timeslots transmitting no data stream.
Compared with Rls0, DO RevA has added ARQ channel for forward channels and
modified Control, Traffic, RA, DRCLock and RPC channels, shown as the figure
below.
Figure. 5.3-5 Schematic Diagram for RevA Physical Layer Forward Channel
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Chapter 7 Antenna
Pilot channel assists AT for system acquisition and differentiates different AN sectors.
All sectors send forward pilot burst at the same time. AT evaluates the best service
sector and maximum data rate through measuring the Pilot Strength CI of each active
cluster, and each timeslot reports the request for data rate and expected sector to AN
through DRC (Data Rate Control). AN schedules preamble and data transmission
through received DRC messages.
Control channel is similar to the combination of paging channel and control channel of
IS-95/CDMA2000 1x and is used as public configuration parameter of broadcasting
system for signaling transmission. There are two data rates for control channel:
76.8kbps38.4kbps and 19.2kbps.
Service channel transmit packet data and multiple users can share the channel through
time division. Service channel is always transmitting at full rate with no power control
and its rate control is based on various rate classes (nominal rate 38.4kbps~3.1Mbps)
provided according to forward channel quality. The code rate and modulation type of
RevA forward nominal rate is shown in the following table. Please take into account
that DO RevA can also transmit data at non- nominal rate, the packet of which is
relatively small and the rate of which is slower than nominal rate.
Table 5.3-19 DO Forward Rate and Modulation Parameters
Transmission Format
Code Rate
Nominal Data Rate
Modulation Type
(kbps)
(1024, 16, 1024)
1/5
QPSK
38.4
(1024, 8, 512)
1/5
QPSK
76.8
(1024, 4, 256)
1/5
QPSK
153.6
(1024, 2, 128)
1/5
QPSK
307.2
(1024, 1, 64)
1/3
QPSK
614.4
(2048, 4, 128)
1/3
QPSK
307.2
(2048, 2, 64)
1/3
QPSK
614.4
(2048, 1, 64)
1/3
QPSK
1,228.8
(3072, 2, 64)
1/3
8-PSK
921.6
(3072, 1, 64)
1/3
8-PSK
1,843.2
(4096, 2, 64)
1/3
16-QAM
1,228.8
(4096, 1, 64)
1/3
16-QAM
2,457.6
(5120, 2, 64)
1/3
16-QAM
1,536.0
(5120, 1, 64)
1/3
16-QAM
3,072.0
MAC channel is divided into multiple channels, including RA, RPC, DRCLock and
107
ARQ, etc. Among which, RA channel is used to dynamically control RL load. When
AN detects excessive reverse load, it will indicate AT to reduce reverse data rate
through RA. RPC channel is used for reverse power control and DRCLock for
notifying AT whether BS can lock reverse signals (i.e. whether BS can properly receive
the DRC signals sent from AT). RA, RPC and DRCLock shares MAC channel via code
division multiplexing and continuously sends messages at FL. ARQ is a channel newly
added by DO RevA due to the new reverse HARQ mechanism of RevA version. ARQ
transmits to AN information whether RL data package is accurately modulated, with
ACK indicating accurate modulation and NAK otherwise.
5.3.2 Reverse Channel

Reverse channel consists of access channel and service channel, among which access
channel consists of pilot channel and data channel (the relation of which is code
division multiplexing), while service channel consists of pilot channel, auxiliary pilot
channel, MAC channel, ACK channel and data channel. MAC channel also include
sub-channels such as DSC, RRI and DRC, as shown below.
Figure. 5.3-6 Schematic Diagram for RevA Physical Layer Reverse Channel
The timeslot structure of RevA reverse service channel is shown in following figure. It
shows that besides ACK and DSC that uses time division multiplexing, all other
channels use code division multiplexing.
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Chapter 7 Antenna
Figure. 5.3-7 RevA Reverse Service Channel Timeslot Structure
The main functions of each reverse channel will be introduced.

AT tries to establish services with AN through sending access attempts at access
channel. Each access attempt includes two parts: preamble consisting of only pilot and
pilot plus data. AT estimates the transmitting power of first access attempt through
open loop. In case there is no reply from AN, AT will initiate new access attempt with
enhanced transmitting power.
Service channel exist when link is connected. Pilot and Auxiliary Pilot send
unmodulated direct-sequence spread-spectrum signals as additional phase reference for
BS coherent demodulation and provide an improved method for signal strength
measurement. Data channel transmits packet data. ACK channel confirms whether
received forward packet data is accurate and replies ACK or NAK accordingly. DRC
channel is used by AT to request the best FL service sector and nominal data rate from
AN and as the input for AN FL schedueling.
In RevA, DSC channel is added for AT to indicate to BS the target service sector it
wishes to switch to before virtual soft handoff. DSC channel transmission can either be
null-cover or cell-cover. In case of cell-cover, it represents FL data source, which is a
group of sectors helping AT to maintain FL data queue. These sectors exist at AT active
set and AT will point the DSC to one sector of the FL data source. When AT enters
fixed DRC status, it will send null-cover on DSC channel to realize continuous data
transfer during switchover. DSC and DRC channels are used together to greatly reduce
virtual soft handoff time delay. DSC and ACK channel work via time division
multiplexing.
RRI channel indicates the nominal rate class and sub-frame SN of RL data package.
109
Data channel is used to send user packet data. Data package can be sent at 4, 8, 12 or
16 timeslots, with every four timeslots defined as one sub-frame. New data package
can be sent at the initial moment of the sub-frame. The correspondence relation
between reverse service channel package and modulation method is shown below.
Table 5.3-20 Reverse Service Channel Modulation Parameters
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Chapter 7 Antenna
The largest visible packet is 12288bit and when it is accurately modulated after sending
the first sub-frame (4 timeslots), RL can reach highest rate 1.843Mbps. Whereas the
smallest packet is 128bit and when it is accurately modulated by AN after sending the
fourth sub-frame (4 timeslots), RL can reach lowest rate 4.8kbps.
The modulation methods used by RevA Data channel include B4 (BPSK modulation
followed by 4-ary Walsh cover), Q4 (QPSK modulation followed by 4-ary Walsh
cover), Q2 (QPSK modulation followed by 2-ary Walsh cover), Q4Q2 (sum of Q4 and
Q2), E4E2 (sum of 8-PSK modulation followed by 4-ary Walsh cover) and 8-PSK
modulation followed by 2-ary Walsh cover. Specified modulation method
corresponding to various packet size is show above.
5.4 EVDO Key Technologies

Knowledge Points
Understand the role and mechanism of some key EVDO technologies
Understand the impact of such key technologies on wireless network planning and
optimization
5.4.1 Forward TDM/Fixed Power Transmission

EVDO FL uses multiplexing waveform, which is reflected in two aspects. (1) Different
forward channels share every timeslot via time division and every channel transmits at
full rate. (2) Different users share system timeslot resources and at each timeslot,
system only serves specified users. The choice of multi-user scheduling depends on FL
optimization target.
At a certain moment, EVDO assigns all sector power to one user, instead of sharing
power among active users. However, 1x FL uses code multiplexing waveform and
there is always certain margin with sector power. The size of margin depends on the
number of user within the sector and the power assigned to each user. Such margin is
used to help each user maintain fixed target Frame Error Rate under fading channel, so
as to adjust power control. The following figure shows sector power consumption at 1x
and EVDO systems. From the figure, we can see that each 1x channel (pilot,
synchronous, paging and service) transmits a certain percentage of total sector power at
any time, while each EVDO channel (pilot, MAC and Data) transmits total sector
power at a fixed time.
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The effective usage of EVDO sector power improves not only cell coverage but also
the signal/noise ratio of noise-limited users. Full-rate pulse pilot channel is suitable for
burst features of packet services and transmits pulse signal at full rate within specified
timeslots. In this case, pilot signal is not interfered by data signals, which is better for
extracting pilot signals. Meanwhile, pilot signals transmit at full rate and provide
higher SINR, more beneficial for AT to complete more accurate C/I measurement.
Figure. 5.4-8 FL Power Consumption - CDMA1x (left) and EVDO (right)
5.4.2 Virtual Soft Handoff Technology

One of the targets for EVDO system design is to support asymmetric high-speed burst
packet services. When designing 1xEV-DO, on the one hand, it needs to guarantee
relevantly higher instant bandwidth required by data burst, on the other hand, it should
improve system capacity through multi-user time sharing the full rate transmitted by
BS. Therefore after taking into consideration both system capacity and reducing
signaling consumption, EVDO adopts virtual soft handoff technology.
In EVDO system, one terminal can maintain wireless connection with one or multiple
BSs of its active cluster set. The concept of active set is similar to that of IS-95/1x.
Access terminal reports to AN the strongest FL pilot it can measure then AN will
choose an active set for every terminal. Every sector of the active set links with
terminals. For any terminal, the active set is also the set of RL power control sector.
However, different from IS-95 where the transmitting power of forward service
channel of all active sets are different, EVDO only transmits at the best link with no
power transmission at any other link. To realize the above function, terminal monitors
the sector signal/noise ratio of all active sets and notify network the selected service
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Chapter 7 Antenna
sector through DRC channel. The so-called Virtual Soft Handoff mechanism
eliminates FL soft handoff consumption and optimizes the maximum reception of
signal/noise ratio.
Virtual Soft Handoff is shown in the following diagram.
Figure. 5.4-9 Schematic Diagram of Virtual Soft Handoff
Seen from the above diagram, the terminal maintains communication with signals from
four cells at the same time and AP1 sends data to the terminal before t1. At t1, the pilot
C/I of AP2 is higher than AP1, therefore AP2 will send data to the terminal and AP1
will stop sending data and only maintain signal communication.
Compared with soft/softer handoff, virtual soft handoff reduces handoff signaling
overhead. But with DO forward virtual soft handoff, AT selects the best signal strength
sector for service and obtains diversity gain. Therefore, virtual soft handoff has smaller
diversity gain compared with 1x forward maximum ratio combining.
To reduce the delay in virtual soft handoff during high-speed real-time service packet
transmission, EVDO RevA has added DSC channel. As shown below, AT will, through
DSC channel, inform AN to switch in advance after detecting strong pilot frequency
and indicate AN which sector to switch to through DRC. AN communicates with the
origin and destination sector to accurately informs origin sector when to stop
transmission and when to start transmission and make preparations for switchover in
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advance. Meanwhile, the sector indicated by DRC will not change until AT starts
switchover and set DRCCover as Null Cover. During Null Cover, DRCIndex=1, i.e.
origin sector can continue transmission at data rate of 38.4kbps. After several Null
Cover, DRCCover informs AT to receive data using destination sector, while
destination sector will start sending data to AT from that moment and origin sector will
stop sending data to AT. During the entire process, data transmission will not be
interrupted, so called Seamless FL server selection.
Due to the seamlessness, the speed of EVDO RevA virtual soft handoff, is much faster
than that of EVDO Rls0.
Figure. 5.4-10 Schematic Diagram of EVDO RevA Handoff
5.4.3 Data Control Technique

The target for 1x EV-DO FL optimization is system throughput maximization. FL uses
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Time Division Multiplexing and Multi-user Dispatching technique, while packet

transport rate is a key parameter of Multi-user Dispatching, how to adjust packet
transport rate according to wireless link quality and system resources situation,
becomes a significant issue faced by the improvement of system throughput
performance. The target of 1xEV-DO reverse link optimization is to minimize the
length of average packet buffer array of all the users in current service sector, based on
the factors such as system load and length of end buffer array. Employing the rate
control helps improving the use ratio of reverse link wireless resources. Meanwhile,
since the reverse link of 1x EV-DO is code division multi-address, rate control is
needed to limit the interference of multi-user at the BTS. 1x EV-DO reverse link rate
control combined with rate control mechanism, can better ensure the requirements on
multi-user access and system throughput etc.
5.4.3.1 FL Rate Control
Here is the example of EVDO FL rate control algorithm, with the block of realization
as follows:
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Forward pilot
end
Signal
noise
ration
estimation
of the pilot
Rate
configurati
on
selecting
Channel
prediction
DRC
requesting rate
Threshold
Adjusting
the
threshold
of signal
noise ratio
by selfadaptation
Target error rate
Service
sector
Error
Packet
code
translation
Forward
service channel
packet
Correct
ACK
Figure. 5.4-11 Example of FL rate control algorithm
The algorithm covers the following steps:

1.
Pilot SINR estimation: at each time slot, the end calculates the pilot signal noise
ratio of the forward link through the coherent collections.
2.
Channel prediction: considering the signal noise ratio estimation of forward

pilot during the past period, predict the signal noise ration of forward pilot at the
next time slot.
3.
Based on the pre-set or self-adapted signal noise ration threshold, check the
table to get the maximum transport ration supported by the forward link at the
next time slot. The setting method of the signal noise ratio threshold is as
follows:
Experience setting method: for the feature of typical wireless environment,

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Chapter 7 Antenna
on the premise that a certain error rate performance is ensured, set the
range of signal noise ratio threshold corresponding to different rate
configurations.
Self-adaptation adjusting method: the system measures the error rate of

packet transportation in real time. On the premise of meeting the error rate
requirements, dynamically adjust the signal noise ratio threshold
corresponding to different rate configurations.
4.
The end estimates the transport rate supported by the forward link at the next
time slot, sends to the BTS through DRC channel. After the BTS dispatches the
user, it sends the packet with the rate requested by the user. The end calculates
the packet error rate according to the packet code translation, and takes it as the
basis of adjusting the signal noise ratio threshold by self-adaptation.
5.4.3.2 Reverse Link Rate Control (T2P)

