Bare Conductor Thermal Stress & Corona Calculation Guide

Systems/Engineering
Engineering/Bare Conductor Thermal Stress & Corona
Bare Conductor
Thermal Stress & Corona
Bare Conductor Thermal Strees & Corona

G. Trmouille
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Systems/Engineering
Bare Conductor Thermal Stress & Corona
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Systems - ERT

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Summary
1THERMAL DIMENSIONING (STEADY STATE, SHORT CIRCUIT)
3
1.1 A BALANCE.................................................................................3
1.2 MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE IN RIGID AND FLEXIBLE CONDUCTOR...............3
1.2.1
Copper Conductors.........................................................3
1.2.2
Aluminium alloy conductors ( Al, Mg, Si, Fe )..................3
1.3 BARE CONDUCTOR BALANCE CALCULATION........................................3
1.3.1
Energy supplied and energy dissipated..........................3
1.3.2
Steady-State operation temperature calculation............3
1.3.3
End of short-circuit calculation.......................................3
1.3.4
Permissible current in steady-state operation................3
1.3.5
Calculation exemple........................................................3
1.4 BARE OVERHEAD TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION CONDUCTOR DESIGN OVERVIEW
3
1.4.1
STANDARD CONDUCTORS...............................................3
1.4.2
MODIFIED CONDUCTORS................................................3
2...............................CORONA EFFECT ON BARE CONDUCTORS
2.1 SOME HISTORY............................................................................3
2.2 INTRODUCTION............................................................................3
2.2.1
Influence of weather conditions on CORONA..................3
2.2.2
Townsend avalanche.......................................................3
2.2.3
Development of a discharge...........................................3
2.3 CRITICAL GRADIENT CALCULATION...................................................3
2.3.1
Peak formula...................................................................3
2.3.2
Atmospheric pressure calculation...................................3
2.3.3
Relative air density.........................................................3
2.4 CONDUCTOR SURFACE GRADIENT....................................................3
2.4.1
Potential and capacity coefficient matrix........................3
2.5 CALCULATION OF THE PHASE TO EARTH VOLTAGE................................3
2.5.1
Lines with several circuits...............................................3
2.5.2
Earth-wire effects............................................................3
2.6 EFFECT OF BUNDLED CONDUCTORS.................................................3
2.6.1
Maximum gradient of the conductors.............................3
2.6.2
Critical phase to earth voltage.......................................3
2.7 ANNEX SMALL ELECTRICAL DISCHARGES.........................................3
2.8 EXAMPLE OF CORONA TEST 800 KV.............................................3
2.8.1
Corona limitation and accessories - test.........................3

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Thermal dimensioning (steady state, short circuit)
1.1 A balance
We would like to obtain an equation between the current in the bare
conductor in the steady state and his temperature.
In the steady state operation, there is a balance between the energy supplied
to the conductor and the calorific energy dissipated.
So we have the following relationship between the different calorific energy.
Calorific energy supplied:

Electrical energy (JOULE
effect)
Solar radiation
Calorific energy
dissipated
Radiation
Convection
Conductor
So now we have to detail the different calorific energy to obtain a relation

between:
Ir
the current in the conductor in steady state (in Amperes)

And
Tr the conductor temperature in the steady state (in Kelvin or eventually

Celsius degrees)
Different standard propose interesting calculation method for this balance:
IEC1597 1995-05 overhead electrical conductors calculation methods for
stranded
CIGRE 34-02 Protection and automation keeping effective overload
capabilities of lines and transformer 1970
1.2 Maximum temperature in rigid and flexible conductor
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ELECTRA 12:
The maximum surface temperatures in rigid and flexible conductors in permanent
services (taking the ambient temperature into account)
1.2.1
Copper Conductors
Taking into account the temperature envisaged (below 90C) crystallisation

phenomenon need not yet be taken into consideration.
The maximum surface temperature admissible for the conductors depends, in fact,
upon the choice of the decrease in the tensile strength when cold arising from ageing
at that temperature.
Consequently, rather than recommend a single value for maximum temperature, the
working group recommended limiting values for temperature and the corresponding
values of mechanical strength, leaving the user to determine the conditions of usage
making it possible to dimension the conductors within the limits of the table below:
Maximum temperature (including
ambient)
75C
90C
Cold tensile strength after 12

months*
75% of the initial value
*
Cold strength: the residual tensile strength after cooling the conductor to the
ambient temperature after having held it at the maximum temperature during 12
months
1.2.2 Aluminium alloy conductors ( Al, Mg, Si, Fe )

Danger of crystallisation not being presents for this material, the same consideration
as those for copper conductors can be accepted, but at a maximum temperature
included between 85 and 100 C
Maximum temperature (including

ambient)
85C
100C
Cold tensile strength after 12

months*
1.3 Bare conductor balance calculation

1.3.1
Energy supplied and energy dissipated

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1.3.1.1
JOULE Effect
We are working with the power in Watt
Pelec R Ir 2
The resistance of the conductor is
R R20 1 k Tr 293
With:
k
temperature
degrees
R20
Thermal coefficient of the resistivity at the reference

