SolarDomesticHotWaterHeatingSystems

Design,InstallationandMaintenance

Presentedby:
ChristopherA.Homola,PE

A Brief History of Solar Water Heating

Solar water heating has been around for many years because it is the
easiest way to use the sun to save energy and money. One of the earliest
documented cases of solar energy use involved pioneers moving west
after the Civil War. They would place a cooking pot filled with cold water in
the sun all day to have heated water in the evening.
The first solar water heater that resembles the concept still in use today
was a metal tank that was painted black and placed on the roof where it
was tilted toward the sun. The concept worked, but it usually took all day
for the water to heat, then, as soon as the sun went down, it cooled off
quickly because the tank was not insulated.

A Brief History of the American Solar Water Heating Industry

1890 to 1930's - the California Era
The first commercial solar water heater was introduced by Clarence Kemp in the
1890's in California. For a $25 investment, people could save about $9 a year in coal
costs. It was a simple batch type solar water heater that combined storage and
collector in one box.
The first thermosyphon systems with the tank on the roof and the collector below
were invented, patented, and marketed in California in the 1920's by William Bailey.
One of the largest commercial systems in California was installed for a resort in
Death Valley.
Natural gas was discovered in Southern California and cheap natural gas,
aggressively marketed by utility companies, ended the solar water heating market.
Patents were sold to a Florida company, owned by HM Carruthers in 1923 and the
solar hot water industry began in the coastal cities of central Florida and southern
Florida.

1930's to 1973 - the South Florida Era

Floridians purchased or shipped to the Caribbean more than 100,000
thermosyphon water heaters between 1930 and 1954 when the industry
collapsed. During the second World War (1942 to 1945) copper was
reserved for the military and the solar industry was not able to make solar
collectors.
After the war, the Florida industry boomed again for about six years. Half of
Miami homes had solar water heaters with over 80% of new homes having
them installed. In the early 1950's electricity became cheap in Florida and
utility companies gave away electric water heaters in an effort to eliminate
the solar water heating industry.
By 1973, there were only two full-time solar water heating companies left in
the United States both operating out of Miami, Florida.

1973 to 1986 - Oil Embargo and Tax Credits

The oil embargo of 1973 resulted in a rise in fuel prices. A few companies
started experimenting with solar water heaters and designing systems but there
were really no national solar collector manufacturers with widespread
distribution until the late seventies.
The federal government sponsored a few HUD Grants for domestic solar water
heaters in the period just before the start of the 40% Federal tax rebate in 1979.
The tax credit era, 1979 to 1986, started a nationwide boon in solar hot water
systems that resulted in hundreds of manufacturers and thousands of
contractors and distributors starting new businesses.

Equipment has improved since the 1980s. Improvements were

precipitated by both certification design review and experienced
installers.
Today, more than 1.2 million buildings have solar water heating
systems in the United States. Japan has nearly 1.5 million buildings
with solar water heating. In Israel, 30 percent of the buildings use solarheated water. Greece and Australia are also leading users of solar
energy.
There is still a lot of room for expansion in the solar energy industry.
There are no geographical constraints.
For colder climates,
manufacturers have designed systems that protect components from
freezing conditions. Wherever the sun shines, solar water heating
systems can work. The designs may be different from the early solar
pioneers, but the concept is the same.

EnvironmentalBenefits
Solarwaterheatersdonotpollute.
Solarwaterheatershelptoavoidcarbondioxide,nitrogenoxides,sulfur
dioxide,andtheotherairpollutionandwastescreatedwhen thelocalutility
generatespowerorfuelisburnedtoheatdomesticwater.
Whenasolarwaterheaterreplacesanelectricwaterheater,theelectricity
displacedover20yearsrepresentsmorethan50tonsofavoidedcarbon
dioxideemissionsalone.

LongTermBenefits
Solarwaterheatersofferlongtermbenefitsthatgobeyondsimple
economics.
Inadditiontohavingfreehotwaterafterthesystemhaspaidforitselfin
reducedutilitybills,ownerscouldbecushionedfromfuture fuel
shortagesandpriceincreases.
Solarwaterheaterscanassistinreducingthiscountry'sdependenceon
foreignoil.
It is estimated that adding a solar water heater to an existing home
raises
theresalevalueofthehomebytheentirecostofthesystem.
Homeownersmaybeabletorecouptheirentireinvestmenttheysell
theirhome.

EconomicBenefits
Many home builders choose electric water heaters because they are easy to
install and relatively inexpensive to purchase. However, research shows that an
average household with an electric water heater spends about 25% of its home
energycostsonheatingwater.
Itmakeseconomic sense to think beyond the initial purchase price and consider
lifetime energy costs, or how much you will spend on energy to use the appliance
over its lifetime. The Florida Solar Energy Center studied the potential savings to
Florida homeowners of common waterheating systems compared with electric
water heaters. It found that solar water heaters offered the largest potential
savings,withsolarwaterheaterownerssavingasmuchas50%to85%annuallyon
theirutilitybillsoverthecostofelectricwaterheating.

EconomicBenefitsContinued
Asolarhotwaterheaterheatsthesameamountofwaterforafractionofthe
cost. Asolarhotwaterheatingsystemsperformanceisdependentonthe
intensityofthesuninitslocation. Theinitialexpenseofinstallingasolarhot
water heater ($3500 to $5500) tends to be greater than installing an electric
($450
to$650)orgas($750to$1000)waterheater.
Thecostsvaryfromregiontoregion.Dependingonthepriceoffuelsources,the
solarwaterheatercanbemoreeconomicaloverthelifetimeofthesystemthan
heatingwaterwithelectricity,fueloil,propane,orevennaturalgasbecausethe
fuel(sunshine)isfree.

EconomicBenefitsContinued
However, at the current low prices of natural gas, solar water heaters
cannot
competewithnaturalgaswaterheatersinmostpartsofthecountryexcept
innewhomeconstruction.Althoughyouwillstillsaveenergycostswitha
solarwaterheaterbecauseyouwon'tbebuyingnaturalgas,itwon'tbe
economicalonadollarfordollarbasis.
Paybacks vary widely, but you can expect a simple payback of 4 to 8 years
on
awelldesignedandproperlyinstalledsolarwaterheater.Youcanexpect
shorterpaybacksinareaswithhigherenergycosts.Afterthepayback
period, you accrue the savings over the life of the system, which ranges
from
15to40years,dependingonthesystemandhowwellitismaintained.