Different from CDMA2000 1x BTS which decides the transport rate of reverse service
channel, the 1x EV-DO end decides the transport rate of reverse service channel by
itself according to the limitation conditions sent by the BTS.
In DO RevA, for the characteristic of abrupt data service, T2P technique is introduced
in the reverse rate control. The contribution of each AT to the sector load is closely
related to its average T2P. For the end, T2P is the basic resource measuring
information. T2P of the end directly decides its available wireless resources of the end,
and the end can decide the available bandwidth of the reverse link according to the
current available T2P. So that the end can decide the most appropriate T2P value in real
time according to the loading situation of the system and the available resources of
itself, to improve the use rate of reverse wireless resources. In order that the end can
obtain the information real-time updated system load change, each time slot the sector
will broadcast RAB information. Correspondingly, at each time slot, the terminal filters
the de-modulated RAB from each sector in Active Set. That is to say, if the system is in
idle status, the end can add its own T2P resources information. While, if the system is
in loaded status, the end will decrease its own T2P resources information. The specific
adding or decreasing rang, depends on the changing of both current T2P resources and
system loading in quite a long duration (generally 256 time slots). If the end needs to
send the reverse link, it can determine the T2P resource which can be used for the
transmission of this time according to the T2P resources owned currently, and then
determine the data rate of the reverse link actually transmitted. The T2P technique can
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control the transmission rate more accurately, and make use of the wireless resources of
the system more efficiently.
The detailed process of T2P technique is: the receiving end receives the RAB from the
sector of Active Set to perform Logic Or.
If the result equals 1, it indicates the sector busy (sector loading heavy). The status
variable T2P of current AT minus gd(), and gd() is the function of T2P and sector
loading;
If the result is 0, it indicates the sector idle (sector loading light). The status
variable T2P of current AT is added with gu(), and gu()is the function of T2P
and sector loading;
Then obtain the reverse data rate which should be used according to
transmission rate and T2P mapping table.
T2P dispatching and related parameters are configured dynamically by the system
according to the dispatching policy. In this way, different types of service applications
use different control parameters, so as to dispatch flexibly for each flow of each end.
Then the problem, that the same end needs to support different QoS while providing
service to different service, is solved. The specific method includes priority sending
and fixed rate sending.
T2P can work in automatic mode and dispatching mode. By default the end works in
automatic mode. After it is dispatched by the BTS, it works in dispatching mode. If the
dispatching mode works overtime, it can be switched to automatic mode seamlessly.
Under the automatic mode, T2P dispatching and related parameters are configured by
the BTS according to the dispatching policy of the system, and sent to the end. The end
can make an instant dispatching on the power by using T2P. The end can fix T2P
dispatching according to the service requirements of each flow, and dispatch T2P with
higher priority for each flow. Under the dispatching mode, if the end can not meet the
requirements under the automatic mode, it can apply for extra T2P permit from the
BTS. The network makes dispatching as per each flow of each end. The priority is
related to T2P requested by the end, QoS weight of the terminal, cell number of the
activity set, and average T2P power. The flow of the end calculated to be of highest
priority will be dispatched, from all the ends, select a flow that needs dispatching most,
and assign T2P resources, including sending power and duration T2Phold. If T2Phold
works overtime, AT is switched to automatic mode seamlessly. The dispatching may
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continue with the next new packet based on the needs of the flow.
5.4.4 Reverse Power Control Technique

In EVDO system, since the forward power is stable, there is no issue of power control.
The power control mainly refers to reverse channel, including open loop estimation and
closed loop power correction. Here is a brief introduction as follows.
The reverse power control controls the output power of the access terminal to ensure
the quality of reverse link, and meanwhile the generated interference is minimized, and
the system capacity is maximized. While the average reverse signal noise ratio (SNR)
of each user supports the acceptable performance with the lowest overhead, the highest
system capacity can be obtained.
The reverse power control of EVDO is composed of three parts:
Open loop power control, AT judges the reverse link conditions according to the
receiving power of the forward pilot channel, and AT adjusts the initial launching
power to compensate the path loss;
Closed loop power control, AN feeds back the power control information at forward
RPC (Reverse Power Control) according to the de-modulation performance of the
reverse data, and then AT adjusts the launching power of the reverse pilot based on it;
Outer loop power control, based on CRC check at BSC;
Each AT estimates the total receiving power of assigned CDMA forward link channel.
Based on the measurement and the correction provided by AN, AT adjusts its launching
power within a pre-defined level to compensate the path loss to AN. For the closed
loop correction, AT adjusts its launching power to respond to each power control
command received at the forward link. In EVDO, AT adjusts its pilot power level
according to the information transferred by the closed loop power control, keeps
consistent with it. DRC and ACK channel power change as the pilot channel power
changes. The setting of relative gain at the service, DRC and ACK channel shall
reserve sufficient space for AT power amplification. The closed loop correction is to
keep the receiving signal noise ratio of AT reverse pilot within the threshold of one
power control (PCT) or a defined value, so as to ensure the target error packet ration
PER (the nominal value is 1%). The algorithm used to dynamically adjust the power
control threshold to ensure the reverse service channel PER=1% is reverse link outerloop power control (RPC).
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5.4.5 Technique of Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request (H-ARQ)

The traditional technique of ARQ has a common shortcoming: only resending the error
frame, with no error correcting function. To save the system resources, the EVDO
system employs the technique of HARQ which mixes the error checking and correction
function of channel coding, with the traditional ARQ resending function.
Type-I HARQ combines the mechanism of Front Error Control (FEC) and ARQ. While
receiving a data frame, it first translates the codes and corrects the errors. If the error
can be corrected, it accepts the data frame. Otherwise, it will discard the data frame,
and sends NAK reply meanwhile, requesting the sending end to re-send the data frame.
Type-I HARQ only simply discards the data frame with error, so it can not make full
use of the useful information included in the error data frame.
Type-II HARQ saves the data frame with codes which can not be translated correctly,
and combines the frame with the received resent frame and translates the codes
together, to improve the probability of correct translated codes. Compared with Type-I
HARQ, Type-II HARQ is realized with saving and combined handling ability added at
the receiving end.
Since the data frame resent by Type-II HARQ is the same as the one sent for the first
time, therefore the improvement of the error correction ability is limited. To be adapted
to the requirements of stable transmitting under the condition of complex wireless link,
HARQ technique of EVDO introduces the mechanism of redundancy code translation
increasing by degrees based on Type-IIHARQ.
The mechanism of redundancy code translation increasing by degrees is to increase the
probability of correct code translation by enhancing the redundancy of the sent codes
gradually. For the first time sending the coded data frame, the way of high coding rate
but low redundancy; If the receiving end can not correctly translate the codes, decrease
the coding rate but increase the redundancy of the coding, and resend the error data
frame; The receiving end combine-translate the codes of the data frame with the same
information received by several times. The procedures repeat several times, until the
codes can be translated correctly or the specific maximum resending times are reached.
In the EVDO system, to gain a small packet error rate (PER), the rate requested by
DRC is usually modest, especially under the condition of fast changing channel, the
rate requested by DRC is usually lower than the maximum sending rate supported by
the forward link, and therefore it leads to a waste of forward link resources. HARQ
mechanism partially solves the problem.
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In the real process, EVDO forward link employs Turbo coding, and the code stream
output from the coder is composed of original information code stream of the codes
and its check code. Under the situation of multi-time-slot transmission, the BTS first
sends the original information code stream. If the receiving end can correctly translate
the codes, the consequent code stream will be stopped beforehand. Otherwise, the
receiving end returns NAK. After the system receives NAK, it re-sends the consequent
cheek code stream. And then the receiving end combine-translate the original
information code stream received before and the received check code stream.
With Turbo codings powerful error correction function, the error correction function of
HARQ is further improved. Since the technique of advance termination is employed,
the time slot number occupied by most data packets during the actual transmitting is
less than the maximum time slot number assigned for DRC requesting rate. The saved
time slots can be used for the sending of new data packets, so as to improve the use rate
of forward link resources and the system spectrum efficiency. And besides, the
technique of multi-time slot interleaving is introduced in the system, the transmitting
time interval of the adjacent time slots in the multi-time-slot data packets is three time
slots, and the interval time slots can be used for transmitting the data packets of other
users. The following figure gives an example of stopping beforehand during the
interleaving transmitting of the multi-time-slot data packets.
The first transport time
slot of the next physical
layers data packets
4 time slots
interleaving
Transport
time slot 1
The forward service

channel transports the
data packets at the rate
of 153.6k bit/s
Slot
Transport
time slot 2
Transport
time slot 3
Transport
time slot 4
n+1 n+2 n+3 n+4 n+5 n+6 n+7 n+8 n+9 n+10 n+11 n+12
DRC channel
requesting at the
rate of 153.6k bit/s
DRC
requesting
rate at bit/s
1/2 time slot bias

1 time slot
ACK channel
transporting (half
time slot occupied)
NAK
NAK
ACK
1 time slot
Figure. 5.4-12 Example of Advance Termination of Multi-TS Packet Transmission
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Since the Turbo code translation if very complex, re-sending for several times may lead
to a long time processing delay. Therefore, HARQ technology is quite limited while
used in the transporting of real time service.
In HARQ, the function of HARQ is enhanced a little. ARQ channel is added to the
forward, to support the HARQ function of reverse physical channel.
One frame is divided into 4 sub-frames in the reverse of RevA. Each sub-frame
occupies 4 subsequent time slots, and each sub-frame can transport one sub data
packet. Sub data packet is the minimum unit transmitted by the reverse service channel.
Each reverse physical layer packet can be transmitted on 4 sub frames. While
transmitting one data packet occupies more than one sub frame, between the sub
frames of the data packet, interlacing is needed with two sub frames as an interval. AN
combines the received sub data packets and forms one data packet.
The forward ARQ covers three kinds of ARQ, respectively H-ARQ, L-ARQ and PARQ. After H-ARQ bit receives the first, second and third sub-packets in AN, and they
are transmitted on ARQ channel. After L-ARQ bit receives the fourth sub-packet of the
reverse physical layer, it is transmitted on ARQ channel. P-ARQ bit is transmitted at
time slot m, m+1, m+2, to indicate whether AN succeeds in receiving the data packet
sent from AT at time slot m-48.
The following figure shows the forward ARQ mechanism after the sub data packets of
all the 4 reverse service channel are transmitted. Under the condition, AN using HARQ bit to send NAK on ARQ channel indicates 3 sub data packets are not correctly
received by AN. After the fourth sub packet is sent, AN using L-ARQ and P-ARQ bit
to send ACK indicates the data packet of the reverse service channel has been received
successfully.
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Figure. 5.4-13 Schematic diagram of sending reverse service channel packet at maximum duration
The following figure shows the situation that one reverse data packet is sent through 2
sub data packets. After the sub data packet of the second reverse service channel is sent
out, AN uses H-ARQ bit at ARQ channel to send ACK information, confirming the
data packet is successfully received. After AT receives ACK, it will not send the rest
time slots of the data packet, but send the data packet of the next reverse service
channel on the next sub frame. Meanwhile on sub frame ACK, AN uses P-ARQ bit at
ARQ channel to send the confirming information ACK.
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Figure. 5.4-14 Schematic diagram of stopping reverse service channel packet beforehand
The following figure shows that, one reverse service channel packet is sent through 4
sub data packets, without receiving the confirming information of AN, it stops sending
the packet. Under the situation, after the reverse first, second and third sub data packets
are sent, the forward ARQ channel uses H-ARQ bit to send NAK information. After
the reverse fourth data packet is sent, the forward ARQ uses L-ARQ bit to send LARQ, and uses P-ARQ bit to send NAK information after sub frame n+12.
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Figure. 5.4-15 Schematic diagram of sending reverse service channel packet failed
5.4.6 Multiple User Diversity/Forward dispatching

The concept of n+12 stream is introduced in EVDO RevA. While the real time service
such as VoIP, VT is considered, the forward dispatching method is very different from
that of EVDO Release 0, the service of high QoS is of high priority. But for BE service
((http, ftp) etc., the dispatching method is the same as that of Release 0.
5.4.6.1 Several Groups of Basic Concepts
Flow and Queue

Flow is the set of one type of data. It may be composed of the following data:
data flow applied by the user (may include one or more applications), such as
FTP, VOIP, HTTP etc.; the signaling flow or testing flow generated by the
system;
QoS Classes
QoS is mainly divided into three categories, including:
BE (Best Effort): the same as pure data service, having no requirement on delay
and minimum rate, but the BER with lower requirements, and the data amount
transported may be high, with the application example FTP and HTTP;
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AF (Assured Forwarding): except for the requirement on lowest rate, other

aspects are similar to BE flow, with the application example Video Stream;
EF (Expedited Forwarding): generally with a requirement on low rate, and quite
high requirement on end to end delay, but the requirement on BER is not as high
as BE/AF, allowing some data to be lost (for instance, 1%~2% of application
data to be lost), with the application example VoIP and Online Gaming;
Besides these kinds of data flow related to application, there are signaling flow
SF and TA data flow inside the system;
Profile
The above QoS division is a rough one, actually for each service type such as
http, VoIP etc., the system will use one profile to describe it, including many
QoS parameters. While the dispatching is implemented in reality, the
dispatching algorithm will use the parameters.
The text is for BE pure data service. Generally speaking, BE flow service
mainly includes http and ftp. Both kinds of service are different from profile to
some extent. But for the features of the service type itself, the features on the
throughput of both kinds have no much difference. Both of them can be studied
as pure data service.
The following is a brief introduction to the dispatching principle of BE service.
5.4.6.2 Forward Dispatching Algorithm of BE Service