(20C)
Resistance per unit length at the temperature of 20 Celsius
R 20
20
S
Coppe
r
Alumin
ium
Almele
c
20
S
Resistivity of the conductor

cross section of the conductor
Resistivity( 20C)
10-8 Ohms
1.72
Thermal
coefficient 10-3 K-1
4.1
2.82
3.25
3.6

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1.3.1.2
Solar Radiation
Commission Electrotechnique Internationale C.E.I. 721 - 2 - 4 Classification

of environnemental conditions. Solar radiation
The sun is emitting radiation which is absorbing by the conductor.
The distance from Earth to sun varies during the year, and consequently the
radiation varies from approximately 1410 W/m in January to approximately
1320 W/m in July.
The maximum level of global radiation on a clear day occurs at noon. The
highest value of the power achieved on a cloudless day at noon at a surface
perpendicular to the direction of the sun depends on the content of aerosol
particles, ozone and water vapour in the air. It varies considerably with
geographical latitude and type of climate.
The power of the solar radiation depends on:
Aerosol particles, Ozone, Water Vapour

Content in the air
Latitude and type of climate

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The levels in the following table are recommended for application as peak
values of global irradiations at noon, experienced by a surface perpendicular
to the direction of the sun in the cloudless sky.
The level varies only a few % within the hours nearest to noon and can
therefore be assumed to be representative for a few hours at a time.
Typical peak values of global irradiance

(in W/m from a cloudless sky)
Area
Larg
e
cities
Subtropical climates
and deserts
Other areas
700
1050
Fla
t
lan
d
75
0
11
20
W/m
In our calculation we used the typical value 900 W/m

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Mountaino
us areas
1180
1180
Typical value 900
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On the NASA web site we can find the solar radiation power on each location
(www.eosweb.larc.nasa.gov)
Sun
Conductor
Calorific energy supplied to the conductor

Solar energy absorption factor
it depends on the oxidation of the conductor
from 0.25 to 0.6
0.5 is the typical value
Values of global irradiance
Ps
Ws
(900 W/m typical value)
Conductor diameter
Ps = D. . Ws

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W/m
W/m
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Calorific energy dissipated:
Radiation
Ambient
Temperature
Ta
Conductor
Temperature
Tr
The STEFAN - BOLTZMANN law is
Pr E. Ks. Tr 4 Ta 4 . . D
with
Emissivity of the conductor
E
it depends on the oxidation of the conductor
1 for a black conductor
typical value 0.6
STEFANS constant 5.6697.10 -12 W/cm.K4
Ks
Steady-state operation temperature

Tr = tr(C) + 273.15
Ambient temperature
Tr
Ta
External diameter of the conductor

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K
D
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1.3.1.3
Convection
Calorific energy dissipated:
CIGRE
International Conference on Large High Tension Electric System
34 - 2
WIND
Conductor
With:
Pc a. V. D . Tr Ta
b
Power dissipated by convection
Pc
W/m
Wind speed
m/s
External diameter of the conductor
Steady-state operation temperature
Tr
Ambient temperature
Ta
Convection energy factor

Convection energy exponent
a
b
Stranded
conductor
CABLE
8.55
0.448
b
Smooth
conductor
TUBE
11.24
0.462

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1.3.2
Steady-State operation temperature calculation
In the steady-state operation, the conductor is in balance (all power is per

meter)
Pelectric + Psun = Pradiation +

Pconvection
So:
R20 1 k Tr 293 .I D.. W s' E.Ks. Tr 4 Ta 4 . .D a. V.D
Tr T a
We have to resolve this equation.

By defining
coefficient of power dissipated by radiation
Ra = E.Ks..D
coefficient of power dissipated by convection C0 = a(V.D)b

absorbed solar power
S0 = .Ws.D
K = Ra.Ta4 + C0Ta + S0 +Ir.R20(1-293k)

and
P = C0 + Ir.R20.k
So the equation becomes
Ra.Tr4 + P.Tr - K = 0
We solve this 4th degree polynomial equation by the NEWTON METHOD

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we would like to have

the series
f(Tr) = 0
Tr n 1 Tr n
Tr n 1
f ( Tr n )
f '( Tr n )
3. RaTr 4 n K
4. Ra. Tr 3 n P
Tr, the steady-state operation

temperature, when we have a steady state operation current Ir
The limit of this series leads to the solution
The program expresses the result in C
r = Tr - 273
r are within max the maximum admissible
temperature in steady state operation (Typical value max = 75 C for
We have to verify that
Copper )

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1.3.3
End of short-circuit calculation
This calculation is based upon the conservative hypothesis described as

follows:
During the short-circuit time (about 0.1 s to 1s maximum, thus insignificant
with regard to the thermal time constant of the system), the thermal
exchanges between the conductor and the ambient middle are negligible.
In other words, the energy supplied to the conductor by the short-circuit
current is totally used to raise the temperature of the conductor from r to
cc.
The direct application of the first principle of thermodynamics in adiabatic
condition gives the relationship between cc and Icc.
dQ = m Cs dT
with dQ
Elementary heat quantity supplied during the short circuit Q =
RI
m
Liniec weight of conductor
Cs
Specific heat of conductor
Cs
dT
Elementary temperature variation
dt
Short circuit duration

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dQ
RI dQ RIdt
dt
A. R20 1 k 20 . I2cc . dt q. Cs. d

A. R20.Icc
tcc
cc
d
1
k
20
r
dt Cs. q.
After integration and introducing

k.Icc .A.R20. tcc
Cs. q
1
cc
e . 1 k d 20 1 20
k
cc
is the maximum theoretical temperature of the conductor at the end of
the short circuit.