EconomicBenefitsContinued
Youcandeterminethesimplepaybackofasolarwaterheaterbyfirst
determiningthenetcostofthesystem.Netcostsincludethetotalinstalled
costlessanytaxincentivesorutilityrebates.Afteryoucalculatethenet
costofthesystem,calculatetheannualfuelsavingsanddividethenet
investmentbythisnumbertodeterminethesimplepayback.
Anexample:Yourtotalutilitybillaverages$160permonthandyourwater
heatingcostsareaverage(25%ofyourtotalutilitycosts)at$40permonth.
Ifyoupurchaseasolarwaterheaterfor$2,000thatprovidesanaverageof
60%ofyourhotwatereachyear,thatsystemwillsaveyou$24permonth
($40x0.60=$24)or$288peryear(12x$24=$288).Thissystemhasa
simplepaybackoflessthan7years($2,000 $288=6.9).

For the remainder of the life of the solar water heater, 60% of the hot
water will be free, saving $288 each year. You will need to account for
someoperationandmaintenancecosts,whichareestimatedat$25 to$30
ayear.Thisisprimarilytohavethesystemcheckedevery3years.
Ifyouarebuildinganewhomeorrefinancingyour present home to do a
major renovation, the economics are even more attractive. The cost of
including the price of a solar water heater in a new 30year mortgage is
usually between $13 and $20 per month. The portion of the federal
income tax deduction for mortgage interest attributable to the solar
system reduces that amount by about $3 to $5 per month. If your fuel
savings are more than $15 per month, the investment in the solar water
heaterisprofitableimmediately.

Peak Power Benefit

A typical residential solar water heating system (SWHS) for a family of
four delivers 4 kilowatts of electrical equivalent thermal power when
under full sun and when the temperature of the water in the storage
tank is about the same as the air temperature. Such a system
typically has about 64 square feet of solar collector surface area and
produces approximately the same peak power as 400 square feet of
photovoltaic panels.

Production Capacity Benefit

Ratings of collectors and systems, along with other information
specific to the local area, can be used to calculate the specific
reduction in a utilitys peak demand. On average, for every solar
water heating system that is installed, 0.5 kilowatts of peak
demand is deferred from a utilitys load.

Energy Production Benefit

Because peak performance occurs infrequently, a more realistic
indication of solar thermal system performance is the rated daily
energy output of the collectors or system.
Using this method, a typical solar water heating system contributes
7 to 10 kilowatt-hours per day, depending on the solar resource and
type of collector.
Electric water heating for residential applications typically
consumes about 12 kilowatt-hours per day, depending on ground
water temperature.
Annual site-specific energy savings for domestic water heating
systems are available at www.solar-rating.org for all systems
certified by the Solar Rating and Certification Corporation (SRCC).
Using this data, a typical solar water heating system produces
about 3,400 kilowatt-hours per year, depending on local conditions
and type of collector.

WhatInfluencestheAmountofSolarRadiation?

Atmosphere
AngleofIncidence
Geography
LatitudeandSeason
AirPollutionandNaturalHaze

Atmosphere
The atmosphere absorbs certain wavelengths of light more than others. The exact spectral
distribution of light reaching the earth's surface depends on how much atmosphere the light
passes through, as well as the humidity of the atmosphere. In the morning and evening, the
sun is low in the sky and light waves pass through more atmosphere than at noon. The
winter sunlight also passes through more atmosphere versus summer. In addition, different
latitudes on the earth have different average thicknesses of atmosphere that sunlight must
penetrate. The figure below illustrates the atmospheric effects on solar energy reaching the
earth. Clouds, smoke and dust reflect some solar insolation back up into the atmosphere,
allowing less solar energy to fall on a terrestrial object. These conditions also diffuse or
scatter the amount of solar energy that does pass through.

Angle of Incidence
The suns electromagnetic energy travels in a straight line. The angle
at which these rays fall on an object is called the angle of incidence. A
flat surface receives more solar energy when the angle of incidence is
closer to zero (i.e. perpendicular) and therefore receives significantly
less in early morning and late evening. Because the angle of incidence
is so large in the morning and evening on earth, about six hours of
usable solar energy is available daily. This is called the solar
window.

Absorptance vs. Reflectance

Certain materials absorb more insolation than others. More absorptive
materials are generally dark with a matte finish, while more-reflective
materials are generally lighter colored with a smooth or shiny finish.
The materials used to absorb the sun's energy are selected for their
ability to absorb a high percentage of energy and to reflect a minimum
amount of energy. The solar collector's absorber and absorber coating
efficiency are determined by the rate of absorption versus the rate of
reflectance. This in turn, affects the absorber and absorber coating's
ability to retain heat and minimize emissivity and reradiation. High
absorptivity and low reflectivity improves the potential for collecting
solar energy.

Collecting and Converting Solar Energy

Solar collectors capture the suns electromagnetic energy and
convert it to heat energy. The efficiency of a solar collector
depends not only on its materials and design but also on its
size, orientation and tilt.
Available solar energy is at its maximum at noon, when the sun
is at its highest point in its daily arc across the sky. The sun's
daily motion across the sky has an impact on any solar
collector's efficiency and performance in the following ways.
1.Since the angle of incidence of the solar energy measured
from the normal (right angle) surface of the receiving surface
changes throughout the day, solar power is lower at dawn and
dusk. In reality, there are only about 6 hours of maximum
energy available daily.
2.The total energy received by a fixed surface during a given
period depends on its orientation and tilt and varies with weather
conditions, time of day and season.

Insolation
Insolation is the amount of the suns electromagnetic energy that
falls on any given object.
Simply put, when we are talking about solar radiation, we are
referring to insolation.
In Florida (at about sea level), an object will receive a maximum of
around 300 Btu/ft2hr (about 90 watts/ft2 or 950 watts/meter2) at high
noon on a horizontal surface under clear skies on June 21 (the day
of the summer equinox).