For BE service (http, ftp etc.), its EVDO RevA dispatching method is the same as
EVDO Rls0. For your better understanding, here is only introduced EVDO Rls0
dispatching method.
To offer a fair allocation of available time slots between the activated users and
maximize the capacity by using the dynamics of the channel, the dispatching grooming
needs to be executed in each sector. Since different users experience independent
attenuation process, it is impossible that the signal noise ratios of all the users fall into
deep attenuation. More frequently, some users experience deep attenuation and
meanwhile some other users can reach the strength peak of their received signal.
Different from voice service, the IP service can bear a comparatively long and variable
delay time. While keeping the fairness to some extent, a good dispatching algorithm
serves the users when the signal noise ratio of the user reaches the peak. Percentage
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fairness dispatching algorithm considers two important aspects of the dispatching

algorithm enhancing the capacity: multiple user gain and fairness. The algorithm
selects the end based on the average ration of instant channel conditions and service
flow. Then, although the service is offered while the end channel is at the peak status,
while the end is covered well, a high average service flow can be maintained. The
dispatching algorithm improves the service probability of the high data rate, and tries
to offer the same service time to each end. It is a valid algorithm implementing the
dispatching by using the changeability of different end mobile channels. The gain on
the flow is called dispatching gain or multi-user diversity gain.
In the EVDO system, there is time multiplex in the forward link. The service is only
provided to one user in each period (the unit is time slot). To improve the performance
(throughput) of the system, the system shall first provide service to the user (applying
high rate) with better wireless environment. Then the users with worse wireless
environment may not enjoy the service for long service. Therefore, the concept of
dispatching is introduced. All the users can enjoy proper service while the overall
performance is ensured.
The dispatching algorithm is one feature of data service system. The purpose is to get
multiple class gain by making full use of the changing with time feature of the
channel, so as to improve the throughput of the system.
The dispatching algorithm considers two points: throughput and fairness.
The throughput is indicated by data amount transmitted within a cell unit time, with the
unit as bps. The ideal situation is that AN provides the service to users with the highest
rate from the beginning to the end. With this algorithm, the throughput is the highest.
The fairness considers whether all the users who request transmission enjoy a certain
service opportunities. The ideal situation is that all the enjoy the same service
opportunity, and the algorithm method is fairest. If some users get much more service
opportunities, while some other users can not get any service opportunity within quite a
long time. Then the dispatching algorithm is not fair.
A good dispatching algorithm shall consider both the throughput and fairness, and get a
good compromise.
In the EVDO system, the forward link employs the TDM way to serve all ATs. The
links are divided into the time slots of 1.66ms, and one time slot can only serve one
user at one moment. The dispatching programs at the network decides to serve which
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mobile phone at the next minute according to the various kinds of information
collected, for instance, the highest receivable rate (Data Rate Control). The realization
of the dispatching policy greatly impacts the system performance.
The simplest dispatching policy may employ the way of Round robin, i.e., all ATs
needing service enjoy the service one by one in sequence, which is the fairest. The
other way is, the mobile phone with the highest DRC can enjoy the service at the next
time slot, consequently, the throughput of the whole sector can be maximized, but the
mobile phone with bad channel environment may never be provided with service,
which is most unfair. The real algorithm generally considers all the factors combined,
covering both efficiency and fairness. Here is introduced the dispatching algorithm:
proportional fair scheduler.
The basic idea of the proportional fair scheduling algorithm is, the opportunities of AT
being served is proportional to the DRC required by AT, and inversely proportional to
the received data in recent period, and then a comparatively fairness is reached. The
detailed method is: the dispatching algorithm keeps one variable Tk for each user, and
updates it at each time slot, and we use Tk{n} to indicate the variable of user k at time
slot n. The complete algorithm can be described as:
Dispatching: in each time slot n, the DRC values of all ATs are DRC1[n], DRC2[n],,,.
Among all the users with data needed to be sent and valid DRC value, select the user
with maximum DRCk[n]/Tk[n] to send data;
Updating: in each time slot, use the following formula to update all the users:
Among it, tc is the time constant of the dispatching. Supposing within the time slot n,
there is a data packet (not considering early termination of multi-slot packet) with the
length as time slot Ik[n], and the rate as Nk[n]. Its first time slot is partially sent to user
k, and then the user Sk[n]=Ik[n]*Nk[n]. For other user or time slot, Sk[n]=0.
The workflow of the algorithm is shown as in the following figure:
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Chapter 7 Antenna
A new time slot starts
At the time slot, continue to dispatch the

packet dispatched last time?
No
From all the users, select one user with the highest DRC[n]/
T[n], and start to launch to him with the rate applied by DRC
Yes
Set k=0
K=k+1
User K is scheduled in the last timeslot?
No
Yes
T[n]=T[n]*(1-1/tc)
T[n]=T[n]*(1-1/tc)+S[n]*(1/tc)
No
Experience all the users?

Yes
End
Figure. 5.4-16 Workflow of EVDO BE service dispatching algorithm
In the algorithm, the selecting of time constant tc greatly impacts the algorithm
performance. The larger tc is, the dispatching decision is more decided by the value of
DRC, i.e., it can make full use of multi-user diversity to the most extent. It is good to
improve the throughput of the whole sector, but it may lead to unfairness, i.e., the user
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with much less DRC value may not get any service. If the value of tc is very small, the
dispatching decision is mostly made by the most recent throughput of AT, i.e., the AT
with small throughput may be served with the highest possibility. A good compromise
decision is that tc equals 1024 time slots, i.e., 1.7 second.
During the realization of the algorithm, the following points shall be considered:
The initial value of Tk{n} is 0. Then a new coming user has higher priority than other
users, so as to accelerate the sending speed of first packets of the new user. It favors the
frequent abrupt data, and it can speed up the responding under the condition.
While AT is in soft switching, each sector in the soft handoff will maintain the
value of one Tk{n} for the AT. One special example is: within one BTS, no
matter how many sectors are in the valid set of AT, only the variable of one
Tk{n} is maintained.
Since the control channel sends the information of the control channel once by
timing every other 256 time slots, the dispatching program shall carefully select
the dispatching object, not causing the dispatching data packet to conflict with
the control channel packet.
Since the forward signaling information and service data need to be sent through the
time slot arranged by the dispatching program, to avoid a long delay of signaling
information, there must be a mechanism of priority The realization details are: create
two types of queues for each user: High-priority Queue and Low-priority Queue, and
several queues under each type of queue are created. High-priority Queue has high
priority. Whenever there are data waiting to be sent at the High-priority Queue, the
dispatching program will stop the routine program and execute the dispatching, and
send the data at the High-priority Queue. If there are data at the High-priority Queues
of several users, the dispatching program will employ the way of Round-Robin and
send the data one by one, until there is no data at the High-priority Queue of any user.
The data at the Low-priority Queue shall be dispatched by the dispatching program
according to the normal way. While it is the turn for one user to send data, among all
the Low-priority Queues of the user, the data with higher priority queue shall go first.
In the realization of Qualcomm system, for each user is created 2 High-priority Queues
and 4 Low-priority Queues. Actually only 4 queues are used: one High-priority Queue
is used for signaling information; and among the Low-priority Queues, one is for the
re-sending packet of RLP (lower priority), and one is for the common data packet to be
sent for the first time, and one is for the testing packet.
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5.4.7 Reverse Link Delay and Capacity Exchange

In sub mode 3 of MAC layer protocol in RevA reverse service channel, two
transmission modes are supported: High Capacity mode and Low Latency mode. Each
transmission mode is for each flow and indicated by the transmission length of the
physical layer. The transmission duration of the physical layer is 1, 2, 3 or 4 subpackets. The target transmission duration of one packet is decided by the size and
transmission mode (High Capacity or Low Latency) of the packet. The termination
target is decided by number of the sub-packets needing to be transported while AT is
transmitting one packet with a certain error packet rate.
If the allowed target delay is quite long, the reverse can provides the transmission
service with high capacity and long delay. If the allowed target delay is quite short, the
reverse can provide the transmission service with short delay but low capacity. If Low
Latency mode is employed, while packet is being transported, an earlier termination
can be pushed by adjusting the power gain (T2P)of data channel to the power of pilot
channel, and enhancing the launching power of the reverse service channel, so as to
decrease the data delay. The power allocated by the service channel of high capacity
mode is quite small, and an earlier termination is not easy to be obtained, but it is
beneficial to the total reverse throughput of the sector, as shown in the following
figure:
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Figure. 5.4-17 Schematic diagram of comparing tow transmission modes
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6 Radio Propagation
key points
Propagation models and their application
6.1 Radio Propagation theory

Mechanisms of electromagnetic wave propagation are diverse, but in general the
electromagnetic waves can be propagated via reflection, diffraction and scattering. The
majority of cellular wireless systems operate in urban areas where there is no LOS path
between the transmitter and the receiver and the high-rises cause strong diffraction
loss. Besides, as there are multiple paths of propagation via different materials and the
paths have varying lengths; electromagnetic waves propagated along such paths
interact with each other and cause multi-path loss, and as the distance between the
transmitter and the receiver increases, the electromagnetic intensity decreases.
Traditionally, research on the propagation model focuses on predicting the mean
receiving field intensity within a given area and the fluctuation of the field intensity.
The propagation model for predicting the mean field intensity and estimating the
wireless coverage is called large-metric propagation model due to the fact that it deals
with the intensity fluctuation over a long distance (of several hundred or several
thousand meters) between the transmitter and the receiver (T-R). The propagation
model for predicting the rapid fluctuation of the receiving field intensity over a short
distance (of several wave lengths) or a short period of time (in seconds) is called the
small-metric fading model.
When the mobile station moves within an extremely small area, it may cause rapid
fluctuation in the instant receiving field intensity, which is called small-metric fading.
The reason is that the phase changes in random, which in turn causes synthesization of
received signals from different directions to fluctuate greatly. For the small-metric
fading, the receiving field intensity may change in 3 or 4 levels (30dB or 40dB) if
length of the mobile station movement equals the wave length. As the mobile station
moves away from the transmitter and the local field intensity decreases, the mean
receiving field intensity should be predicted by applying the large-metric propagation
133
model. Typically, the local field intensity is calculated with the mean value of signal
measurements within 5 - 40 . For the cellular system with a frequency range
between 1 GHz and 2 GHz, the measuring range should be between 1m and 10m.
Figure 6.1 -46 shows the rapid small-metric fading and slow large-metric fluctuation
of an indoor wireless communication system.
Receiving power (dBm)

T-R distance (m)
Figure 6.1-46 Small-metric fading and large-metric fluctuation
6.1.1 Free Space Propagation

The free space propagation model is used for predicting the receiving field intensity
between the transmitter and the receiver where there are completely free LOS paths.
Satellite communication and microwave wireless LOS link have typical free space
propagation. Similar to the majority of large-metric radio wave propagation models,
the free space propagation model predicts that fading of the receiving power is a
function of the T-R distance (an idempotent function). The receiving power of the
antenna in free space at a distance d from the transmitter is as shown by the Friis
formula:
Pt Gt Gr 2
Pr (d )
(1)
( 4 ) 2 d 2 L
Where Pt is the transmitting power; Pr (d ) is the receiving power, a function of the TR distance; Gt is the gain of the transmitting antenna; G r is the gain of the receiving
134
Chapter 7 Antenna
antenna; d, in meters, is the T-R distance; L is the system loss factor which is
independent of propagation; , in meters, is the wave length.
The antenna gain is subject to the effective section area of the antenna:
4Ae
2
(2)
The effective section area Ae is related to the physical dimensions of the antenna,
while is related to the frequency:
c 2c
f
c
(3)
Where f , in Hz, is the frequency; c , in rad/s, and c, in m/s, is the light speed. Pt
and Pr shall have the same unit, and Gt and G r are dimensionless values.
Aggregate loss L (L 1) is, typically, the total of transmitting line fading, filter loss
and antenna loss. L = 1 indicates that the system hardware has no loss.
As revealed in Formula (2.1), the receiving power decreases with the square of the T-R
distance. That is, the ratio of the fading of the receiving power to the T-R distance is
20dB/10 octave.
The ideal omni-antenna that has the same unit gain in all directions is usually used as
the reference antenna of the wireless communication system. The effective omnidirectional radiation power (EIRP) is defined as:
EIRP Pt Gt
(4)
which is the maximum radiation power of the transmitter in the direction of maximum
antenna gain as compared with the omni-antenna.
But in practice, the effective radiation power (ERP) usually replaces EIRP to indicate
the maximum radiation power as against the half-wave bipolarized sub-antenna. As the
bipolarized sub-antenna has 1.64 units of gain (which is 2.15dB higher the omniantenna), ERP is 2.15dB lower than EIRP for the same transmission system. In effect,
the antenna gain is in dBi (the gain in dB against the isotropic radiator) or in dBd (the
gain in dB against the half-wave bipolarized sub-antenna).
The path loss, a positive value in dB indicating signal fading, is defined as the
difference between the effective transmitting power and the receiving power, including
or excluding the antenna gain. If the antenna gain is included, the free space path loss
is:
135
PL( dB ) 10 log
G G 2
Pt
10 log t r2 2
Pr
( 4 ) d
(5)
If the antenna gain is excluded and it has the unit gain, hence the path loss is:
PL( dB ) 10 log
Pt
2
10 log
2 2
Pr
( 4 ) d
(6)
The Friis free space propagation model applies if and only if d indicates the value of
the far field of the transmitting antenna. The far field of the antenna is defined as the
area beyond d f , the far field distance that is related to the maximum linear dimensions
of the transmitting antenna and the wave length of the carrier.
d f 2D 2
(7)
Where, D is the maximum physical dimension of the antenna. Also, for the far field,
d f shall meet the condition:
d f D
and
d f
Obviously, equation (1) does not allow d = 0. Therefore, the large-metric propagation
model uses the near distance d 0 as the reference value of the receiving power. When
d d 0 , the receiving power Pr (d ) is related to Pr at the distance d 0 . Pr ( d 0 )

can be predicted from the equation (1) or derived from the mean measurement. The
reference distance must be in the far field, i.e. d 0 d f , where d 0 is smaller than the
actual distance applied in the mobile communication system. Hence, derived from
equation (1) in the distance beyond d 0 , the receiving power in the free space is:
2
d
Pr ( d ) Pr ( d 0 ) 0
d
d d0 d f
( 8)
In the wireless mobile system, it is common for Pr to have changes of several

quantity levels within the typical coverage area of several square km. As the receiving
level varies violently, it is usually represented in dBm or dBW. The equation (11) can
have dBm or dBW as the unit, if both ends of the equation are multiplied by 10. For
example, if Pr is in dBm, hence the receiving power:
Pr (d 0 )
d
20 log 0
0.001W
d
Pr ( d )dBm 10 log
136
d d0 d f
(
9)
Chapter 7 Antenna
Where Pr (d 0 ) is in watts.
In the actual system which uses low gain antenna, if the indoor value of d 0 is 1m, and
the value outdoor is 100m or 1km, the numerators in equation 8 and 9 are multiplied by
10 to make calculating path loss in dB easy.
[Example 1]
If the transmitter sends 50W power, convert it to unit dBm and dBW. If the transmitter
has unit gain antenna and the frequency is 900MHz, analyze how many dBm is
receiving power Pr at the distance 100m from free space to the antenna, and what is
Pr at the distance of 10km, if the receive antenna has unit gain.