For the specified short-circuit current Icc, the temperature
lower than the specified or standard value
cc must be found
maxcc
typical value of max cc

Coppe
(in C)
200
r
Alumin
200
ium

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1.3.4
Permissible current in steady-state operation
using the formula
R 201 k Tr 293 .I D. .Ws ' E.Ks. Tr 4 Ta 4 . .D a. V .D Tr Ta

b
of the beginning of the chapter Steady-state operation temperature
Imax
E.Ks. Tr 4 Ta 4 . .D a. V.D
Tr T a
R20 1 k Tr 293
D.. W s'
The value of the perusable steady-state current corresponding to the

maximum steady-state temperature Omax (for example 80 C)
The max current must be found higher than the specified steady-state
current r.
1.3.5 Calculation example
Problem data
It is proposed to calculate the operating limits of a cable in Copper with a
cross section of 500 mm
Cable characteristics
D
= 0.030 m
Operating conditions
V
= 0.5 m/s
R20
= 3.44 10-5 Ohms/m
= 35 C
= 4.28 10-3 K-1
max
= 80 C
= 0.6
Ir
= 1000 A
= 0.5
maxcc = 200 C
Cs
= 92 cal/kg.C
Ws
= 900 W/m

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= 4.465 kg/m
Ta
= 308 K
= 0.24 cal/J
tcc
=1s
Icc
= 35 kA
Calculation of the permissible steady-state current

with a = 8.55 and b = 0.448
Numerical application :
Imax = 1237 A
Imax is higher than the specified steady-state current I r
Calculation of the steady-state temperature:

The value of the steady-state temperature corresponding to a steady-state
current Ir = 1000 A is a solution of the following equation.
Numerical application:
3.22327 10-9 Tr4 + 1.15550.Tr - 435.009 = 0
The series Tr(n) is given:
Tr n 1
9.6698110
. 9 . Tr 4 n 435.009
1.289308.108 Tr 3 n 115550
.

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with
Tr(1) =
we find
Tr(2) =
100
K
373.142
Tr(3) =
341.015
Tr(4) =
339.441
Tr(5) =
339.438
Tr(6) =
339.438
r = 339.44 -273 = 66.44C
Numerical application
r = 66 C
The temperature r is within the specified or standard
value max .
Calculation of the end of short-circuit temperature
The equation gives:
= 0.1057
cc = 97.57 C
Numerical application
The temperature cc is within the specified or standard

value maxcc
1.4 Bare Overhead Transmission and Distribution Conductor Design
Overview
Authors:
Jerry M. Hesterlee, P.E.
Senior Member, IEEE
Southwire Company
Carrollton, GA 30117
F. Ridley Thrash
Member, IEEE
Southwire Company
Eugene T. Sanders, P.E.

Southwire Company
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Abstract
Since the conductor is one of the major cost components of a line design, it is
essential that the most appropriate conductor type and size be selected for optimum
operating efficiency [2][3].
A systematic approach should be taken in the selection of the conductor. Factors
such as tension loads, ice and wind loads, current loading of the line, voltage
stability, environmental effects, electrical losses, ambient conditions, and many
others must be considered in the process. The goal is to select a conductor that
exemplifies the best conductivity-to-weight ratio and/or strength-to-weight ratio at a
minimal cost for the application. The electrical and mechanical properties, thermal
properties, and stress-strain relationship of the conductor will dictate the choice of
conductor type and size for a given design. It is the purpose of this paper to provide
basic information concerning various conductor designs available to transmission
and distribution engineers and planners.
INTRODUCTION
The choice of conductor type and size has a major impact on transmission line
design. Some of the physical and economic consequences that affect the choice of
conductor in the design process are:
An increase in conductor diameter yields increased wind and ice loads on the
existing structures.
As the size of the conductor increases, the cost of the conductor itself increases.
As the resistance of the conductor increases, cost of electrical losses over the life of
the line increases.
Stringing any conductor to a higher tension will yield increased longitudinal broken
wire loads and increased transverse tension loads on angle structures.
The radial electric field about the conductor increases as the conductor size
decreases but yields higher levels of corona-induced noise.
Many sizes and types of both standard and special conductors encompass the above
criteria. Both standard and special conductors perform uniquely under specified
conditions, and the benefit of each is reviewed.
1.4.1
Standard conductors
There are four common types of standard conductor that have been used for many
years in the utility industry: (1) all-aluminium, (2) aluminium conductor, steelreinforced, (3) aluminium conductor, alloy-reinforced, and (4) all-aluminium alloy.
Regardless of the type of metal used in the make-up of the conductor, the strands
are always round and have a concentric lay. These conventional conductors have
long proven track-records of performance under specified conditions and certain
types of applications.