PV Solar Radiation (Flat Plate, Facing South,

Latitude Tilt)Static Maps
These maps provide monthly average daily total
solar resource information on grid cells of
approximately 40 km by 40 km in size. The
insolation values represent the resource available
to a flat plate collector, such as a photovoltaic
panel, oriented due south at an angle from
horizontal to equal to the latitude of the collector
location.

Resource:
National Renewable Energy Laboratory
www.nrel.gov/gis/solar.html

OptimumPerformanceConsiderations

OptimumTilt:
Tolatitudeforgreatestperformanceoruptolatitudeminus5 degrees.
OptimumSummerLoad:Latitudeminus15degrees(e.g.solarairconditioning).
OptimumWinterLoad:Latitudeplus15degrees(e.g.solarspaceheating).

OptimumAzimuth:
Towardtheequator(e.g.Facingsouthinnorthernhemisphere).

Figure 1. Sun Path Diagrams for 28 N. Latitude

Seasonal Variations
The dome of the sky and the suns path at various times of
the year are shown in Figure 1.

Figure 2a And 2b. Collected Energy Varies with Time of Year And Tilt
For many solar applications, we want maximum annual energy harvest. For others, maximum
winter energy (or summer energy) collection is important. To orient the flat-plate collector
properly, the application must be considered, since different angles will be best for each
different application.

Actual Collector Orientation Possibilities

Collector Orientation
Collectors work best when facing due south. If roof lines or other factors dictate
different orientations, a small penalty will be paid, as shown in Figure 3. As an
example: for an orientation 20 degrees east or west of due south, we must increase
the collector area to 1.06 times the size needed with due south orientation (dashed
line on Figure 3) to achieve the same energy output. The orientation angle away
from due south is called the azimuth and, in the Northern Hemisphere, is plus if the
collector faces toward the east and minus if toward the west.

Figure 3. Glazed Collector Orientations

Tilt Angle
The best tilt angle will vary not only with the collectors
geographical location but also with seasonal function. Solar
water heating systems are designed to provide heat year-round.
In general:
A)Mounting at an angle equal to the latitude works best for yearround energy use.
B)Latitude minus 15 degrees mounting is best for summer energy
collection.
C)Latitude plus 15 degrees mounting is best for winter energy
collection.

Various Collector Tilt Angles

Solar Water Heating System Basics

Solarwaterheatingsystemsincludestoragetanksandsolar
collectors.
Therearetwotypesofsolarwaterheatingsystems:Active,which
havecirculatingpumpsandcontrols,andPassive,whichdont.
Mostsolarwaterheatersrequireawellinsulatedstoragetank.
Solarstoragetankshaveanadditionaloutletandinletconnected
toandfromthesolarcollector.
Intwotanksystems,thesolarwaterheaterpreheatswater
beforeitenterstheconventionalwaterheater.
Inonetanksystems,thebackupheateriscombinedwiththe
solarstorageinonetank.

Electric Back-Up
Solar systems with single tanks are designed to encourage
temperature stratification so that when water is drawn for service, it is
supplied from the hottest stratum in the tank (i.e. top of tank).
While a solar system tank in the United States normally contains a
heating element, the element is deliberately located in the upper third
of the tank.
The electric element functions as back-up when solar energy is not
available or when hot water demand exceeds the solar-heated supply.

Natural Gas Back-Up

Natural gas back-up systems may use passive (thermosyphon or
integral collector system) solar preheating plumbed in series for
proper operation.
Or two separate tanks may be used for active solar systems with
natural gas back-up heating systems.
The solar storage tank is piped in series to the auxiliary tank sending
the hottest solar preheated water to the gas back-up tank.

SolarCollectors
Fourtypesofsolarcollectorsareusedforresidential
applications:
Flatplatecollector
Integralcollectorstoragesystems
Batchsystem
Evacuatedtubesolarcollectors

FlatPlateCollector
Flatplatecollectorsaredesignedtoheatwatertomedium
temperatures(approximately140degreesFahrenheit).

Flat plate collectors typically include the following components:

1.Enclosure: A box or frame that holds all the components together.
2.Glazing: A transparent cover over the enclosure that allows the suns rays to
pass through to the absorber. Most glazing is glass but some designs use clear
plastic.
3.Glazing Frame: Attaches the glazing to the enclosure. Glazing gaskets prevent
leakage around the glazing frame and allow for contraction and expansion.
4.Insulation: Material between the absorber and the surfaces it touches that
blocks heat loss by conduction thereby reducing the heat loss from the collector
enclosure.
5.Absorber: A flat, usually metal surface inside the enclosure that, because of its
physical properties, can absorb and transfer high levels of solar energy.
6.Flow Tubes: Highly conductive metal tubes across the absorber through which
fluid flows, transferring heat from the absorber to the fluid.

IntegralCollectorStorage(ICS)Systems
In other solar water heating systems the collector and storage
tank are separate components. In an integral collector storage
(ICS) system, both collection and solar storage are combined
within a single unit. Most ICS systems store potable water
inside several tanks within the collector unit. The entire unit is
exposed to solar energy throughout the day. The resulting
water is drawn off either directly to the service location or as
replacement hot water to an auxiliary storage tank as water is
drawn for use.

Cutaway of an ICS system

Batch System

Batch solar water heater

The simplest of all solar water heating systems is a

batch system.
It is simply one or several storage tanks coated with
black, solar-absorbing material in an enclosure with
glazing across the top and insulation around the other
sides.
It is the simplest solar system to make. When exposed
to sun during the day, the tank transfers the heat it
absorbs to the water it holds.
The heated water can be drawn directly from the tank
or it can replace hot water that is drawn from an interior
tank inside the building.

EvacuatedTubeSolarCollectors
Thistypeofsystemfeaturesparallelrowsoftransparentglasstubes.
Eachtubecontainsaglassoutertubeandmetalabsorbertubeattached
toafin.Thefinscoatingabsorbssolarenergybutinhibitsradiativeheat
loss.Thesecollectorsareusedmorefrequentlyforcommercial
applications.