Solution:
Known:
Transmitting power Pt 50W ;
Frequency f c 900 MHz .
a)
Transmitting power
Pt ( dBm) 10 log Pt ( mW ) /(1mW ) 10 log 50 10 3 47.0dBm

b)
Transmitting power
Pt ( dBW ) 10 log Pt (W ) /(1W ) 10 log 50 17.0dBW

Receiving power at the distance 100m:
Pr
Pt Gt Gr 2
50(1)(1)(1 / 3) 2
3.5 10 6 W 3.5 10 3 mW
2
2
2
2
(4 ) d L (4 ) (100) (1)
Pr (dBm) 10 log Pr (mW ) 10 log 3.5 10 3 mW 24.5dBm

Receiving power at the distance 10km:
100
24.5dBm 40dB 64.5dBm
10000
Pr (10km) Pr (100m) 20 log
6.1.2 Relation between electric field and power

In free space, energy stream density
Pd
Pd (W m 2 ) is:
EIRP Pt Gt
E2 E2
W m2
4d 2 4d 2 R fs
(10)
Where R fs is inherence impedance, In free space 120( 377) . Hence

137
energy stream density is:

2
E
Pd
W m2
377
Where
(11)
is electric field radiation part in remote ground field.
Figure 6.1-47 energy stream density and input voltage of the receiver in the place, at a
distance d from point source
Figure 6.1 -47(a) shows the energy stream density situation from omni-antenna in free
space. Pd is EIRP insulated by a ball surface whose radius is d. the receiving power in
d is the product of energy stream density and receiving antennas valid acreage:
Pr ( d ) Pd Ae
120
Ae
Pt Gt Gr 2
W
( 4 ) 2 d 2
(1)
The equation (12) associates field intensity unit V/m with receiving power unit Watt,
which is the same as equation (1) when L =1.
Generally it is very useful to associate the receiving level, receiver input voltage with
induced electric field E. If the receiving antenna is modeling as a matching impedance
load of the receiver, receiving antenna will induce a voltage into the receiver, which is
half of open circuit voltage in antenna.
Hence, if V is the receivers input voltage, Rant is matching receivers impedance, the
receiving power is:
138
Chapter 7 Antenna
2
[Vant 2] 2
Vant
V2
Pr (d )
Rant
Rant
4 Rant
(13)
By formula (11) and formula (13), the relation between receiving power and receiving
electric field or receiving electric field and receiving antenna terminal open circuit
voltage is established. Note that Vant =V without load.
[Example 2]
Supposing the distance between receiver and transmitter is10km, the transmitters
power is 50W, carrier is 900MHz, and free space propagation exists, Gt 1 and
Gr 2 ,ask:(a)the receivers power;(b)receiving antenna electric field;(c)Supposing

receiver antenna has 50 ideal impedance and matches with the receiver, ask for
receivers input voltage.
Answer:
Known:
Transmitting power Pt 50W ;
frequency f c 900 MHz ;
Transmitting antenna gain Gt 1 ;
Receiving antenna gain Gr 2 ;
receiver antenna impedance 50 .
a)
Using formula (5),when d 10km , the receiving power is:
Pt Gt G r 2
50 1 2 (1 / 3) 2
10
log
2 2
2
2
(4 ) 10000
(4 ) d L
Pr ( d ) 10 log
91.5dBW 61.5dBm
b)
Using formula (12), antenna receiving electric field is:
E
c)
Pr (d )120
Ae
Pr (d )120
Gr 2 / 4
7 10 10 120
0.0039 V/m
2 0.33 2 / 4
Using formula (13), receiver input open circuit voltage is:

Vant
Pr ( d ) 4R ant
7 10 10 4 50 0.374 mV
6.1.3 Three Fundamental Propagation Mechanisms

In mobile communication, there are three fundamental mechanisms that affect
139
propagation: reflection, diffraction and scattering. The receiving power (or its
opposite: the path loss) is the most important parameter that the reflection, diffraction
and scattering-based large-metric propagation model predicts. The three mechanisms
also describe the small-metric fading and multi-path propagation.
When the electromagnetic wave encounters materials such as the earth surface,
buildings, and building walls that have a much longer wave length, reflection occurs.
When the wireless link between the transmitter and the receiver is blocked by sharp
edges, diffraction occurs. The resulting secondary waves are diffracted in the space,
even to the back of the barrier. Even if there is no LOS path between the transmitter
and the receiver, wave bending can occur around the barrier. In the high frequency
band, diffraction, just as reflection, is subject to the shape of the barrier as well as the
incident wave amplitude at the diffraction point, its phase, and polarization.
When the transmitting medium of the electromagnetic wave has materials smaller than
the wave length and the quantity in the unit volume is prodigious, scattering occurs.
The scattering wave is produced on the rugged surface, small materials and other things
with irregular shapes. In the actual communication system, leaves, the street signs and
light posts all cause scattering.
1.
Reflection
In the intersecting place of media with different properties, part of
electromagnetic waves is reflected and the rest passes through. If the incident
plane waves encounter the surface of the ideal medium, and part of the energy
enters the second medium while part of it is reflected back into the first
medium, then no energy is lost. If the second medium is an ideal reflector, then
all energy will be reflected back to the first medium, and no energy is lost. The
field intensities of the reflected waves and the transmitting waves depend on
Fresnel reflection coefficient ( ), which is a function of the material and
related to the polarization, incident angle and frequency.
In case that the electromagnetic waves penetrate into the intersecting plane of
the medium and have no reflection, then such an incident angle is called
Brewster Angle. In this case, the reflection coefficient is 0. Note that Brewster
Angle only occurs in case of vertical polarization.
(1) Reflection of the electric media

As shown in Figure 6.1 -48, an angle of incidence of electromagnetic wave is
140
Chapter 7 Antenna
i , the common boundary between two electric medias is plane, a portion of

energy is reflected to the first media in r , a portion of energy goes into the
second media in t . Reflection property changes with electric field polarization.
The feature in special direction is researched from two different situations,
shown in Figure 6.1 -48. Incidence plane is defined a plane including incidence
wave, reflection wave and refraction wave. In Figure 6.1 -48 (a), electric field
polarization is parallel with incidence wave plane, namely electric field is
vertical polarization wave or orthogonal part of the reflection plane; In Figure
6.1 -48 (b), electric field polarization is vertical with incidence wave plane,
namely electric field is vertical with the paper and parallel with reflection plane
and points to the reader.
Figure 6.1-48 Sketch diagram of calculating reflectance between two medias
In Figure 6.1 -48, subscript i, r, t mean incidence, reflection and transmission

field respectively. Parameter 1 , 1 , 1 and 2 , 2 , 2 mean media
constant of two medias, refractive index and conductance.
Generally, ideal electric media has no spoilage, insulation constant is relevant to
12
media constant r , namely 0 r , 0 8.85 10 F / m . If electric
media has spoilage, it will absorb a portion of energy, its insulation constant is
calculated by the below formula:
0 r j
(2)
In the formula (14)
2f
is conductance, Unit: S/m. When material is a good conductor,
(3)
141
f ( 0 r ) , r is relevant to
. In terms of electric media with spoilage,
0 and r dont change with frequency, but
is relevant to frequency.
To ask for reflection problems two orthogonal polarizations needs be

considered. Reflectance which is vertical or parallel with polarization field in
the media boundary are:
//
Er 2 sin t 1 sin i
Ei 2 sin t 1 sin i
(4)
E r 2 sin i 1 sin t
Ei 2 sin i 1 sin t
(5)
Where, i
is immanent impedance when media ii=1, 2, is i i .
Electromagnetic wave rate is 1
, boundary condition on the incidence
plane abides by Snell theorem, see Figure 6.1 -48, the formula is:
1 1 sin(90 i )
2 2 sin(90 t )
(6)
From Maxwell formula boundary term deduces the formula 16) with 17) and
formula 18), 19) with 20).
i r
(7)
and
E r Ei
(8)
Et (1 ) Ei
(or //
(9)
, or ) depends on polarization.
When the first media is free space and 1 2 , in vertical polarization and
horizontal polarization cases reflectance is simply:
//
r sin i r cos 2 i
r sin i r cos 2 i
sin i r cos 2 i
sin i r cos 2 i
(10)
(11)
(2) Brewster angle

In case that the electromagnetic waves penetrate into the intersecting plane of
the medium and have no reflection, then such an incident angle is called
Brewster Angle. In this case, the reflection coefficient is 0.
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Chapter 7 Antenna
Brewster angle B fulfils:
sin( B )
1
1 2
(12)
When the first media is free space and the second media relative coefficient is
r ,formula (24) is:

sin( B )
r 1
(13)
r 1
2
Note that Brewster Angle only occurs in case of vertical polarization.

(3) Reflection of ideal conductor
Because the electromagnetic wave can't penetrate the ideal conductor, plane
wave shoots the ideal conductor, all its energy is reflected back. To abide by
Maxwell formula, anytime electric field surface of the conductor must be 0,
reflection wave must equal to incidence wave. In term of electric field
polarization is on the incidence wave plane, boundary condition requires:
i r
(14)
and
Ei E r
Electric field is parallel with incidence wave plane (15)
Also, Electric field is vertical polarization, boundary condition requires:
i r
(16)
and
Ei E r Electric field is parallel with incidence wave plane

Refers to formula (26) ~ (29), get
(17)
// =1 and = -1 in any incidence angle
for the ideal conductor.

2.
Diffraction
Diffraction enables the wireless signals to propagate around the earth curve and
reach the back of the barrier. Although when the receiver moves into the
shadow of the barrier, the receiving field intensity attenuates very rapidly, the
diffraction field still exists and usually has a strong enough intensity.
The phenomenon of diffraction can be explained with Huygens Principle.
143
According to Huygens Principle, the wavefront of a propagating wave of light

at any point may be regarded as the source of secondary waves and conform to
the envelope of spherical wavelets emanating from every point on the
wavefront at the prior instant. The principle was later developed by Fresnel who
believed that the radiation field of a propagating wave at any point in the space
is the result of the superposition of the waves emanating from the secondary
waves of the points enveloping the wave source. Such is the Huygens-Fresnel
Principle, and the secondary wave source is called Huygens wavelet.
3.
Scattering
In the actual mobile communication environment, the received signal intensity
is stronger than mere diffraction or that predicted with the reflection model.
This is because, when the electromagnetic waves encounter the rugged surface,
the reflected energy is scattered to all directions. Trees, street signs, light posts
etc all scatter energy in every direction, which provides extra energy to the
signals received by the receiver.
The smooth plane with a width much larger than the wave length can be
modeled into a reflection plane. For the rugged plane, the reflection coefficient
should be multiplied by a scattering loss coefficient s to indicate a weakened
reflection field. The degree of ruggedness can be calculated with the Rayleigh
distribution principle, which defines the reference height hc for ruggedness
calculation with a given incident angle i as:
hc
8 sin i
30)
If the maximum height h of the obtrusion of the plane is smaller than hc ,

then the plane is considered smooth. Otherwise, it is considered rugged.
6.2 Introduction to Radio Propagation Models

During the planning and optimization phases of the mobile communication network,
the most important propagation issue is path loss that represents large-metric
propagation features and is characteristic of the idempotent law. Path loss is an
important reference for mobile communication system planning and design, and has
influence on coverage, S/N, near-far effect for cellular design. Therefore, at the initial
stage of mobile communication system design or future capacity expansion and
network optimization, anticipation of path loss should be made. The radio propagation
144
Chapter 7 Antenna
model can be used to anticipate the path loss in different propagation environments so
as to build a better local wireless communication network.
Introduction to the radio propagation models includes: characteristics of radio
propagation in mobile communication, macro cell propagation models, micro cell
propagation models, indoor propagation models in different application environments,
and application of the propagation models in the cellular design.
Radio waves sent from the base station suffer not only from path loss in atmospheric
transmission, but also from loss in the ground propagation path that depends heavily on
topographic conditions. The antenna of the mobile station is usually very low and close
to the ground, which is one of the causes for extra propagation loss. Generally
speaking, the ground quality and ruggedness usually cause energy loss and reduce the
intensity of signals received by the mobile station and base station. Such kind of loss,
combined with free space loss, constitutes the transmission path loss.
It is an extremely arduous task to precisely prescribe the signal change in such complex
environments. The various models introduced in the following part describe the local
radio signal changes predicted by a large amount of field data or precise theoretic
electromagnetic calculations.
6.2.1 Categories of Propagation Models