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1.4.1.1
All-Aluminium Conductor (AAC)
AAC, manufactured with 1350-H19 aluminium, is a low cost conductor that offers a
conductivity of 61.2% IACS, or more, and good corrosion resistance. The conductivity
of AAC makes it the choice conductor for applications requiring high conductivity and
moderate strength. AAC has the highest conductivity-to-weight ratio of all the
overhead conductors. This property makes AAC ideal for installations in urban areas
limited in space where short spans with maximum current transfer are required.
1.4.1.2
Aluminium Conductor, Steel-Reinforced (ACSR)
The utility industry has utilized ACSR as a common choice of conductor in

transmission and rural distribution circuits for many years. ACSR is used extensively
on long spans as both ground and phase conductors because of its high mechanical
strength-to-weight ratio and good current-carrying capacity. ACSR consists of a solid
or stranded galvanized steel core surrounded by one or more layers of 1350-H19
aluminium. Because of the presence of the 1350 aluminium in the construction,
ACSR has equivalent or higher thermal ratings to equivalent sizes of AAC. The
circular mil area of ACSR is specified according to the cross-sectional area of
aluminium to be contained in the construction. For example, a 795 kcmil-26/7 ACSR
has 795,000 circular mils of aluminium, the equivalent aluminium area content of a
795 kcmil AAC.

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The steel content of ACSR typically ranges from 11% to 18% by weight for largerthan-AWG sizes available in 18/1, 45/7, 72/7, or 84/19 stranding. However, it can
vary up to 40% depending on the desired tensile strength. It is desirable for ground
wires in extra long spans crossing rivers, for example, to have a stranding of 8/1,
12/7, or 16/19, giving them higher tensile strength fig 1 shows standard strandings
of ACSR[1].
The high tensile strength combined with the good conductivity gives ACSR several
advantages:
1. Because of the presence of the steel core, lines designed with ACSR elongate less
than other standard conductors, yielding less sag at a given tension. Therefore, the
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maximum allowable conductor temperature can be increased to allow a higher

thermal rating when replacing other standard conductors with ACSR.
2. The high tensile strength of ACSR allows it to be installed in areas subject to extreme
ice and wind loading.
3. ACSR is less likely to be broken by falling tree limbs.
1.4.1.3
All-Aluminium Alloy Conductor (AAAC)
AAAC, developed as a replacement for high strength 6/1 and 26/7 ACSR conductors,
is made of 6201-T81 aluminium alloy giving it comparable and, in some instances,
improved qualities over both ACSR and AAC conductors. AAAC offers the combination
of good conductivity, high tensile strength, and excellent corrosion resistance. An
equivalent diameter of this conductor is typically used to replace 6/1 and 26/7 ACSR
conductors. As replacements, the AAAC conductors have comparable thermal
ratings, improved strength-to-weight ratio, lower electrical losses, and superior
corrosion resistance. These factors make AAAC conductors prominent choices for
distribution installations on the seacoast and other areas severely impacted by
corrosion problems.
1.4.1.4
Aluminium Conductor, Aluminium-Alloy Reinforced
(ACAR)
ACAR, consisting of a mix of 6201-T81 and 1350-H19 strands of the same diameter,
has an excellent balance between mechanical and electrical properties. Because the
6201 and 1350 strands are equal in diameter, they can be interchanged to optimise
the properties of ACAR for each particular application. An example of this flexibility is
the increase of the relative number of 6201 strands to achieve a strength-to-weight
ratio matching that of a wide range of ACSR conductors. These conductors exhibit
excellent corrosion resistance and utilise simple termination hardwares making them
an excellent choice for many transmission line applications. Fig 2 shows some of the
standard strandings for ACAR[1].
Fig 2

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1.4.2 Modified Conductors

Many times, the construction of a conventional conductor can be adjusted to
enhance its performance under certain conditions. It may be desirable to have an
increase in the thermal rating of a conductor having the same diameter, increase the
self-damping ability of the conductor to help dissipate Aeolian vibrations, or maybe
even to allow for an increase in the line tension to yield reduced sag. The changes
may come in the form of (1) differently shaped strands, (2) the degree of temper of
the aluminium strands, (3) different types of coatings for corrosion protection of the
steel core in composite cables, or (4) the modification of the geometric configuration
of the conductor to produce a varying profile to the wind. These modifications may
be used separately or in combinations to achieve the desired conductor properties
for optimum performance.
1.4.2.1 Trapezoidal-Shaped Wire Constructions

Trapezoidal wire (TW), called Trapwire, deviates from the conventional conductor
construction by having strands shaped in the form of a trapezoid. Trapwire
constructions consisting of a homogenous metal may have all the strands trapezoidal
shaped except the center wire. For non-homogeneous conductors, the multi-strand
core may be composed of round strands of one material surrounded by the
trapezoidal strands of a second metal. Trapwire is a compact construction having a
reduced outer diameter of approximately 10% compared to a conductor of the same
type with the same circular mil area. Due to the greater compactness of TW, more
aluminium can be added while maintaining the same diameter of the standard
conductor. The additional aluminium of approximately 20% to 25% reduces the
resistance of the conductor, thereby, increasing the current carrying capacity of the
same diameter conductor by 8% to 10%.Trapwire has other desirable characteristics.
The compact design of Trapwire results in improved corrosion characteristics (Figure
3).