Evacuated-tube collectors generally have a smaller solar collecting surface

because this surface must be encased by an evacuated glass tube. They
are designed to deliver higher temperatures (approximately 300 degrees
Fahrenheit). The tubes themselves comprise the following elements:
1.Highly tempered glass vacuum tubes, which function as both glazing and
insulation.
2.An absorber surface inside the vacuum tube. The absorber is surrounded
by a vacuum that greatly reduces the heat loss.

ActiveSolarWaterHeatingSystems
TherearetwoSolarWaterHeatingSystemtypes:ActiveandPassive
TherearetwotypesofActiveSolarWaterHeatingSystems:
DirectCirculationSystems
IndirectCirculationSystems

DirectCirculationSystems
Pump circulates domestic water through the collector(s) and into the
building. This type of system works well in climates where it rarely
freezes.

DirectPumpedSystem

DirectSystemwithPhotovoltaicPoweredPump

Direct System with Automatic Drain-down system configuration

Thedirectpumpedsystemhasoneormoresolarenergycollectors installedontheroofanda
storage tank located somewhere within the building. A pump circulates the water from the
tank up to the collector and backagain.This is called a direct (or open loop) system because
thesunsheatistransferreddirectlytothepotablewatercirculatingthroughthecollectorand
storagetank.Neitheranantifreezenorheatexchangerisinvolved.
This system has a differential controller that senses temperature differences between water
leaving the solar collector and the coldest water in the storage tank.When the water in the
collectorisabout1520Fwarmerthanthewaterinthestoragetank,thepumpisturnedonby
thecontroller.Whenthetemperaturedifferencedropstoabout35F,thepumpisturnedoff.
Inthisway,thewateralwaysgainsheatfromthecollectorwhen thepumpoperates.
A flushtype freeze protection valve installed near the collector provides freeze protection.
Whenever temperatures approach freezing, the valve opens to let warm water flow through
thecollector.
The collector should always allow for manual draining by closing the isolation valves (located
abovethestoragetank)andopeningthedrainvalves.
Automaticrecirculationisanothermeansoffreezeprotection.Whenthewaterinthecollector
reaches a temperature near freezing, the controller turns the pump on for a few minutes to
warmthecollectorwithwaterfromthestoragetank.

DirectSystemAdvantages

Servicewateruseddirectlyfromcollectorloop.
Noheatexchanger moreefficientheattransfertostorage.
Circulationpump(ifneeded)needsonlytoovercomefriction
losses systempressurized.

DirectSystemDisadvantages

Qualityofservicewatermustbegoodtopreventcorrosion,scale
ordepositsincomponents.
Freezeprotectiondependsonmechanicalvalves.
Recommendedinclimateswithminimal/nofreezepotential,
andgoodwaterquality.

IndirectCirculationSystems
Pumpcirculatesanonfreezing,heattransferfluidthroughthecollector(s)
andaheatexchanger.
Thisheatsthewaterthatthenflowsintothehome.
Thistypeofsystemworkswellinclimatespronetofreezingtemperatures.

IndirectPumpedSystemUsingAntiFreezeSolution

This system design is common in northern climates, where freezing weather

occursmorefrequently.Anantifreezesolutioncirculatesthroughthecollector,
and a heat exchanger transfers the heat from the antifreeze solution to the
storagetankwater.Whentoxicheatexchangerfluidsareused,adoublewalled
exchanger is required. Generally, if the heat exchanger is installed in the
storagetank,itshouldbelocatedinthelowerhalfofthetank.
A heat transfer solution is pumped through the collector in a closed loop.The
loopincludesthecollector,connectingpiping,thepump,anexpansiontankand
a heat exchanger. A heat exchanger coil in the lower half of the storage tank
transfers heat from the heat transfer solution to the potable water in the solar
storagetank.Analternativeofthisdesignistowraptheheat exchangeraround
thetank.Thiskeepsitfromcontactwiththepotablewater.
The differential controller, in conjunction with the collector and tank sensors,
determineswhenthepumpshouldbeactivatedtodirecttheheattransferfluid
through the collector.The photovoltaic panel located on the roof supplies the
powertooperatethecirculatingpump.

IndirectPumpedSystemUsingAntiFreezeSolution
andWrapAroundHeatExchanger

Afailsafemethodofensuringthatcollectorsandcollectorlooppipingneverfreeze
istoremoveallthewaterfromthecollectorsandpipingwhenthesystemisnot
collectingheat.Thisisamajorfeatureofthedrainbacksystem.Freezeprotection
isprovidedwhenthesystemisinthedrainmode.Waterinthe collectorsand
exposedpipingdrainsintotheinsulateddrainbackreservoirtankeachtimethe
circulatingpumpshutsoff.Aslighttiltofthecollectorsisrequiredinordertoallow
completedrainage.Asightglassattachedtothedrainbackreservoirtankshows
whenthereservoirtankisfullandthecollectorhasbeendrained.
Inthisparticularsystem,distilledwaterisrecommendedtobeusedasthecollector
loopfluidtransfersolution.Usingdistilledwaterincreasestheheattransfer
characteristicsandpreventspossiblemineralbuildupofthetransfersolution.
Whenthesunshinesagain,thecirculatingpumpisactivatedbyadifferential
controller.Waterispumpedfromthereservoirtothecollectors,allowingheatto
becollected.Thewaterstoredinthereservoirtankcirculates inaclosedloop
throughthecollectorsandaheatexchangeratthebottomofthe storagetank.
Theheatexchangertransfersheatfromthecollectorloopfluidtothepotablewater
locatedinthestoragetank.

IndirectSystemAdvantages
Freezeprotectionprovidedbyantifreezefluidordrainback.
Collector/pipingprotectedfromaggressivewater.

IndirectSystemDisadvantages
Mustaccountforreducedheattransferefficiencythroughheat exchanger.
Addedmaterials=addedcost.
Ifnotusingwater,fluidsrequiremaintenance.
Mostdesignsrequireaddedpumpingcost.

Passive Solar Water Heaters

Passive solar water heaters rely on gravity and the tendency for water
to naturally circulate as it is heated.
Passive solar water heater systems contain no electrical components,
are generally more reliable, easier to maintain, and possibly have a
longer work life than active solar water heater systems.
The two most popular types of passive solar water heater systems
are: Integral-Collector Storage (ICS) andThermosyphon systems.