In mobile communication design, a key task is to make the network have a satisfactory
quality of service (coverage ratio, voice quality, call drop rate, and call completion rate)
while meeting the mobile users demand of traffic capacity. A considerable part of the
quality requirements are related to the quality of the received signals, which is largely
decided by the propagation conditions between sending and receiving ends. During the
radio wave propagation of the mobile communication, propagation path loss is one of
the major parameters that are concerned. We can use the radio propagation modelbased analytic method to predict the radio wave propagation path loss.
By the characteristics of radio propagation models, they can be divided into the
following categories:
1.
Empirical model
2.
Quasi-empirical or quasi-assured model
3.
Assured model
The empirical model is an equation derived from statistics and analysis of a host of test
145
results. Prediction of path loss with the empirical model is very simple and does not
require precise information of the related environment, but cannot produce extremely
precise value of evaluation of the path loss.
The assured model is a method that calculates the specific field environment by
directly applying the electromagnetic theory. Environment description, which may
have different levels of precision, can be made from the topographic condition
database. In the assured model, the several technologies that have been applied are
usually based on radiation tracking. They are: Geometric diffraction theory (GTD),
Physical Optics (PO), and the precision methods not frequently used, such as Integral
Equation (IE) method or Finite Differentiation of Time Domain method (FDTD). In
downtown area, mountainous area and indoor environments, assured radio propagation
prediction is an extremely complex electromagnetic task.
The quasi-empirical or quasi-assured model is an equation derived by applying the
assured method in the general downtown or indoor environments. Sometimes, to
improve compliance with the experiment result, the equation should be modified in
light of the experiment result and the resulting equation is about the function of a
certain property of the neighboring area of the antenna.
Due to the diversity of the mobile communication environments, each propagation
model is targeted for a special kind of environments. Therefore, they can be classified
by the environment where the propagation model is applied. There are three commonly
seen kinds of environments (cells): the macro cell, micro cell and Picocell.
The macro cell has a large area with a radius between 1 and 30km. In the macro cell,
the base station transmitting antenna is usually mounted on the top of neighboringing
building, and there is no direct ray between the transmitting and receiving ends.
The micro cell has a radius between 0.1 and 1km, and is not necessarily round in shape.
The transmitting antenna can have the same height with, or slightly higher or lower
than the surrounding buildings. Usually, according to the position of the transmitting
and receiving antenna relative to the environmental barriers, there are two categories:
LOS (line of sight) and NLOS (non-line of sight).
The picocell typically has a radius between 0.01 and 0.1km. It can be an indoor and an
outdoor cell. The transmitting antenna is under the roof or inside the building. Whether
it is indoor or outdoor cell, usually LOS and NLOS should be considered respectively.
Generally, the three kinds of models and the three kinds of cells are matched. For
146
Chapter 7 Antenna
example, the empirical and the quasi-empirical models are suitable for the uniform
macro cell, and the quasi-empirical model is suitable for uniform micro cell. In such
cases, parameters of the models can very well represent the entire environment. The
assured model is suitable for micro cells and picocells, whatever the shape is, but not
suitable for the macro cell, since the CPU time required by the macro cell makes such
technologies ineffective.
6.2.2 Macro Cell Propagation Model

6.2.2.1 Okumura-Hata Model
The Okumura-Hata model is fit with formulas by Hata who drew on the large quantity
of test data of Okumura. To apply the Okumura model, various curves should be found
and it is thus not suitable for computer-based prediction. Based on Okumuras basic
mean field intensity prediction curve, Hata matched the curves and introduced the
empirical formula of propagation loss, i.e., the Okumura-Hata model.
For simplicity, the above model makes three hypotheses:
1.
Suppose it is the propagation loss processing between two omni-antennas;
2.
Suppose it is a quasi-smooth topography instead of an irregular topography
3.
The propagation loss formula for urban area is taken as the standard, while the
formula for other areas is modified from the standard with the correction
formula.
Applicable conditions:
1.
The frequency f is between 150 and 1500MHz;
2.
The effective height of the base station antenna
3.
The height of the mobile station antenna
4.
Distance of communication is between 1 and 35km;
hb is between 30 and 200m;
hm is between 1 and 10m;
Propagation loss formula:
Lb urban 69.55 26.16 lg f 13.82 lg hb a( hm ) (44.9 6.55 lg hb )(lg d )

Formula explanation:
The unit of d is km, and the unit of f is MHz;
Lb urban
is the basic mean value of
propagation loss for the urban area; hb and hm, in meters, are the effective heights of the
147
base station and mobile station antennas.

Calculation of the base station antenna effective height: Suppose the height of the base
h
station antenna from the ground is s , the base station ground height above sea level
h
h
is g , the mobile station antenna height from the ground is m , the mobile station
h
ground height above sea level is mg , then the effective height of the base station
h h h
antenna hb= s + g - mg , and the effective height of the mobile station antenna is
hm
.
Note: There are many methods for calculation of the effective height of the base station
antenna. For example, the average of the ground height above sea level within 5 to
10km away from the base station; the topographic fitting curve of the ground height
above sea level within 5 to 10 km away from the base station etc. Different methods of
calculation is not only related to the applied propagation model, but also related to
different calculation accuracy.
Correction factors for the mobile station antenna height:
(1.1lg f 0.7 )hm (1.56 lg f 0.8) Medium- and small-sized cities
8.29(lg 1.54 hm ) 2 1.1
3.2(lg 11.75hm ) 4.97
a ( hm )
150 f 200MHz
f 400 MHz
Large cities
hm 1.5m
Correction factors for long-distance propagation:
1
d 20
d 0 .8

4
3
1 (0.14 1.87 10 f 1.07 10 hb )(lg )
d 20
20
There are also correction factors for various environments.
Kstreetthe correction factor for streets
Generally only the loss correction curve is given, which is horizontal or vertical with
spread direction, for the sake of calculation easily, give fitting formula of arbitrarily
angle.
Supposing the clip angle between spread direction and street as , then:
K street
(5.9
11
10
lg d ) sin (7.6 lg d ) cos 1 d
6
6
(5.9 sin 7.6 cos )
d 1
148
Chapter 7 Antenna
In practice, the street effect will disappear at 8~10 km generally, so only consider
inside 10 km.
Kmrthe correction factor for suburbs
K mr ( 2(lg( f / 28)) 2 5.4)

Qothe correction factor for open area
Qo ( 4.78[lg f ] 2 18.33 lg f 40.94)

Qrthe correction factor for quasi-open areas
Q r Q 0 5 .5
Ruthe correction factor for rural areas
Ru (lg
f 2
) 2.39(lg f ) 2 9.17 lg f 23.17
28
Khthe correction factor for hills
K h (5.7 0.024h 6.96 lg h) (9.5 lg h1 7.2)
(5.7 0.024h 6.96 lg h) 7.2)
h 15
h 15, h1 1
h 15, h1 1
landform wave height. As shown in Figure 6.2 -49,extend 10km from MS to

BTS, if less than 10km, use actual distance to calculate, it is applicable to multi wave
to calculate difference between 10% and 90% of the wave height in this scope, wave
times >3.
Figure 6.2-49 landform wave height
h1 hmg h / 8 hmin hmin

,
is the minimum landform height of the h in
calculating section plane.

Kspthe correction factor for slopes
149
BTS
MS
1)
h2
2)
h1
3)
+m
d1
d3
d2
d
(a) positive slope+m
Figure 6.2-50 common slope landform
It is possible that slope landform produces the second ground reflection in. When
horizontal distance d2>d1, As shown in Figure 6.2 -50 , it is possible that positive
sclope and negative slope produce the second ground reflection.
Approximately conclude that slope correction factor is:
K sp 0.008d m 0.002d m 0.44 m

2
Where,
m unit: milli radian, d unit: km;

m the average obliquity of the landform height , 1km in front of /behind MS on
the section plane of the connection line between MS and BTS.
Kimthe correction factor for independent mountains
Here, use diffraction over ridge loss to calculate. Though the calculated quantity is
larger, the result is exact.
150
Chapter 7 Antenna
Figure 6.2-51 diffraction over ridge
As shown in Figure 6.2 -51, consider single ridges 4 parameters, r1 , r2 , h p , and

working wave length ;
Calculate new parameter
with these 4 parameters:
2 1
1
( )
r1 r2
v hp
Caculate refraction loss:

6.9 20 lg( (v 0.1) 2 1 v 0.1)
K im
v 0.7
v 0.7
Ksthe correction factor for sea (lake) mixed paths

During propagation path if there is a water area, consider two cases, as shown in Figure
6.2 -52:
BTS
BTS
MS
ds
(a)land is near BTS
MS
ds
(b) water area is near BTS

Figure 6.2-52 sea-lake mixing path
Define that correction factor is:
(a) : (7.0 / q 0.68q 0.81q 2 d )
K ts
(b) : (0.48qd 9.6q 2 )

151
Where, q=ds /d%), ds is length of full water area in section plane.

Determinant method for selection formula (a) or (b):
If there is water area, 200 m near BTS on the section plane of MS and BTS, then:
K s ( K ( a ) K (b)) / 2
Or else
K s K (b)
S(a)the correction factor for building density
( 30 25 lg a )
5 a 100
S ( a ) ( 15.6(lg a ) 0.19 lg a 20)
20
1 a 5
a 1
where, a is building density, shown with %.

Combination usage situation of the all correction factors:
Collectivity path loss:
0
R
u
Ks
K
L Lb K street S (a) K sp K mr
K im Q0
0
Qr
6.2.2.2 COST231-Hata Model
The COST231-Hata model is also based on the test results of Okumura and derived by
analyzing the Okumura propagation curve for relatively high frequency ranges.
Applicable conditions:
1.
The frequency f is between 1500 and 2000MHz;
2.
The effective height of the base station antenna

152
hb is between 30 and 200m;
Chapter 7 Antenna
hm is between 1 and 10m;
3.
The height of the mobile station antenna
4.
Distance of communication is between 1 and 35km;
Lb 46.3 33.9 lg f 13.82 lg hb a ( hm ) (44.9 6.55 lg hb ) lg d Cm

Formula explanation:
The unit of d is km, and the unit of f is MHz;
Lb is medium value of basic propagation loss in urban;
hb, hmBTS, MS antenna effective height, unit is m;
BTS antenna effective height: supposing BTS antenna is hs away from ground, BTS
ground height above sea level is h g ,MS antenna is hm away from ground, MS
ground height above sea level is hmg , then BTS antenna effective height is hb= hs +
h g - hmg , MS antenna effective height is hm .
The medium-sized city with an average

0 dB forest density and the suburb center
Cm
3dB Center of the large city
Correction factors for the mobile station antenna height:
(1.1lg f 0.7) hm (1.56 lg f 0.8) Medium- and small-sized cities
a ( hm ) 3.2(lg 11.75hm ) 2 4.97

0
Large cities
h m 1 .5 m
Far distance propagation correction factor:
1
d 20
d 0 .8

4
3
1 (0.14 1.87 10 f 1.07 10 hb )(lg )
d 20
20
Other correction factors are the same as ones of Okumura-Hata model.
6.2.2.3 COST-231-Walfish-Ikegami Model
The basis of the macro cell model is that the propagation loss between the base station
and the mobile station is decided by the surrounding environment of the mobile station.
But the building and streets within 1km of the base station heavily affect the
propagation loss between the base station and the mobile station. Therefore, the above
mentioned macro cell model is not suitable for prediction of the propagation loss
153
within 1km.
The COST-231-Walfish-Ikegami model is suitable for propagation loss prediction
within the area ranging from 20m to 5km for both the macro cell model and the micro
cell model. To predict the propagation loss for the micro cell coverage, there should be
detailed data for the streets and buildings and should not adopt approximate values.
This model is applicable for the condition that f is between 15002000MHz.
1.
low BTS antenna:

The propagation feature formed in the gorge of the street is different from the
propagation feature formed in free space. If there is free view distance LOS path
in the gorge of the street , then
Lb 42.6 26 lg d ( km ) 20 lg f ( MHz )
2.
d 0.02 Km
heigh BTS antenna:

In this case, OST-231-Walfish-Ikegami model composes of 3 items, it is fit for
NLOS.
Lb L0 Lrts Lmsd
where,
16.9 10 lg 10 lg f 20 lg hMobile Lori
Lrts
if (Lrts 0)
10 0.354
Lori 2.5 0.075( 35)

4.0 0.114( 55)
0 35o
35o 55o
55o 90o
Lmsd
Lbsh K a K d lg d K f lg f 9 lg b
0
if (Lmsd 0)
154
hroof hMobile
Chapter 7 Antenna
18 lg(1 hBase )
Lbsh
hBase hroof
hBase hroof
Note:
L0 the transmitting loss in free space, calculate loss in free space from BTS to the
latest roof;
Lrtsthe diffraction and scatter loss from the latest roof to street, calculate diffraction
and reflection in the street;
Lmsdmulti-screen forward diffraction loss multi-screen diffraction loss, calculate
multi diffraction over the roof;
Lorithe factor of street direction;
hMobile hroof hMobile
hBase hBase hroof
street width m;
f calculating frequency MHz
hMobile Unit is m;
Unit is degree;
155
BTS
hBase
hBase
hMobile
hMobile
hroof
(a)environment parameters
building
MS
Incidence
wave
(b)street parameter
Figure 6.2-53 environment parameters and street parameters
54
hBase hroof
K a 54 0.8hBase
d 0.5km & hBase hroof
54 0.8hBase d
d 0.5km & hBase hroof
0 .5
18
Kd
18 15
hBase hroof
hBase
hBase hroof
hroof
In the above expression, Ka means path loss when BTS antenna is lower than adjacent
roof, Kd controls the relation between Lmsd and distance d, Kf controls the relation
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Chapter 7 Antenna
between Lmsd and frequency f.