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Sample
%
Weight
Loss
Standard ACSR
ACSR/TW Plastic
ACSR/TW Carbide
0.13
0.10
0.07
FIGURE 3
TRAPWIRE VS STANDARD ACSR
Also, test data indicates that the fatigue characteristics of Trapwire are superior to
standard conductor (Fig 4) Additional testing will be required before final conclusions
are reached.
Fig 4
Typical constructions of Trapwire conductors are described below:
1.4.2.2
Aluminium Conductor, Steel-Reinforced/Trapwire
(ACSR/TW)
ACSR/TW differs from conventional ACSR in that its aluminium strands are also
trapezoidal shaped. ACSR/TW offers a reduced overall diameter or increased current
carrying capacity for the same diameter conductor as shown in Figure 5. [1]
Regardless of the diameter, the steel-to-aluminium ratios remain the same as
comparable sizes of conventional ACSR. ACSR/TW constructions are grouped into
"Type Numbers" that reflect the steel-to-aluminium ratio, expresses in percentages,
typically ranging from 3 to 23.

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FIGURE 5
ACSR TRAPEZOIDAL SHAPED CONDUCTOR
VS STANDARD ACSR CONDUCTOR
All-Aluminium Conductor/Trapwire (AAC/TW)
AAC/TW is essentially mechanically and electrically similar to AAC conductor except
all the strands but the centre strand are shaped into a trapezoidal cross-section prior
to stranding. AAC/TW offers a reduced overall diameter or increased current carry
capacity for the same diameter conductor. Table 1 shows two possible AAC/TW
alternatives to a standard 795 kcmil AAC "Arbutus".

TABLE 1
COMPARISON OF AAC WITH AAC/TW ALTERNATIVES
1.4.2.3
All-Aluminium Alloy Conductor/Trapwire (AAAC/TW)
A sample of 684 mm (1349.88 kcmil) AAAC/TW is presently under evaluation. The

conductor material is a European aluminium alloy, ALMELEC, which is similar to
6201-T81. Compared to ACSR, this conductor is expected to have improved strength
to weight ratio, lower electrical losses, and superior corrosion resistance in addition
to the advantages inherent to the compacted conductor design.
1.4.2.4
Aluminium Conductor, Steel-Supported (ACSS)
ACSS is a similar construction to standard ACSR except the aluminium strands are
fully annealed (0-temper)[4]. Under typical operating conditions, ACSS essentially
allows the entire load to be carried by the steel core. Some of the major advantages
of ACSS are:
ACSS has a conductivity of 63% IACS or better due to the aluminium strands being
"dead-soft" (fully annealed).
Since the aluminium strands are dead-soft, the conductor may be operated at
temperatures in excess of 200 degrees C without loss of strength.
Since the tension in the aluminium strands is normally low, the conductor's selfdamping characteristics is high. This allows the conductor to be installed at high
unloaded tension levels and reduces the need for dampers.
These properties, along with decreased thermal elongation and creep elongation at
elevated temperatures, make ACSS attractive for re-conductoring existing
transmission and distribution lines in up rating applications. ACSS is especially
suitable for applications where high load currents are frequently encountered under
contingency situations. Re-conductoring with ACSS may yield a potential increase of
100% in the static thermal rating for some lines.
1.4.2.5 Vibration Resistant Conductor (VR)

VR cable is designed for use in overhead lines normally subject to Aeolian vibration
and galloping [5]. It consists of two conductors twisted about one another with a leftBare Conductor Thermal Strees & Corona
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hand lay length of approximately 9 feet. The conductor cross-section forms a rotating
"figure-8" as shown in Figure 6.
The two sub-conductors used to make VR cable are selected based on the thermal
and mechanical strength requirements of the line. The sub-conductors may be any of
the conventional conductors - AAC, AAAC, ACAR, or ACSR, or even ACSR/TW and
AAC/TW conductors. Some of the major advantages of VR cable are:
The amplitude and frequency of galloping due to ice-shedding and high winds are
reduced or eliminated because of the non-round cross-section.
The amplitude and frequency of Aeolian vibration and the accompanying fatigue
inducing strains near clamps are reduced because of the varying profile along the
length of the conductor. As a result, VR conductor can be installed to higher tension
levels without the need of additional dampers.
FIGURE 6
VR CONDUCTOR
Self-Damping Conductor (SDC)
SDC is an ACSR construction designed to limit Aeolian vibration by internal damping
of the strands [6][7]. The layers of aluminium consist of trapezoidal strands whose
dimensions and lay lengths deliberately leave a gap between the two inner-most
layers of aluminium and the steel core. This gap remains even when the conductor is
under full tension. The onset of motion due to Aeolian vibration causes impact
between the layers, imparting the self-damping characteristics of the conductor. This
impact damping allows the elimination of tension limit requirements on the
conductor for the purpose of controlling Aeolian vibration. Even with the small interlayer gaps, the use of trapezoidal aluminium strands still results in a reduced
conductor diameter for a given AC resistance per mile. Figure 7 is an illustration of a
self-damping conductor.
Some of the major advantages that SDC offer are:
Its high impact damping ability allows an increase of unloaded tension levels
resulting in reduced sag and possible reduced structure costs.
The reduced conductor diameter for a given AC resistance yields reduced ice and
wind loading thereby reducing structural loading.