IntegralCollectorStorageSystem

Inanintegralcollectorstoragesystem,thehotwaterstoragesystemisthecollector.
Coldwaterflowsprogressivelythroughthecollectorwhereitis heatedbythesun.
Hotwaterisdrawnfromthetop,whichisthehottest,andreplacementwaterflows
into the bottom. This system is simple because pumps and controllers are not
required.
On demand, cold water from the building flows into the collector and hot water
fromthecollectorflowstoastandardhotwaterauxiliarytankwithinthebuilding.
Aflushtypefreezeprotectionvalveisinstalledinthetoppipingnear thecollector.
As temperatures near freezing, this valve opens to allow relatively warm water to
flowthroughthecollecttopreventfreezing.
In areas of the country, the thermal mass of the large water volume within the
integralcollectorstoragecollectorprovidesameansoffreezeprotection.

ThermosyphonSystem

As the sun shines on the collector, the water inside the collector flow
tubes is heated. As it heats, this water expands slightly and becomes
lighterthanthecoldwaterinthesolarstoragetankmountedabovethe
collector.Gravitythenpullsheavier,coldwaterdownfromthe tankand
intothecollectorinlet.Thecoldwaterpushestheheatedwaterthrough
thecollectoroutletandintothetopofthetank,thusheatingthewater
inthetank.
In a thermosiphon system there is no need for a circulating pump and
controller. Potable water flows directly to the tank on the roof. Solar
heated water flows from the rooftop tank to the auxiliary tank installed
atgroundlevelwheneverwaterisusedwiththebuilding.
The thermosiphon system features a thermally operated valve that
protects the collector from freezing. It also includes isolation valves,
which allow the solar system to be manually drained in case of freezing
conditions,ortobebypassedcompletely.

Typical Components of a Direct Flat Plate Collector System

AIR VENT
Allows air that has entered the system to escape, and in turn prevents air locks that would
restrict flow of the heat-transfer fluid. An air vent must be positioned vertically and is usually
installed at the uppermost part of the system. In active direct systems supplied by pressurized
water, an air vent should be installed anywhere air could be trapped in pipes or collectors.
Indirect systems that use glycol as the heat-transfer fluid use air vents to remove any dissolved
air left in the system after it has been pressurized or charged with the heat-transfer fluid. Once
the air has been purged in these indirect systems, the air vent mechanism is manually closed.
TEMPERATURE-PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE
Protects system components from excessive pressures and temperatures. A pressuretemperature relief valve is always plumbed to the solar storage (as well as auxiliary) tank. In
thermosiphon and ICS systems, where the solar tanks are located on a roof, these tanks may
also be equipped with a temperature-pressure relief valve since they are in some jurisdictions
considered storage vessels. These valves are usually set by the manufacturer at 150 psi and
210 F. Since temperature pressure relief valves open at temperatures below typical collector
loop operating conditions, they are not commonly installed in collector loops.
PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE
Protects components from excessive pressures that may build up in system plumbing. In any
system where the collector loop can be isolated from the storage tank, a pressure relief valve
must be installed on the collector loop. The pressure rating of the valve (typically 125 psi) must
be lower than the pressure rating of all other system components, which it is installed to protect.
The pressure relief valve is usually installed at the collector.

PRESSURE GAUGE
Is used in indirect systems to monitor pressure within the fluid loop. In both direct and
indirect systems, such gauges can readily indicate if a leak has occurred in the system
plumbing.
VACUUM BREAKER
Admits atmospheric pressure into system piping, which allows the system to drain. This
valve is usually located at the collector outlet plumbing but also may be installed anywhere
on the collector return line. The vacuum breaker ensures proper drainage of the collector
loop plumbing when it is either manually or automatically drained. A valve that incorporates
both air vent and vacuum breaker capabilities is also available.
ISOLATION VALVES
These valves are used to manually isolate various subsystems. Their primary use is to
isolate the collectors or other components before servicing.
DRAIN VALVES
Used to drain the collector loop, the storage tank and, in some systems, the heat exchanger
or drain-back reservoir. In indirect systems, they are also used as fill valves. The most
common drain valve is the standard boiler drain or hose bib.

CHECK VALVES
Allow fluid to flow in only one direction. In solar systems, these valves prevent
thermosiphoning action in the system plumbing. Without a check valve, water that cools in the
elevated (roof-mounted) collector at night will fall by gravity to the storage tank, displacing
lighter, warmer water out of the storage tank and up to the collector. Once begun, this
thermosiphoning action can continue all night, continuously cooling all the water in the tank. In
many cases, it may lead to the activation of the back-up-heating element, thereby causing the
system to lose even more energy.
FREEZE-PROTECTION VALVES
Are set to open at near freezing temperatures, and are installed on the collector return line in
a location close to where the line penetrates the roof.
Warm water bleeds through the collector and out this valve to protect the collector and pipes
from freezing. A spring-loaded thermostat or a bimetallic switch may control the valve.
TEMPERATURE GAUGES
Provide an indication of system fluid temperatures.
A temperature gauge at the top of the storage tank indicates the temperature of the hottest
water available for use.
Temperature wells installed at several points in the system will allow the use of a single
gauge in evaluating system operation.

SelectingaSolarWaterHeatingSystem
Investigatelocalcodes,covenants,andregulations.
Considertheeconomicsofasolarwaterheatingsystem.
Evaluatethesitessolarresource.
Determinethecorrectsystemsize.
Estimateandcomparesystemcosts.

Building Codes, Covenants, and Regulations for

Solar Water Heating Systems
Before installing a solar water heating system, you should investigate local building
codes, zoning ordinances, and subdivision covenants, as well as any special regulations
pertaining to the site. A building permit will probably be required to install a solar energy
system onto an existing building.
Not every community or municipality initially welcomes renewable energy installations.
Although this is often due to ignorance or the comparative novelty of renewable energy
systems, compliance with existing building and permit procedures to install a system is
unavoidable.
The matter of building code and zoning compliance for a solar system installation is
typically a local issue. Even if a statewide building code is in effect, it's usually enforced
locally by the city, county, or parish. Common problems owners have encountered with
building codes include the following:
Exceeding roof load
Unacceptable heat exchangers
Improper wiring
Unlawful tampering with potable water supplies.