Landform correction factors in Okumura-Hata model can be used.
Khcorrection factor for upland
See Okumura-Hata model;
Kspcorrection factor for slope landform
Kimcorrection factor for isolated hill
Kscorrection factor for sea-lake mixing path
See Okumura-Hata model.
6.2.3 Micro Cell Propagation Model

6.2.3.1 Double-ray Propagation Model
When the double-ray propagation model is applied to calculate the field intensity in the
receiving end, only the contribution of the direct rays and ground reflected rays is
considered. This model is suitable for the smooth countryside environment and the
micro cell that has a low base station antenna, where there are LOS paths linking the
transmitting and receiving antennas. In this case, if walls of buildings also reflect and
diffract the radio waves, it will cause the field intensity amplitude to fluctuate rapidly
in the simple double-ray model, but will not change the prediction of the entire path
loss (the value of power n in the idempotent law) made with the double-ray model.
The path loss equation produced with the double-ray model is represented by a
function of d, the distance between the transmitting and receiving ends. The distance
can be represented by the approximate value of two line segments with different slopes
( n1 and n 2 ). The distance of the mutation point (also known as point of reflection)
between the two segments from the transmitting end is:
db
Where
4ht hr
h r and h t
are the heights of the receiving and transmitting antennas
respectively.
Path loss can be represented by the following equations:
157
d
db
L Lb 10n1 log
d
db
L Lb 10n 2 log
d db
d db
The above approximate equation is called the double-slope model. For the theoretical
double-ray ground reflection model, the values of n1 and n 2 are 2 and 4,
respectively. In the downtown area micro cell with a frequency range of 1800 ~
1900MHz, the test result shows that the value of n1 is 2.0 ~ 2.3, and the value of n 2
is 3.3 ~ 13.3. Lb is the path loss at the point of reflection derived from the following
equation.
8ht hr
Lb 10 log
6.2.3.2 Multi-ray Model
The multi-ray model is already applied in downtown micro cell where there is the LOS
path and the transmitting and receiving antennas are much lower than the roof plane.
This model assumes the so-called streets have medium valley structures (also known
as the wave-guide structures), and the field at the receiving end is composed of the
direct rays between the transmitting and receiving ends, the reflected rays along the
ground, and the rays reflected by the vertical planes (i.e., building walls) of the valley.
The double-ray model can be deemed as the multi-ray model that considers only two
rays. Four-ray and six-ray models are already introduced. The four-ray model is
composed of the direct rays, ground reflected rays and two rays reflected once by
building walls. The six-ray model has the same mechanism as the four-ray model,
except that it has two rays reflected twice by building walls.
6.2.3.3 Multi-slot Wave-guide Model
When the multi-ray model is applied to the downtown environment, the buildings
along the streets are usually supposed to be lined consecutively and without slots. The
multi-slot wave-guide model proposed by Blaunstein and Levin, on the other hand,
takes into account the actual medium property of the building walls, the actual street
width and reflections from the road, as shown in the Figure 6.2 -54. This model
assumes the city to be composed of two parallel lines of screens (i.e., simulated
building walls) with randomly distributed slots (i.e., gaps between buildings) and takes
into account the direct signal field, multiple reflections from the building walls,
multiple UTD (Uniform Theory of Diffraction) reflections from the corners and
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Chapter 7 Antenna
reflections from the ground.

Ray
Receiver
Building
Building
Building
Building
x
y
z
T ransmit ter
Mirror source
Figure 6.2-54 Multi-slot wave-guide model
6.2.4 Indoor Propagation Model

Laboratory research finds that NLOS propagation within buildings has Rayleigh
fading, while Ricean fading in LOS propagation is independent of building types. The
Ricean fading is caused jointly by the strong LOS path and many ground paths of weak
reflection. Studies have found that materials of building, the vertical/horizontal ratio of
building, types of windows etc all have influence on RF fading between floors.
Measurements point out that fading between floors does not have a linear increase in
decibel as the distance increases. The typical fading values between floors are: for the
first floor, it is 15dB, then an extra 6 ~ 10dB for each floor but not exceeding 4 floors.
For building with 5 or more floors, increase of the path loss for each extra floor can be
only several decibels.
Laboratory research has found that, in case that the indoor system is covered by the
outdoor base station, the intensity of signals received within buildings increases as the
floor increases. In first floors of the building, there is considerable fading due to the
urban building blocks which make the level of signals penetrating into the building
very small. In the floors of the higher part of the building, if there are LOS paths,
relatively strong direct signals can reach the wall of the building. The penetrating loss
of signals is a function of the frequency and the interior height of the building. The
penetrating loss increases as the frequency increases. Measurements find that
159
penetrating loss for buildings with windows is 6dB less than that for buildings without
windows.
6.2.4.1 Path Loss Model for Logarithmic Distance
The mean path loss is a function of the nth power of the distance:
L50 ( d ) L(d 0 ) 10n log(
d
)
d0
Where L50 ( d ) is the mean path loss (in dB), d is the distance between the
transmitting and receiving ends (in meters), L(d 0 ) is the path loss from the
transmitting end to the reference distance d 0 (in meters), and
is the mean path
loss index subject to the environment. The reference path loss can be measured or
calculated by applying the free space path loss equation.
As shown by the above equation, the path loss has logarithmic normal distribution. The
mean path loss index
and standard deviation depend on the building type,
building sidewall, and the number of floors between the transmitter and receiver. The
path loss in the distance of d from the transmitter is
L(d ) L50 ( d ) X ( dB )
The above equation is an empirical model, where X is the random variant of the
zero-mean logarithmic normal distribution with a standard deviation (dB ) , which
represents the influence of the environment.
6.2.4.2 Fading Factor Model
The formula in the preceding section can also be substituted by:
L( d ) L(d 0 ) 10n1 log(
d
) FAF
d0
Where n1 is the path loss index for one entire floor, with a typical value of 2.8 but
subject to the building type. FAF is the floor fading factor, which is a function of the
number of the floor and the building type.
6.2.5 Application of Propagation Model in Cellular Design

In wireless cellular design, the coverage radius of the base station or the receiving
power of the receiver (power link budget) can be expressed as:
Pr Pt Gt G r Lt Lr Lbf
Where Pr and Pt are receiving power and transmitting power in dBm, respectively;
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Chapter 7 Antenna
Gr and Gt are the gains of the receiving and transmitting antennas in dB; Lr and
Lt are the feeder loss in the uplink and downlink in dB; Lbf is the propagation path
loss in dB, which can be predicted via the model described above.
To improve the accuracy of prediction and reduce the work of the wireless network
planning engineers, computer software is usually adopted to predict the propagation
loss and the coverage area. Path loss prediction is closely related to the topography,
clutter and distance etc near the base station. Therefore, we can store information of the
topography and conditions into the digital map and recall it when necessary for
computer operation. Figure 6.2 -55 is a digital map of one certain area, with different
colors representing different topographies.
Figure 6.2-55 Digital map of one certain area
By inputting the digital map and base station information and selecting an appropriate
model, the software can work out and display in the screen the receiving power and
other information at different distances from the base station. Figure 6.2 -56 shows
software prediction of the coverage area of a certain city, with different colors
representing different receiving powers.
161
Legends:
Figure 6.2-56 Forward receiving powers in one ceratin city
The software can also carry out reverse coverage prediction, as shown in the Figure
6.2 -57:
162
Chapter 7 Antenna
Legends:
Figure 6.2-57 Reverse receiving powers in one ceratin city
Propagation path loss in the urban, suburb and rural area is different. In this case, we
can adopt different propagation models and correction factors. Some prediction
software provides model parameter correction function via field tests. Such a model
greatly improves the accuracy of computer-aided simulated prediction of coverage.
Take the General model for example. The formula is:
163
Where
PPRE : Receiving power;

ERP: Effective transmitting power;
d m : Distance of the mobile station from the base station;

H eff : Effective height of the base station antenna;
LDIFF : Loss of diffraction.

K1, K2, K3, K4, K5, and K6 are the correction factors of the above parameters
respectively. K Clutter is the correction factor of clutter. K1 ~ K5 and K Clutter can be
used by the computer for correction of the actual propagation model with the actual test
data.
164
7 Antenna
Key points
Master antennas indices and principle
Master the selection of antenna in different environment
7.1 Basic Principles of Antenna

In the cellular mobile communication system, the BS antenna is used to establish
communication between the base station and the mobile station in the planned area.
Based on the coverage requirements of different system, the BS antennas fall into
Omni-antenna and directional antenna.
Antenna radiates and receives radio wave: Radiation converts high frequency electric
current to electromagnetic wave. Receiving converts electromagnetic wave to high
frequency electric current.
Based on the working band, antenna is divided into: super long wave antenna, long
wave antenna, medium wave antenna, short wave antenna, super short wave antenna,
micro wave antenna.
Based on the direction, antenna is divided into: Omni-antenna, directional antenna.
Based on the structure feature, it is divided linear antenna, panel antenna.
Antenna type, gain, direction diagram, drive antenna power, simple or complicated
antenna configuration and polarization can influence the systems performance.
7.1.1 Antenna Gain

Antenna gain is usually represented in dBd or dBi. dBi is the reference value of the
antenna field intensity in the maximum radiation direction against omni-radiator; while
dBd is the unit of the antenna gain against the half-wave dipole. The above two units
have a fixed dB differential value. That is, 0dBd equals 2.15dBi.
165
2.15dB
Figure 7.1-58 Difference between dBi and dBd reference values
Currently, the base station antenna that has a gain value between 0dBi and 20dBi is
applied at home and abroad. For indoor cellular coverage, the selected antenna gain is
usually between 0 and 8 dBi, whereas for outdoor base station, the omni-antenna that
has a gain of 9dBi and the directional antenna that has a gain of 18dBi is more widely
used. Antennas that have a gain value of about 20dBi and a relatively narrow
beamwidth are usually used for coverage of the wide area with a thin population.
7.1.2 Radiation Directional Diagram

The diagram describing that antenna radiation electromagnetic field is distributed with
angle coordinating in fixing distance is called directional diagram. The diagram
described by radiation field intensity is called field intensity directional diagram. The
diagram described by power intensity is called power directional diagram. The diagram
described by phase is called phase directional diagram.
The antenna directional diagram is three-dimensional diagram, but the directional
diagram with two inter-vertical main planes is usually used, which is called plane
directional diagram.
For the linear antenna, vertical plane and horizontal plane are usually used as main
planes because of the presence of large influence of the ground. For the plane antenna,
E plane and H plane are usually used as main planes. The maximum value used in
unitary directional diagram is 1.
In directional diagram, the radiation lobe including the maximum radiation direction is
called antenna main lobe or antenna beam. The lobe beside main lobe and reverse are
called side lobe.
Figure 7.1 -59 shows the sketch diagram of the Omni- antenna horizontal lobe and
vertical lobe, the antennas shape is column; Figure 7.1 -60 shows the sketch diagram
of the directional antenna horizontal lobe and vertical lobe. Note that the antennas
shape is plane.
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Chapter 7 Antenna
Figure 7.1-59 the sketch diagram of the Omni- antenna lobe
Figure 7.1-60 the sketch diagram of the directional antenna lobe
The below parameters of the antenna directional diagram are usually used:
1.
Zero power lobe width indicates the clip angle between two zero radiation
directions beside maximum of main lobe;
2.
Half power point lobe width indicates the clip angle when the maximum of main
lobe reduces to 0.7073dB;
3.
Side lobe level indicates the ratio between the maximum of the side lobe and the
167
maximum of the main lobe;

4.
Front-to-Back Ratio of Antenna;
5.
Electric downtilt.
7.1.3 Polarization Mode

Polarization is one of the radiation features describing electromagnetic field density
vector space. The electromagnetic wave that the tropism of electric field vector in
space keeps invariable anytime is called beeline polarization wave.
Antenna polarization indicates bipolarization transmitting antenna of the electric wave
radiated by antenna in maximum radiation direction, or bipolarization receiving
antenna of incidence plane wave in maximum receiving power polarization matching
direction.
For example of transmitting antenna, as shown in Figure 7.1 -61, if electric field
direction of the antenna radiation wave is vertical with the plane formed by incidence
ray of the incidence plane and normal of reflection plane, it is called vertical
polarization because incidence plane is always vertical with cut plane of reflection
plane. When the electric field direction of the antenna radiation wave is vertical with
the plane formed by incidence ray of the incidence plane and normal of reflection
plane, it is parallel with cut plane of reflection plane, so it is called horizontal
polarization.
Figure 7.1-61 the sketch diagram of polarization
Horizontal polarization wave is vertical with incidence plane, so it is called orthogonal

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Chapter 7 Antenna
polarization wave; electric field vector of the vertical polarization wave is parallel with
incidence plane, so it is called parallel polarization wave. The plane which is composed
of electric field vector and propagation direction is called polarization plane.
Sometimes, when the tropism of electric field vector in space is static, and the track
painted with electric field vector end is circle, it is called circle polarization wave; if
the track is oval, it is called oval polarization wave. Oval polarization wave and circle
polarization wave both have revolving nature.
Oval polarization wave and circle polarization wave both are composed of two mutual
vertical linear polarization waves. If the size is the same, it will form circle polarization
wave, or else form oval polarization wave.
Antenna may radiate unnecessary energy in non-schedule polarization. This
unnecessary energy is called crossing polarization radiation weight. In terms of linear
antenna, crossing polarization is vertical with the schedule polarization direction. In
terms of circle polarization antenna, crossing polarization is reverse with schedule
polarizations revolving direction. Hence it is called orthogonal polarization.
7.1.4 Other indices

1 VSWR
In the base station antenna of cellular communication system, the minimum of
VSWR should not be over 1.5: 1. If Z A denotes input impedance of the antenna
and Z 0 denotes standard feature impedance of the antenna, then reflectance is
calculated by,
Z A Z0
Z A Z0
, VSWR
1
1
, where Z 0 =50 Ohm.
Also echo loss can be used to figure the matching feature of the port when,
R. L.( dB ) 20 lg
,VSWR=1.5: 1,R.L.=13.98dB.
When input impedance of the antenna is not consistent with characteristic

impedance of the antenna, reflection wave and incidence wave pile up in the
feeder cable and form standing wave. The ratio between maximum and
minimum of adjacent voltage is VSWR. If VSWR is too large, communication
distance will be shortened, and reflection power will return to the transmitter PA
which results in PA burning out and influence on the communication system.
2.
F/B
The difference between side lobe level in 18030 back-direction of the
169
antenna and the maximum beam is expressed in positive. Generally F/B of the
antenna is within 18~45dB. For the urban areas, with high population density, it
is necessary to adopt antenna with large F/B (e.g. 40dB). This will reduce the
indoor interference of high rise buildings from side lobe effectively.
3.
Isolation between the ports

In terms of multi-ports antenna, such as bipolarization antenna, bifrequency
bipolarization antenna, the isolation between the ports shared by receiving and
transmitting should be larger than 30dB.
4.
Power capacity
It indicates average power capacity of the antenna which includes matching,
balance, phase-shift, and the suffering power is to be limited. Consider actual
maximum input power of the BTS antenna (single carrier power) is 20W. If a
port of antenna can be input 6 carriers at most, then the input power of the
antenna is 120W. So, the single port power capacity of the antenna should be
larger than 200W.
5.
Zero point filling