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FIGURE 7
SELF DAMPING CONDUCTOR
OVAL ACSR
An oval shaped conductor presently under development is designed to limit Aeolian
vibration and galloping. As shown in Figure 8 the conductor profile is constantly
changing relative to wind direction. This changing profile will tend to break up the air
foil which will result in reduced Aeolian vibration and galloping. A test line is being
constructed to assist in quantifying the performance of this conductor design.
FIGURE 8
OVAL ACSR
CONCLUSION
There are distinct advantages and disadvantages to using a certain conductor type
under certain conditions. Some conductors, such as vibration resistant conductors,
are designed to better withstand the effects of wind-induced vibrations. Other
conductors may offer higher conductivity, giving them the capability of higher
thermal ratings.
Whether the conductor offers the advantage of increased conductivity, increased
tensile strength, superior corrosion resistance, and its characteristics should be fully
evaluated for the intended application in the line design process.
REFERENCES
[1] Aluminium Electrical Conductor Handbook, Third Edition, Aluminium Association,
1989.
[2] Douglass, Dale A., "Economic Measures of Bare Overhead Conductor
Characteristics, "IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 3, No. 2, April 1988, pp.
745-761.
[3] Kennon, Richard E., and Douglass, Dale A., "EHV Transmission Line Design
Opportunities for Cost Reaction," IEEE Paper 89 TD 434-2 PWRD.
[4] Adams, H.W., "Steel Supported Aluminium Conductors (SSAC) for Overhead
Transmission Lines," IEEE Paper T74 054-3, Presented at the IEEE PES Winter Power
Meeting, 1974.
[5] Douglass, D.A., and Roche, J.B., "T2 Wind Motion Resistant Conductor," IEEE
Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-104, No. 10, October 1985,
pp. 2879-2887.
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Systems/Engineering
[6] Kirkpatric, L.A., McCulloch, A.R., and PueGilchrist, A.C., "Ten Years of Progress with
Self-Damping Conductor," IEEE Paper F 79 736-0, Presented at the IEEE PES Summer
Meeting, 1979.
[7] Edwards, A.T., and Livingston, A.E., "Self-Damping Conductors for the Control of
Vibration and Galloping of Transmission Lines," IEEE Paper 68 C 59 PWR.
[8] Thrash, R., Hudson, G., Copper, D., Sanders, G., "Overhead Conductor Manual",
1994.

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Corona effect on bare conductors
2.1 Some history
Corona - An electrical discharge caused by ionisation of the gas surrounding a

conductor when the voltage exceeds a certain critical value. Ozone is produced in an
oxygen atmosphere and this attacks most electrical insulation

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Reference Document
CIGRE Working Group 36.01 in 1974 Interferences
produced by Corona effect of electric System
2.2 Introduction
Intense electric fields may occur at the surfaces of High-Voltage conductor. In
some circumstances, this leads to ionisation and electrical breakdown of the
air immediately surrounding the conductor.
This effect is known as a Corona discharge, or simply CORONA.
The term CORONA is used here to cover the entire phenomenon
connected with the appearance of conductivity in the gas surrounding a
conductor at high-Voltage.
The presence on the conductor surface of even small protrusions, such as
water drops, snow flakes, insects, or the raised edges of nicks in the metal,
produce strong local enhancements of the field. The Corona activity
consequently varies markedly with surface and atmospheric conditions.
Corona can generate high-frequency electromagnetic noise (which may
interfere with radio and television reception), audible noise and trace of
ozone and ions.
2.2.1
Influence of weather conditions on CORONA

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2.2.1.1 In dry weather

The Corona discharges are relatively few in number so that any interference
or noise is generally weak and of no concern. In the few cases in which
noticeable Corona occurs in dry weather, investigations usually reveal that it
is caused by a local conductor defect, which when rectified eliminates the
difficulty, or unusual deposits of dust or insects which will be washed off by
the next heavy rain. Grease (used for internal corrosion prevention) exuding
from within the conductor may exacerbate this situation.
2.2.1.2 In wet weather

Many water droplets collect on the underside of the conductors. The electric
field at the drops is enhanced, resulting in a large increase in the number of
Corona discharges. Discharges can also occur between a conductor and
incident raindrops just before they impact. The Corona activity, therefore,
depends markedly on the intensity of the rain.
2.2.1.3 In snow
The conditions are usually similar to those for rain. If the temperature of the
conductors is above freezing point, as is likely because of the heating caused
by the current flowing in them, the snow flakes melt to water droplets which
collect on the underside of the conductor.
2.2.1.4 In thick fog