Building Codes, Covenants, and Regulations for

Solar Water Heating Systems Continued

Potential zoning issues include the following:

Obstructing sideyards
Erecting unlawful protrusions on roofs
Siting the system too close to streets or lot boundaries.
Special area regulationssuch as local community, subdivision, or
homeowner's association covenantsalso demand compliance. These
covenants, historic district regulations, and flood-plain provisions can
easily be overlooked.

Renewable Energy Funding Sources

The Database of State Incentives for Renewables & Efficiency (DSIRE) is
a comprehensive source of information on state, local, utility, and federal
incentives that promote renewable energy and energy efficiency. The
website is http://www.dsireusa.org.

Federal Level Funding

Federal Incentives for Renewable Energy

U.S. Department of Treasury - Renewable Energy Grants
Eligible Renewable Technologies:
Solar Water Heating, Solar Space Heating, & Photovoltaic Systems
Energy Efficient Mortgages
Federal Housing Authority (FHA) & Veterans Affairs (VA) programs
Eligible Renewable Technologies:
Solar Water Heating, Solar Space Heating, & Photovoltaic Systems

State Level Funding

State of Ohio Incentives for Renewable Energy
Ohio Department of Development - Advanced Energy Program Grants
- Multi-Family Residential Solar Thermal Incentive
Eligible Renewable Technologies:
Solar Water Heating & Solar Space Heating Systems
Applicable Sectors: Multi-Family Residential, Low-Income Residential
Ohio Department of Development - Advanced Energy Program Grants
- Non-Residential Renewable Energy
Eligible Renewable Technologies:
Solar Water Heating, Wind, & Photovoltaic Systems
Applicable Sectors: Commercial, Industrial, Nonprofit, Schools, Local
Government, State Government, Agricultural, Institutional

SiteAssessment

SolarPathFinder

http://www.solarpathfinder.com

Collector Positioning
Flat-plate collectors for solar water heating are generally mounted on a building or the ground in a fixed
position at prescribed angles. The angle will vary according to geographic location, collector type and use of
the absorbed heat.
Since residential hot water demand is generally greater in the winter than in the summer, the collector
ideally should be positioned to maximize wintertime energy collection, receiving sunshine during the middle
six to eight daylight hours of each day. Minimize shading from other buildings, trees or other collectors. Plan
for lengthening winter shadows, as the sun's path changes significantly with the seasons.

Ideally, the collector should face directly south in the northern

hemisphere and directly north in the southern hemisphere.
However, facing the collector within 30 to 45 either east or west of due
south or north reduces performance by only about 10 percent.
A compass may be used to determine true south or north.
The closer to the equator, the less the need to maintain the orientation
and direction of the collector, but be aware of the seasonal position of
the sun in the sky and how it may affect the seasonal performance of
the system.

The optimum tilt angle for the collector is about the same as the site's
latitude plus or minus 15. An inexpensive inclinometer will aid in
determining tilt angles. If collectors will be mounted on a sloped roof,
check the roof's inclination to determine whether the collectors should be
mounted parallel to the roof or at a different tilt. In general, collectors
should be mounted parallel to the plane of a sloped roof unless the
performance penalty is more than 30 percent. The mounted collector
should not detract from the appearance of the roof.
Total length of piping from collector to storage should not exceed 100
feet. The longer the pipe run, the greater the heat loss. If a greater length
is necessary, an increase in piping diameter or pump size may be
required.
If the collectors will be roof-mounted, they should not block drainage or
keep the roof surface from properly shedding rain. Water should not
gather or pool around roof penetrations. Roof curbs may be require.

To Estimate Shading of a Rooftop/Pole Mount on the Future Site

To Estimate Needed Pole Height to Avoid Shading

To Estimate How Much to Crop Tree to Avoid Shading

Duringthesitevisit,theassessorshouldprovide:
Abasicanalysisoftheprojectsenergyneeds.
Recommendationsforenergyefficiencyinordertoreducethe
sizeandcostoftheproposedrenewableenergysystem.
Provideanevaluationoftherenewableenergyresourceatthe
site.
Informationregardingthebestplacetositethesolarsystem.
Additionally,theassessorshouldfollowupwithawrittenreport
detailingthesiteassessmentinformation.

SiteAssessmentBenefits
Arenewableenergysiteassessmentconductedbyacertified
assessorprovidesanopportunitytodiscusswithanexperienced,
objectivethirdpartyaboutthecharacteristicsofthepropertyand
learnaboutavarietyofequipmentandoptions.
Asiteassessmentisessentialwhenconsideringasolarproject.
Thesiteassessorsreportcanbeusedtopresentasummaryof
informationandoptionstodecisionmakersfortheirapproval.

CostofaRenewableEnergySiteAssessment
Certifiedassessorsestablishtheirownfeesfortheirservices.
On average, the full cost of an assessment is between $300 and
$500. The cost varies depending on the number of technologies
being assessed and the complexity of the system, as well as the
assessorstravelcosts.
When arranging for a site assessment, discuss with the assessor
your expectations so that you can receive an accurate cost
estimate.

SizingtheSolarHotWaterHeatingSystem
Just as you have to choose a 30, 40, or 50gallon conventional water heater, you
need to determine the right size solar water heater to install. Sizing a solar water
heater involves determining the total collector area and the storage volume
requiredtoprovide100%ofyourhousehold'shotwaterduringthe summer. Solar
equipment experts use worksheets or special computer programs to assist you in
determininghowlargeasystemyouneed.
Solarstoragetanksareusually50,60,80,or120galloncapacity.Asmall(50to60
gallon) system is sufficient for 1 to 3 people, a medium (80gallon) system is
adequate for a 3 or 4person household, and a large (120gallon) system is
appropriatefor4to6people.
Aruleofthumbforsizingcollectors:allowabout20squarefeetofcollectorareafor
each of the first two family members and 8 square feet for each additional family
memberifyouliveintheSunBelt.Allow12to14additionalsquarefeetperperson
ifyouliveinthenorthernUnitedStates.