When vertical plane of BTS antenna is designed with endowing form beam, to
make radiation level in service area more equal, the first zero point of the down
side lobe need to be filled and should not have evident zero depth. Generally
zero depth is larger -20dB than main beam. This requirement indicates that the
antenna has zero point filling. For the big cell BTS antenna, this requirement is
not necessary. High gain antenna especially needs to use zero point filling to
ameliorate near coverage and avoid signal waving because of asymmetric
coverage.
6 Up side lobe suppression

For the cell system, to improve the frequency reuse ability and reduce the same
frequency interference to the neighbor cell, when endowing BTS antenna beam
form form, reduce those side lobes aiming to interfere cell as soon as possible.
Also improve D/U, and the Up side lobe should be less than -18dB.
For the big cell BTS antenna, this requirement is not necessary.
7.
Input interface of the antenna

For the sake of ameliorating PIM and reliability of RF connection, input
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Chapter 7 Antenna
interface of the antenna uses 7/16DIN-Female. Before using antenna, the

protection coverage should be added to the port to avoid generating oxid or
avoid any impurity from entering.
8.
PIM
When the antenna is non-linear , for the sake of making the interfering wave
better, PIM should be less than -103dBm210-13W.
9.
Antenna dimension and weight

Antennas should be small and light for the sake of storage, transportation,
installation and safety. The antenna should meet every electric indices.
10. Wind load

BTS antenna is usually installed on the high building or iron tower. Especially
near the sea where the wind speed is high all the year, the antenna can work
normally when the wind speed is 36m/s, and is not destroyed when the wind
speed is 55m/s.
11. Working temperature and humidity
Working temperature: -40~+65
Working humidity: 0~100%
12. Lighting protection
All RF input ports of the BTS antenna require proper direct grounding.
13. three-proof ability
BTS antenna must have three-proof ability: moisture proof, salty fog proof, mild
dew proof. BTS Omni-antenna must permit reverse installation to meet the
three-proof requirement.
7.1.5 Antenna Diversity

1.
Overview
Mobile communication channel is a type of multi-path fading channel.
Transmitted signals pass multiple transmission paths, such as mirrored,
reflected, and scattered, before arriving at the receiver. With the movement of
the mobile station, the amplitude, the delay, and the phase of the signals on the
various transmission paths always change. Accordingly the level of the received
171
signals is neither flat nor stable. These multi-paths are superimposed and fading
appears. The change of the superimposed signal amplitudes satisfies the
Rayleigh distribution, and thus it is called Rayleigh fading. When Rayleigh
fading changes sharply with time, it is called quick fading. In serious fading,
the fading depth is 20 ~ 30 dB. However the median field strength of Rayleigh
fading changes smoothly, which is called slow fading. This fading complies
with the logarithm normal distribution.
The preceding two types of fading are key factors causing the instability of
received signals in mobile communications. Received signals are greatly
degraded. Although improvement has been achieved to some extent by adding
transmit signal power, antenna size, and antenna height, those approaches are
very expensive and sometimes unpractical in mobile communications.
The diversity technology is a good solution to overcome the fading influence.
On several tributaries, signals carrying the same message but with little relativity
are received, and then through the combination technology the tributary signals
are combined and output, thus greatly reducing the probability of deep fading at
the receiver. This is the diversity technology.
At the receiver, to obtain different multi-paths that are nearly independent of
each other, a variety of methods can be used in terms of space, time, and
frequency. The most basic types of diversity reception include time diversity,
frequency diversity, and space diversity.
2.
Diversity and synthesizing

Diversity depends on the relevant coefficient between the amount of diversity
branches and receiving diversity. If the relevant coefficients of the branches are
the same, then many diversity solutions can implement the same relativity. Also
how to synthesize multi signals must be considered, proper synthesizing
technology will produce better performance. For example, use Q layers
diversity. Q signals before synthesizing are: S1(t), S2(t), ..., Sq(t). Synthesizing
can be done between diversity antenna and receiver at intermediate frequency
output port of the receiver and at basic frequency output port after checking
wave. So Si(t) is common form of the high frequency signal, intermediate
frequency signal and basic frequency signal. Signal after synthesizing is:
Si(t)S(t) = k1S1(t) + k2S2(t) + ... + kqSq(t);
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Chapter 7 Antenna
In the formula, k1, k2, ..., kq are weight coefficients. When different weight
coefficients are selected, different synthesizing methods are produced. There are
4 kinds of synthesizing technologies: MRC, EGC, SEC, and SWC.
3.
Space Diversity
Space diversity is implemented by field intensity changing randomly with space.
In mobile communication, a small change in the space may lead greater changes
in the field intensity. The more the space distance, the larger is the difference of
the multi-path propagation, the smaller is the relativity of the receiving field
intensity. In the case where it is hard to appear deep fading at the same time,
diversity can reduce fading effect to the least. So necessary space between must
be confirmed.
Generally design diversity antenna is based on parameter . The relation
h
between , actual antenna height h, and antenna space distance D is:
.
D
In terms of the antenna put in horizontal interval, is 10. For example, if the
antenna height is 30m, the antenna interval is about 3m, it will get better
diversity gain, and vertical interval is larger than horizontal interval.
4 Polarization Diversity
For the cellular mobile communication system, some base stations fail to
guarantee enough space diversity distance due to the limitation of construction
conditions. In addition, for the base station in urban area, its sector direction
may be adjusted according to the change of network topology, so the incident
azimuth of antennas is changed accordingly, thus affecting the diversity effect.
In this case, we can use polarization diversity antennas instead of the space
diversity antennas.
In the mobile communication system, the electromagnetic wave sent by the
terminal is generally vertical polarization. During the wireless signal
propagation, the polarized direction of electromagnetic wave is changed
randomly, and the horizontal polarized component may incur in the receiving
end, so the polarization diversity can be used to achieve the diversity effect.
The polarization diversity antenna has two mutually vertical half-wave
elements on the polarization plane, and these two elements are generally
combined into the same antenna unit, therefore, each sector only needs a suite
of transmitting antennas and a suite of receiving antennas. If a diplexer is
173
added, only one antenna can be used for both transmitting and receiving, so
each sector only needs a suit of antennas. In practice, a suite of polarization
diversity antennas (also called dual-polarized antenna) is generally used in each
sector for transmitting and receiving, thus reducing the requirement of the
antenna installation area, and decreasing the engineering work, and
guaranteeing the consistency of transmitting and receiving direction.
The dual-polarized antenna has two polarized modes: The first is one half-wave
element and is placed vertically and the other is placed horizontally. The second
mode is both half-wave elements and is placed in 45. In the first mode, the
vertical element can only receives the field strength of vertical polarized
component, and the horizontal element can only receives the field strength of
horizontal polarized component, so both elements receive the unrelated signals,
and the correlation coefficient is 0. In the second mode, both elements can
receive the field strength of vertical polarized component and horizontal
polarized component, so the signals received by two suites of antennas are not
completely orthogonal, and the correlation coefficient is less than or equal to
0.3, which satisfies the diversity requirement.
5 Comparison between Space Diversity and Polarization Diversity
They have following differences:
(1) In the polarization diversity, the transmitting power of forward link needs to be
assigned to two polarization components, so about 3 dB power is lost, which
brings negative impact on the base station with broad coverage. The space
diversity antenna does not have such loss.
(2) In any case, the correlation coefficient obtained by the polarization diversity is
less than 0.7, so the polarization diversity and horizontal space diversity can
both obtain the diversity effect.
(3) If the base station adopts the polarization diversity antenna, its diversity gain is
about 2 dB in case the mobile station antenna is vertical, and the gain is about 3
to 5 dB in case the mobile station antenna is tilted. If the base station adopts the
space diversity antenna and the mobile station antenna is tilted, the vertical
polarized azimuth of transmitting signals will be reduced, then causing the
signal electrical level to be reduced. When the mobile station antenna is tilted
and the base station adopts 45 of polarization diversity antenna, the
174
Chapter 7 Antenna
correlation coefficient of two channels of signals is less than the factor of the
space diversity antenna.
(4) In the suburbs with complicated terrain, various scatters may change the
polarized direction of signals; in the case the polarization diversity effect may be
better than space diversity.
(5) Each sector of the space diversity adopts two suites of antennas, and enough
diversity distance need to be guaranteed. This makes the implementation of
installation practically difficult. In addition, the diversity effect varies with the
change of the sector direction. Each sector of the polarization diversity only
adopts a suite of antennas, its diversity effect does not vary, and the installation
is implemented easily in practice.
7.1.6 Electrical antenna and Mechanical antenna

At present, there are two methods to make antenna beam downtilt:: one is electrical
downtilt, it adjusts the beams tilt by changing inspiring coefficient of the antenna
matrix; the other is mechanical downtilt, it changes the antenna downtilt angle by
mechanical adjusting. Corresponding with different methods, antenna is divided into:
electrical antenna and mechanical antenna.
After the downtilt of electrical antenna reaches to 15, the directional diagram of the
antenna is in local BTS, Adding downtilt can reduce coverage of the sectors, but it will
not produce interference.
There are two kinds of electrical antenna: one is antenna with fixed downtilt, and the
other is an antenna whose downtilt needs adjustment based on the site.
When the downtilt of mechanical antenna reaches to 15, the directional diagram of the
antenna changes more, Not whole diagram is in local BTS.
The virtue of the electrical antenna is: when the downtilt is very large, the coverage
distance in the direction of the main lobe is shortened obviously, and the form of the
directional diagram has few changes. This can reduce call loss and interference. When
processing network optimization, management and maintenance, if it is needed to
adjust the downtilt of the antenna, the system need not power-off which guarentees the
best downtilt, by system monitoring.
Step length of the electrical antenna adjusting downtilt is 0.1; Step length of the
mechanical antenna adjusting downtilt 1; so electrical antennas precision is higher.
175
After electrical antenna is installed, to adjust antenna downtilt, the maintenance staff
need not climb to the antenna. He can adjust antenna downtilt on the ground and adjust
the antennas on the high hill by remote controlling. When adjusting the downtilt of the
mechanical antenna, the system must be power-off, monitoring cannot be done at the
same time. The downtilt of the mechanical antenna is a theory value calculated by
simulation analysis software. It has some deviation with the actual best downtilt. It is
hard to adjust downtilt of the mechanical antenna for maintenance staff.
Third-order intermodulation of the electrical antenna is -150dBc; Third-order
intermodulation of the mechanical antenna is -120dBc; the difference is 30dBc. Thirdorder intermodulation is very important for eliminating neighbor frequency
interference and spurious interference, especially in high traffic area, it requires thirdorder intermodulation reach about -150dBc, or else there is big interference.
At present, call loss of mobile communication network in high traffic area is high. The
interference is high. One important reason is that mechanical antenna downtilt angle is
too large and the directional diagram of the antenna is distortional seriously. To solve
insufficiency capacity in high traffic area, the distance of BTS must be short, and the
downtilt angle of the antenna must be enlarged.
But for the mechanical antenna, when downtilt angle is larger than 10, the directional
diagram of antenna is distortional seriously. So it is hard to solve the problem with
mechanical antenna. In high traffic area, replace mechanical antenna with electrical
antenna. Install the replaced mechanical antenna in the suburb or rural areas with low
traffic.
7.2 Selection of Antenna

The antenna selection is very important to the actual network planning. The overall
principle for selecting antenna is to reduce the blind coverage area and pilot pollution
area to the greatest extent and control the soft handoff area without affecting the
coverage, so that the resources can be made full use of.
Many parameters are involved in antenna selecting. The following will focus on the
principles for selecting such parameters as frequency band, polarization mode,
radiation pattern, gain, horizontal lobe width, vertical lobe width, downtilt mode, side
lobe suppression, zero-point filling feature and front to back ratio.
176
Chapter 7 Antenna
7.2.1 Working Frequency Band and Polarization Mode

The working frequency band of antenna should correspond to the designed frequency
band of the system. In order to reduce the outer band interference signal, the bandwidth
of the selected antenna should just meet the frequency band requirement.
The base station antenna generally adopts the linear polarization mode. Here the
unipolar antenna usually adopts vertical linear polarization, while the dual polarization
antenna usually adopts a 45 dual linear polarization. A dual polarization antenna
consists of two mutually orthogonal antennas that are encapsulated in the same antenna
cover. The use of dual polarization antenna can reduce the number of antennas to be
used, simplify the antenna installation, lower the cost and reduce the space that are
occupied by the antenna.
In urban area, there are many base stations and the coverage radius of each base station
is small. As the network optimization in urban area is complicated and the antenna
orientation may be adjusted with the network development, dual polarization antenna is
recommended to facilitate installation and avoid the problem that the diversity distance
requirement cannot be met after the adjustment.
In suburbs and rural areas, there are much few base stations and the coverage radius of
each base station is very large. Space diversity can be adopted to enhance the receiving
effect of the base station. Besides, if the setting during the setup is reasonable and it is
scarcely possible to adjust the antenna orientation, it is recommended to adopt unipolar
antenna with space diversity.
7.2.2 Antenna Radiation Pattern, Horizontal Lobe Width, Vertical Lobe Width
and Gain
Based on the radiation direction, the base station antennas can be divided into omnidirectional antenna and directional antenna.
1.
For the omni-directional antenna, the radiation strength in all directions on the
same horizontal plane is the same. It is suitable for omni-directional cells.
2.
The radiation of the directional antenna on the same horizontal plane is

directional, and the energy radiation is centralized. It is suitable for sectorial
cells.
The horizontal lobe width of the omni-directional antenna is 360, while that of the
directional antenna can be 20, 30, 65, 90, 105, 120 or 180.
177
The vertical lobe width is generally between 3~80. Usually the antenna with the
vertical lobe width of 5~18 is adopted as the base station antenna. The antenna gain
is closely related to the horizontal and vertical lobe width. Generally speaking, the
smaller is the antenna lobe width is, the larger the gain. Therefore, the three parameters
should be considered together when selecting the antenna.
The horizontal lobe width, vertical lobe width and gain of the antenna vary with the
propagation environment and topography. They should be set according to the specific
situation. Generally, the following principles should be observed:
1.
Selection of horizontal lobe width: it should be set according to the coverage.