In thick fog also, water can condense on the surface of the conductors
provided that their temperatures are not too high.
During the few months after new conductors are first energised, the Corona
activity is often slightly greater than the expected or ultimate level. This is
because it takes time for the surface of the conductors to age and so permit
water drops to flow freely over them. Also, any initial dirt or surface abrasions
get washed off or eroded away during this time. Care is, however, necessary
when installing new conductors to minimize surface contamination and
damage.
2.2.2
Townsend avalanche
This conductivity is due to the phenomenon of ionisation, which is explained

as follows.
There are always a certain number of ion-electron pairs in the air from such
as cosmic radiation and natural radio activity. When electrons are subjected
to an electric field they are accelerated and, if the fields are intense enough,
the energy which they acquire becomes sufficient to cause the ionisation of
neutral molecules with which they collide (ionisation by collision).
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New free electrons are created which, subjected to the same field, likewise
ionize molecules, and lead to progressive multiplication called Townsend
avalanche
Close to a conductor of overhead lines the quintessentials have small radii of
curvature and the electric field falls off rapidly away from the conductor, in
practical the avalanche can only progress in regions where the electric field is
greater than a critical value E which approaches 30 kV/cm
2.2.3
Development of a discharge
Before an avalanche can develop into a discharge with significant

interference-generating properties it must reach a critical magnitude, the
criterion for which is polarity-dependent.
2.2.3.1 Negative conductor
electron
positive ion
negative ion
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With a negative conductor, the electronic avalanche develops away from the
conductor; it stops at a certain distance where the fields are no longer
sufficient to provide the multiplying effect.
The phenomenon of primary ionisation thus occurs within a well-defined
volume of air.
When a secondary process operates, which creates an additional activating
electron, with probability per ionizing collision ( is the second Townsend
coefficient) , then a criterion for self-maintenance can be written where.
2.2.3.2 Positive conductor

With a positive conductor, the electronic avalanche has its origin in the air
around the conductor and develops towards it. The electrons are absorbed by
the conductor, leaving behind a cloud of much less mobile positive ions; the
results are a positively charged protrusion, from the conductor, which leads to
the formation of a new avalanche ahead of the preceding one. This process of
ionisation propagates away from the conductor much further than the
avalanches of negative polarity, and is called streamer.
Here the critical magnitude of the avalanche is the condition for the
propagation of the streamer: it is in the order of 10 8 electrons.
The fact that the streamer extends, at high velocity, far beyond the region of
large electric field intensity is explicable on the basis that secondary
processes, such as photo ionisation, operate at its head.
In spite of the fundamental differences existing between positive and
negative ionisation phenomenon the critical surface voltage gradient is
approximately the same for both.
Electron produced by
photo ionization
Photon
Avalanche - Electrons
and positive ions
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Schematic development in 3 steps of a positive discharge

2.3 Critical gradient calculation
2.3.1
Peak formula
The critical gradient depends on geographical condition and on the conductor.

To determinate the critical surface gradient of a cylindrical cable, Peeks empirical
formula is used:
0.308
Ec 31. 1
. r
Ec
peak kV/cm
intensity
r
cm
For AC voltage, this is the peak value of the field

radius of the conductor
relative air density
two intermediary calculations are implemented for this purpose:

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2.3.2
Atmospheric pressure calculation
The atmospheric pressure is calculated in function of the altitude by means of

the following expression:
The atmospheric temperature profile is approximately as shown in the figure below.

In the troposphere, where our "weather" occurs, it decreases linearly with altitude
until it reaches -55 Celsius at the tropopause (~ 11 km), where it starts to increase
because of the solar heating of the stratospheric ozone. The drop in air temperature
per unit increase in altitude, i.e. the lapse rate, is B=6.5 degrees K /km.
dP/P = -Mg/RT
Equation 5
Accordingly, below the tropopause

T = T0 - Bz
Equation 6
Where T0 is the sea level air temperature and z is the altitude in km. substituting this
into Equation 5,
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dP/P = - (Mg/R)/(T0 -Bz)
Equation 7
Integrating both sides from sea level (z=0) to z, we get

P(z)/P0 = [1 - z(B/T0)](Mg/BR) Equation 8
. Using the definition of the standard atmosphere adopted by the International

Civil Aviation Organisation, we have: M=28.9644 (carbon-12 scale), T0=15 deg C
= 288.15 deg K, g=g0=9.80665 m/s, R=8.314 Joules/gram-mole/deg K, P0=1013.25
bar (1 atmosphere). Substituting into Equation 9 we have, finally,
P(z)/P0 = (1 - 0.02255z)5.256
Equation 9
Some results are shown below.

z(km) P/P0
0
1
0.5 0.942
1.0 0.887
1.5 0.834
2.0 0.785
2.5 0.737
3.0 0.692
p
H
2.3.3
hPa
m
Atmospheric pressure
Altitude
Relative air density
Knowing the atmospheric pressure, we can calculate the relative air density:
3.92 p
76
.
273
1013
.25
So the critical surface gradient in RMS. value

E0
31
0.308
. 1
2
. r
The limit value of the acceptance criterion can be affected by a reducing

coefficient to take into account the amplification of the phenomenon due to
stranding and clearness: the Surface state coefficient
E0r
E0r = m E0
kV rms./cm Actual critical gradient

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Surface state coefficient ( typical value 0.9 to 0.81 )
2.4 Conductor surface gradient