SizingtheSolarHotWaterHeatingSystem Continued
A ratio of at least 1.5 gallons of storage capacity to 1 square foot of collector area
preventsthesystemfromoverheatingwhenthedemandforhotwaterislow.
In very warm, sunny climates, experts suggest that the ratio should be at least 2
gallonsofstorageto1squarefootofcollectorarea.
Forexample,afamilyoffourinanorthernclimatewouldneedbetween64and68
squarefeetofcollectorareaanda96 to102gallonstoragetank.
(Thisassumes20squarefeetofcollectorareaforthefirstperson,20forthesecond
person,12to14forthethirdperson,and12to14forthefourthperson.
Thisequals64to68squarefeet,multipliedby1.5gallonsofstoragecapacity,which
equals96to102gallonsofstorage.)
Becauseyoumightnotbeabletofinda96gallontank,youmaywanttogeta120
gallontanktobesuretomeetyourhotwaterneeds.

Resources
AnalysisTools
Preliminary Screening: To determine if a project is a possible
candidateforsolarhotwaterheating,tryusingtheFederalRenewable
EnergyScreeningAssistant(FRESA)software.Thisisawindowsbased
softwaretoolwhichscreensprojectsforeconomicfeasibility.Itisable
to evaluate many renewable technologies including solar hot water,
photovoltaics,andwind.
Another and somewhat more detailed screening tool, Retscreen, is
provided
by
Natural
Resources
Canada.
Go
to
http://www.retscreen.net/ todownloadthesimulationsoftware.

ResourcesContinued
AnalysisTools
Detailed Performance: Once preliminary viability has been established, it will
eventually be necessary to evaluate system performance to generate more precise
engineeringdataandeconomicanalysis.Thiscanbeaccomplishedbaseduponhourly
simulation software or by hand correlation methods based on the results of hourly
simulations.Twosoftwareprogramswhichareavailableinclude:
FCHART, acorrelationmethodavailablefromtheUniversityofWisconsin.Goto
http://www.fchart.com/ todownloadthesimulationsoftware.
TRNSYS, softwareavailablefromtheUniversityofWisconsin.Goto
http://sel.me.wisc.edu/trnsys/ todownloadthesimulationsoftware.

FCHART can be used with the following:

Collector Types
Flat-Plates
Evacuated Types
Integral Collectors
System Types
Water Storage Heating
Building Storage Heating
Domestic Water Heating
Integral Collector-Storage DHW
Indoor and Outdoor Pool Heating
Features
Life-cycle economics with cash flow
Weather data for over 300 locations
Weather data can be added
Monthly parameter variation
2-D incidence angle modifiers
English and SI units
Approved for use in California
Versions for Mac, DOS, and Windows

F-Chart
Example Input
Parameter Input Screen for Flat-Plate Collector

F-Chart
Example Input
Parameter Input Screen for General Solar Heating System

F-Chart
Example Output

F-Chart
Example Output
Graphical Output Screen showing Solar vs. Month

Installation

InstallationoftheSolarHotWaterSystem
Theproperinstallationofsolarwaterheatingsystemsdependsonmany
factors.
Thesefactorsincludesolarresource,climate,localbuildingcoderequirements,
andsafetyissues.

Wind Loading
A mounted collector is exposed not only to sunlight and the rigors of ultraviolet light
but also to wind forces. For example, in parts of the world that are vulnerable to
hurricanes or extreme wind storms, the collector and its mounting structure need to
be able to withstand intermittent wind loads up to 146 miles per hour. This
corresponds to a pressure of about 75 pounds per square foot. Winds, and thermal
contraction and expansion may cause improperly installed bolts and roof seals to
loosen over time. As always, follow local code requirements for wind loading.

Roof Mounting Considerations

Do not mount collectors near the ridge of a roof or other places where the wind
load may be unusually high. The figure below shows a desirable location for a
roof-mounted collector. Mounting collectors parallel to the roof plane helps
reduce wind loads and heat loss.

Example of a Collector mounted down from

roof ridge to reduce wind loading and heat losses

Ground Mounting
In an alternative to roof mounting, the collector for a solar water
heating system may be mounted at ground level. The lower edge of
the collector should be at least one foot above the ground so it will
not be obstructed by vegetation or soaked by standing water.

Roof Mounted Collectors

There are four ways to mount flat-plate collectors on roofs:
1. Rack Mounting. This method is used on homes with flat roofs. Collectors are
mounted at the prescribed angle on a structural frame. The structural connection
between the collector and frame and between the frame and building, or site must
be adequate to resist maximum potential wind loads.

Example of a Rack-mounted collector

2. Standoff Mounting. Standoffs separate the collector from the finished roof
surface; they allow air and rainwater to pass under the collector and minimize
problems of mildew and water retention. Standoffs must have adequate
structural properties. They are sometimes used to support collectors at slopes
that differ from that of the roof angle. This is the most common mounting
method used.

Example of a Standoff-mounted collector

3. Direct Mounting. Collectors can be mounted directly on the roof

surface. Generally, they are placed on a waterproof membrane covering
the roof sheathing. Then the finished roof surface, the collector's structural
attachments, and waterproof flashing are built up around the collector. A
weatherproof seal must be maintained between the collector and the roof
to avoid leaks, mildew and rotting.

Example of a Direct- or flush-mounted collector

4. Integral Mounting. Integral mounting places the collector within the roof
construction itself. The collector is attached to and supported by the structural
framing members. The top of the collector serves as the finished roof surface.
Weather tightness is crucial in avoiding water damage and mildew. Only collectors
designed by the manufacturer to be integrated into the roof should be installed as the
water/moisture barrier of buildings. The roofing materials and solar collectors expand
and contract at different rates and have the potential for leaks. A well sealed flashing
material allows the expansion and contraction of the materials to maintain a water
seal.

Example of an Integral-mounted collector

Roof Work Considerations

The most demanding aspects of installing roof-mounted collectors are
the actual mounting and roof penetrations. Standards and codes are
sometimes ambiguous about what can and cannot be done to a roof.
Always follow accepted roofing practices, be familiar with local building
codes, and communicate with the local building inspector. These are
prime roof work considerations:
1. Perform the installation in a safe manner.
2. Take precautions to avoid (or minimize) damage to the roof area.
3. Position collectors for the maximum performance compatible with
acceptable mounting practices.
4. Seal and flash pipe and sensor penetrations in accordance with good
roofing practices. Use permanent sealants such as silicone, urethane or
butyl rubber.
5. Locate collectors so they are accessible for needed maintenance.