In an area of many base stations and small coverage radius that has densely
distributed traffic, the horizontal lobe width of the antenna should be set to a
relatively small value so that the soft handoff area and pilot pollution area can
be reduced. For an area with large coverage radius and sparsely distributed
traffic, the horizontal lobe width of the antenna should be set to a large value so
that the blind coverage area can be reduced.
2.
Selection of vertical lobe width: if the topography within the coverage is even,
the buildings are sparse and their average height is relatively low, then antennas
with small vertical lobe can be selected. If the topography within the coverage
area is complicated and the drop in level is large, then antennas with large
vertical lobe can be selected. For an area with dense buildings of great average
height, if the height of the antenna is lower than the average height of the
surroundings, then antennas with large vertical lobe width can be selected. If
the antenna height is equal to or above the average height of the surroundings,
then antennas of small vertical lobe width can be selected.
Some suggestions for selecting antennas in different topographical environment are

given in the following:
1.
Metropolitan area
For S111 base station in the metropolitan area, generally the antenna with the
horizontal lobe width being 65 and the vertical lobe width being 7~10 should
be selected. The gain of the antenna should be 15~18dBi. For a S110 or
directional single-sector site, antennas whose horizontal lobe width is 65, 90
or even more can be selected according to the actual situation. The selecting of
the vertical lobe width and the gain are the same as those of S111 site. For an
178
Chapter 7 Antenna
omni-directional site, antennas with small gain and electrical downtilt can be
selected.
2.
Suburb and rural

Generally if a directional antenna is to be adopted, the horizontal lobe width
should be 90 and the vertical lobe width should be 5~7. The gain of the
antenna should be 15~18dBi. If an omni-directional antenna is to be adopted,
the vertical lobe width should be 5~7, and the gain should be 9~12dBi.
3.
Water surface (such as large lake and sea), gobi and desert
Directional antenna: if the area that needs to be covered is large, generally the
horizontal lobe width of the selected antenna should be 90 or 105, the vertical
lobe width 5~7 and the antenna gain 14~18dBi. In the case that several sites
should cover a super long distance, if the vicinities are already covered and
neighboring sites are not far away from each other, a 65 antenna can be
adopted according to the actual situation. Thus, the handoff area can be reduced
and the coverage radius can be longer. For cases that require long coverage
distance but do not require large coverage width (such as a long and narrow
lake or due to the topographical feature), 65 or narrower beam antenna can be
adopted.
Omni-directional antenna: the vertical lobe width should be 5~7, and the gain
should be 9~12dBi.
4.
Elongate environments such as highway and railway

The antennas along highway and railway should be selected according to the
distance and shape of the highway and railway to be covered. If the line is
straight, high gain antenna with the horizontal lobe width being 20~30 and
the vertical lobe width 5~7 can be selected. If the bent of the line is great or
villages and towns along the line need also be covered, then the antenna whose
horizontal lobe width is large should be selected. Depending on the specific
situation, the horizontal lobe width can be 65, 90 or even larger, and the
vertical lobe width can be 5~7.
5.
Regions with complicated topography and large drop in level

In practice, the region concerned may feature large drop in level. This includes
two cases. First, in the case that the antenna height is higher than the coverage
179
area, then the antenna whose vertical lobe width is 10~18 can be selected
depending on the actual situation. In the case that the fall is great and the height
of many areas to be covered in the region are higher than the antenna height,
then the vertical lobe width of the antenna should be 18~30. An instance of
this case is shown in Figure 7.2 -62.
Figure 7.2-62 Antenna Selection when the Coverage Area Features Large Drop in Level
6.
The case with low frequency band

The antenna size is closely related to its frequency band. To those antennas with
same vertical lobe width, the size of an antenna of low frequency band should
be much larger than that of an antenna of high frequency band. For systems
with low frequency band such as 450M system, the horizontal lobe width of the
antenna can be set according to the above principle, while the principle for
setting the vertical lobe width can be looser. If antennas with small vertical lobe
should be selected according to the above-mentioned principle while in practice
only antennas of large vertical lobe are available, then antennas of electrical
downtilt should be selected in metropolitan areas with dense base stations and
severe mutual interference.
7.
The case with high site

Antennas with large front-to-back ratio should be selected to prevent the side
lobes from severely affecting surrounding networks.
7.2.3 Antenna downtilt Mode

In order to avoid the blind area near the antenna and to reduce the interference on the
neighboring cell to the extent possible, avoid installing the antenna at a position which
is too high tilt it downward.
In urban area, the densely distributed base stations are easy to interfere in one another.
To make most of the energy radiated within the coverage and to reduce the interference
180
Chapter 7 Antenna
in the neighboring cells, during the setting of the initial downtilt of the antenna, the
half-power point at the directions above the main lobe of the antenna should point at
the edge of the coverage area. The calculation formula is as follows:
= arctg (2H / L) * 180 / + /2 e_
(1)
In areas such as suburb, country, highway and sea, to make the coverage reach as far as
possible, the initial downtilt can be reduced and the maximum gain point of the main
lobe can be pointed at the position of the base station locating opposite. The formula
for calculating the downtilt is as follows:
= arctg (H / L) * 180 / + /2 e_
(2)
In the above two formulas, indicates the initial mechanical downtilt and its unit is
degree; H indicates the valid height of the site, i.e. the difference between the height of
the antenna and the average height of the surrounding coverage area, with the unit
being meter; L indicates the distance from the antenna of the site to the cell locating
opposite, with the unit being meter; indicates the vertical lobe width of the antenna,
with the unit being degree; e_ indicates the electrical downtilt of the antenna, with the
unit being degree.
The mechanical downtilt calculated out through the above formula is only an initial
value. It is used for simulation or setting the initial downtilt of the project and can be
adjusted according to the simulation result or the real network data after the network is
activated.
The downtilt mode of the antenna includes mechanical tilting and electrical tilting, and
the latter can be further divided into fixed electrical tilting and adjustable electrical
tilting. The mechanical tilting antenna is only tilted during the installation and is cheap.
It is mainly used for the downtilt of less than 10. The electrical tilting antenna is
relatively expansive, but it can tilt for a larger range (the tilt range can be more than
10). When the downtilt is large, the antenna radiation pattern will not be distorted and
the back lobe of the antenna will also tilt downward. Fixed electrical tilting antenna
with little downtilt plus the mechanical tilting solution feature has high performance
and low cost. It is the mainstream of tilting mode.
The electrical downtilt antenna is mainly used in the following cases:
1.
Metropolitan sites with small coverage radius: requires large downtilt in order
to reduce their interference in neighboring cells. Electrical downtilt antenna
should be adopted.
181
2.
For a high metropolitan site, the first top side lobe should better be suppressed
and the first bottom zero point be filled, so that the interference in neighboring
cells and the blind coverage area near the site can be reduced. In addition, if the
site has electrical downtilt antenna with large tilt or has adjustable electrical
downtilt antenna, the vertical lobe rate antenna should be relatively small so
that the coverage can be controlled.
3.
For a site which is much higher than the surroundings (such as that on the top
of a mountain or beside a river), electrical downtilt antenna can be adopted to
control the coverage.
4.
As Omni-directional antennas can not tilt downward, electrical downtilt

antennas with different tilts should be adopted for relatively high Omnidirectional sites according to different situations.
5.
Electrical downtilt antennas can be adopted for other cases that require large
downtilt.
7.2.4 Antenna Side Lobe Suppression, Zero-Point Filling and Front-to-Back

Ratio
The signals coverage depends on main lobe and side lobe (below the main lobe) of the
antenna. Side lobe over the main lobe not only wastes the antennas radiation energy,
but also interferes with the neighbor cell. So the side lobe over the main lobe should be
restrained. The number one side lobe with a bigger number is important, and zero-point
filling under the main lobe should be enhanced.
Antenna zero-point filling formula is:
Value of the antenna null fill= (amplitude value of the first vertical lower
null/amplitude value of the maximum radiation direction) %=20log (amplitude value of
the first vertical lower null/amplitude value of the maximum radiation direction) dB
Number one side lobe over the main lobes level should be less than-18dB; Number
one zero-points level below the main lobe should be larger than -20dB. If the value
can reach -12dB, it is a better selection. Figure 7.2 -63 shows the directional diagram
about one antennas main lobe and the area in 50.
182
Chapter 7 Antenna
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35
-40
310
320
330
340
350
10
20
30
40
Figure 7.2-63 the directional diagram about one antennas main lobe and the area in 50
7.2.5 Front-to-Back Ratio of Antenna, Max

Intermodulation, isolation between the ports
input
power,
Third-Order
Front to Back Ratio: >25dB;

Max input power: >200W
Third order intermodulation suppression: <-150dBC@243dBm
Isolation: >30dB
VSWR: <1.5.
7.3 Antenna Selection for Indoor Distribution System

The antenna selection for indoor distribution system should conform to the following
principles:
1.
The indoor coverage requirement should be met; meanwhile, the outdoor

coverage should be minimized to avoid interference.
2.
The antenna should be look good and its shape, size and color should be in
harmony with the indoor environment.
Most of the antennas of indoor distribution system are small gain antennas. They
include the following main types:
1.
Ceiling antenna
Ceiling antenna is omni-directional and mainly installed on the ceiling of a
room, hall or corridor, etc. Its gain is generally 2~5dBi, horizontal lobe width
360 and vertical lobe width of about 65.
The ceiling antenna features small gain and is beautiful. When it is installed on
183
the ceiling, the indoor field strength is evenly distributed. Thus, it is preferred
as an indoor antenna. It should be installed on the ceiling center rather than
beside such places as windows and doors where it is easy for signals to leak
outside.
2.
Wall hung antenna

Wall hung antenna is directional and is generally installed on the walls of
rooms, halls and corridors. The gain of the wall hung antenna is higher than that
of the ceiling antenna and is generally 6~10dBi. Its horizontal lobe width may
be 65, 45 or other type, while its vertical lobe width is about 70.
The wall hung antenna features large gain and beautiful appearance. It is used
in elongate indoor spaces. It should be installed neither in places confronted by
obstructions nor windows and doors where it is easy for the signals to leak
outdoor.
3.
Yagi antenna
Yagi antenna is directional and features high gain. It is mainly used to deal with
the coverage of elongate places such as elevator. Generally its gain is 9~14dBi.
4.
Leaking cable
Leaking cable can also be considered as a kind of antenna. It evenly transmits
and receives signals vertically through a series of outlets on the external
conductor of the cable.
5.
Other antennas
Other antennas include spiral and pole antennas, the gain of which are generally
2~3dBi. As their appearance is not so beautiful, they are rarely used.
184

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CDMA network planning and optimization

training guide-Primary Principles

2.2.3 Processing Gain and Anti-Interference Tolerance..................................................................21

4.3 Soft Handoff......................................................................................................................................85

5.3.1 Forward Channel..................................................................................................................114

7.1.5 Antenna Diversity.................................................................................................................179

1 Basic Conception of Communications

1.1 System Bandwidth and Signal Bandwidth

Define the system bandwidth by equivalent noise bandwidth: Suppose the

Where H max is the maximum amplitude of H(f).

Figure 1.1-1 Equivalent noise bandwidth of low-pass filter

Definition of the equivalent noise bandwidth Wn is:

passing the actual filter.

as the center frequency as shown in Figure

Figure 1.1-2 Equivalent noise bandwidth of band-pass filter

Definition of the half-power point bandwidth or the so-called 3dB bandwidth

Figure 1.1-3 Half-power point bandwidth

Definition of the system bandwidth Be with percentage of the total passed

Figure 1.1-4 System bandwidth Be of band-pass filter

1.1.2 Signal Bandwidth

S x ( f ) to replace | X ( f ) | 2 . And similarly, the signal may have bandwidths of 1dB,

CDMA network planning and optimization training guide-Primary Principles

system allows transmission of 2 16Kbps voice signals.

1.2 Definition of Erlang

1.3 Blocking Rate

If 1: The probability of having one accident within li is proportional to length of time,

CDMA network planning and optimization training guide-Primary Principles

Where / is the traffic in Erlang within the unit period of time.

1.5 Receiver Sensitivity

1.5.2 Receiver Sensitivity in Link Budget

1.6 Reverse Load Factor

number _ of _ active _ users

Take the BTS thermal noise into consideration

Ignore 2, then we get:

As M/Fe>>1, the above equation can be simplified as:

CDMA network planning and optimization training guide-Primary Principles

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

Figure 1.6-5 Relationship between cell loading and interference

1.7 Definitions of dB, dBm, dBi, dBd, dBc ans dBW

For power P: 10logdB

CDMA network planning and optimization training guide-Primary Principles

1.9 Frequency Reuse

Figure 1.9-6 Frequency reuse application

1.10 Comparison between Bit, Byte, Symbol and Chip

Symbol is the unit used in modulation and demodulation. The information in

Chip is the minimum unit. It can be viewed as a concept of time duration. In

CDMA network planning and optimization training guide-Primary Principles

1.11 Conversion between Frequency and Frequency Band

frequency band in uplink(MHZ)

frequency band in downlink(MHZ) 463.35 ~ 464.60

Figure 1.11-8 Frequency band in 450M system

CDMA channel number

CDMA designated frequencies

0.030 (N-1023) + 825.000

0.030 (N-1023) + 870.000

CDMA network planning and optimization training guide-Primary Principles

Figure 1.11-9 Frequency band division in 800M system

Figure 1.11-10 Frequency band division in 1.9G system

1.12 Definitions of SID and NID

Figure 1.12-11 System and network

1.13 Definitions of IMSI

Mobile country code

Mobile network code