Maintenance

Maintenance
Regular maintenance on simple systems can be as infrequent as every 35
years,preferablybyaqualifiedcontractorwithexperienceandknowledgeof
solarhotwaterheatingsystems.Systemswithelectricalcomponentsusually
requireareplacementpartortwoafter10years.

CorrosionandScalinginSolarWaterHeatingSystems
The two major factors affecting the performance of properly sited and installed solar
waterheatingsystemsincludescalingandcorrosion.
Corrosion
Most welldesigned solar systems experience minimal corrosion. When they do, it is
usually galvanic corrosion, an electrolytic process caused by two dissimilar metals
comingintocontactwitheachother.Onemetalhasastrongerpositiveelectricalcharge
andpullselectronsfromtheother,causingoneofthemetalsto corrode.
The heattransfer fluid in some solar energy systems sometimes provides the bridge
overwhichthisexchangeofelectronsoccurs.
Oxygen entering into an open loop solar system will cause rust in any iron or steel
component. Such systems should have copper, bronze, brass, stainless steel, plastic,
rubbercomponentsintheplumbingloop,andplasticorglasslinedstoragetanks.

Scaling
Domesticwaterthatishighinmineralcontent("hardwater")maycausethebuildupor
scaling of mineral (calcium) deposits in solar heating systems. Scale buildup reduces
systemperformanceinanumberofways.Ifthesystemusesdomesticwaterastheheat
transferfluid,scalingcanoccurinthecollector,distribution piping,andheatexchanger.
Insystemsthatuseothertypesofheattransferfluids(suchasglycol),scalingcanoccur
onthesurfaceoftheheatexchangerthattransfersheatfromthesolarcollectortothe
domesticwater.Scalingmayalsocausevalveandpumpfailuresonthedomesticwater
loop.
Scaling can be avoided by using a water softener(s) or by circulating a mild acidic
solution(suchasvinegar)throughthecollectorordomesticwaterloopevery35years,
orasnecessarydependingonwaterconditions.
There may be the need to carefully clean heat exchanger surfaces with mediumgrain
sandpaper. A "wraparound" external heat exchanger is an alternative to a heat
exchangerlocatedinsideastoragetank.

PeriodicInspectionList
Thefollowingaresomesuggestedinspectionsofsolarsystemcomponents.
Collectorshading
Visually check for shading of the collectors during the day (midmorning, noon,
and midafternoon) on an annual basis. Shading can greatly affect the
performance of solar collectors. Vegetation growth over time or new
construction on the building or adjacent property may produce shading that
wasn'ttherewhenthecollector(s)wereinstalled.
Collectorsoiling
Dusty or soiled collectors will perform poorly. Periodic cleaning may be
necessaryindry,dustyclimates.
Collectorglazingandseals
Look for cracks in the collector glazing, and check to see if seals are in good
condition.Plasticglazing,ifexcessivelyyellowed,mayneedto bereplaced.
Pipingandwiringconnections
Lookforfluidleaksatpipeconnections.Allwiringconnections shouldbetight.
Pipingandwiringinsulation
Lookfordamageordegradationofinsulationcoveringpipesandwiring.

Roofpenetrations
Flashing and sealant around roof penetrations should be in good condition.
Supportstructures
Checkallnutsandboltsattachingthecollectorstoanysupport structuresfor
tightness.
Pressurereliefvalve(onliquidsolarheatingcollectors)
Makesurethevalveisnotstuckopenorclosed.
Pumps
Verifythatdistributionpump(s)areoperating.Checktoseeiftheycomeon
when the sun is shining on the collectors after midmorning. If the pump is
notoperating,theneitherthecontrollerorpumphasmalfunctioned.
Heattransferfluids
Antifreeze solutions in solar heating collectors need to be replaced
periodically. If water with a high mineral content (i.e., hard water) is
circulated in the collectors, mineral buildup in the piping may need to be
removed by adding a descaling or mild acidic solution to the water every
fewyears.
Storagesystems
Checkstoragetanks,etc.,forcracks,leaks,rust,orothersignsofcorrosion.

Manufacturers
ACRSolarInternationalCorporation http://www.solarroofs.com
FAFCO,Inc.

http://www.fafco.com

VeluxAmerica

http://www.veluxusa.com

Heliodyne,Inc. http://www.heliodyne.com
SiliconSolarInc. http://sunmaxxsolar.com
Solarhart

http://www.solarhart.com

SunEarth,Inc.

http://www.sunearthinc.com

Solene,LLC

http://www.soleneusa.com

ThermoTechnologies

http://www.thermomax.com

TradeAssociations
AmericanSolarEnergySociety(ASES)

http://www.ases.org

FloridaSolarEnergyCenter(FSEC)

http://www.fsec.ucf.edu

SolarEnergyIndustriesAssociation(SEIA)

http://www.seia.org

SolarRating&CertificationCorporation(SRCC)http://www.solarrating.org

About the American Solar Energy Society

Established in 1954, the American Solar Energy Society (ASES)
is the nonprofit organization dedicated to increasing the use of
solar energy, energy efficiency, and other sustainable
technologies in the United States

About the Florida Solar Energy Center

The Florida Solar Energy Center (FSEC) was created by the Florida
Legislature in 1975 to serve as the states energy research institute.
The main responsibilities of the center are to conduct research, test
and certify solar systems and develop education programs.

About the Solar Energy Industries Association

Founded in 1974, the Solar Energy Industries Association (SEIA) is
the leading national trade association for the solar energy industry.
The mission of the Solar Energy Industries Association is to expand
markets, strengthen research and development, remove market
barriers and improve education and outreach for solar energy
professionals.

About the Solar Rating and Certification Corporation

In 1980 the Solar Rating and Certification Corporation
(SRCC) was incorporated as a non-profit organization
whose primary purpose is the development and
implementation of certification programs and national rating
standards for solar energy equipment.

The End