Because of the close dependence of Corona effects on the value of the
electric field, its necessary to use a calculation method that gives the field
with a precision of the order of 1%.
Since ordinary conductors are stranded, the actual surface field varies, round
their circumference, about a mean value. It is customary to calculate the
surface field of a smooth conductor with the same external diameter even if
an experimental stranding factor has to be introduced.
The gradient is calculated from Gausss theorem
E
q
2 0r
where
e
q
r
0
2.4.1
V/cm
C/m
cm
F/m
surface gradient
surface charge per unit length
equivalent smooth conductor radius
permittivity of free space = 1 / ( 36.. 109 )
Potential and capacity coefficient matrix
The general relation used to calculate the charges carried by the conductors
of a multi-conductor line is the following matrix equation
q C . V
j
Where {q} and {V} are the one column
matrices of charges and potentials on
Dij
the conductors (the ground being at potential zero), and [C] is the square
matrix of the iindividual and mutual capacity coefficients.
We first calculate the potential coefficients of the line. These are obtained by
hj
direct application of the theory of images: the ground, considered as a zero
hi
potential plane is replaced
Dij by the image of the conductors with respect to
this plane.
Let us designate i, j
the parallel conductors present
i, j their images
Bare Conductor Thermal Strees

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i & Corona
d
ij
Systems/Engineering
Using the notation of the Figure
Dij hi hj dij2
2
Dij hi hj dij2
2
The potential coefficients are written:
ii
ij
and
ii
1
2.hi
ln
2 0 ri
ij
1
D ij
ln
2 0 Dij
Admittance of a single cable i refer to ground

Admittance of a single cable i refer to a second cable j
ij = ji
Remark: In practice, the height of the conductors varies along a span as well
as from one span to another.
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Heights hi and hj in the gradient calculations are the mean heights defined by:
h (mean) = mean stringing height - 2/3 mean sag

By means of the potential coefficients obtained, the following square matrix
is constructed:
11
21
.
.
.
.
.
ij
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
ii
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
nn
.
.
.
.
.
.
By inversion, the capacitance matrix is finally deduced
[C] = []-1
Matrix [C] allows calculation of the charges carried by each of the conductors
as a function of their respective potentials.
2.5 Calculation of the phase to earth voltage
In the case of three-phase lines, the charge on a conductor, and, as a result,
its surface gradient does not necessarily reach a maximum at the same time
as the voltage of the conductor itself.
This phenomenon arises from the phase-differences between conductors.
Thus, for example, if the phase-sequence is defined by 1, a, a (where a is the
Fortes cues operator), the one-column matrix of the voltages will be written
j
V1
1
V V . 1 / 2 j
r
2
V3
1 / 2 j
0
3 / 2
3 / 2
The voltage given at the beginning of the calculation is the reference phaseto-phase voltage.
The phase to earth voltage is given by:
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Systems/Engineering
Vr
U
3
2.5.1 Lines with several circuits

Frequently it happens that several three-phase systems are carried by the
same towers. In such a case, the precise calculation of the gradients requires
derivation of matrices of
[]
and
[C]
which can be of high order: for
example, a line with two circuits will be characterized by matrices of order 6.

The inversion of such matrices is impracticable without the use of a computer
but a sufficient range of computer capabilities exists for the purpose.
It should be noted that the relative positions of the phases in each circuit
affect the charges on the conductors: it is important to take them into
account when calculating the gradients of a double-circuit line.
For example, the horizontal flat configuration of two circuits defined by 1, a,
a and 1, a, a will result in higher gradients than the configuration 1, a, a,
and a, a, 1.
2.5.2
Earth-wire effects
When a line has earth-wires the calculations will in principle be precisely the
same. The existence of such wires must however be taken into account in the
formation of the potential matrix; on the other hand, in the one-column
voltage matrix, the potential of the earth wires will evidently be zero.
The presence of earth wires naturally increases the order of the matrices, but
by a device this order can be reduced to that of a line without earth wires.
For this purpose the matrix equation of the potential coefficients is written in
the following form, in which appear sub matrices relating to phase conductors
(index c), to earth wires (index g) and coupling sub matrices (index cg).
cc cg q c
Vc
gc
gg
0
qs
It is seen from this equation that the q s s can be expressed solely as a
function of qc s which results in the following:
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Vc cc cg .1gg . gc . qc
This matrix equation is thus reduced to a lower order equal to the number of
phases of the line.
It is noted, however, that the effect of the earth wires is relatively small: they
increase the gradients of the phase conductors a few percent 1 to 3 %. It is
usually sufficient to disregard their presence, in calculating the gradients, and
to compensate by increasing the latter by 2 %.
2.6 Effect of bundled conductors
Lines for operation above 300 kV are almost exclusively strung with bundles
of several conductors per phase. This configuration permits the restriction of
conductor surface gradients to tolerable levels.
A bundle is characterized by the following value:
- sub conductor radius
r
cm
- number of sub conductors
n
- pitch-circle radius
(radius of the circle passing through the centres of all the conductors)
R
cm
- distance between two adjacent conductors
D = 2 R sin/n
cm
- equivalent bundle radius
Req
cm
Req
Emin

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E
E
mean
max
Systems/Engineering
n 1 r.cos
E Emean 1
This is the radius of an imaginary cylindrical conductor having the same

capacitances as the real bundle with respect to all the other neighbouring
conductors.
It is given
Req
n.r . Rn1
To calculate the surface gradient of conductors in a bundle, the total charge q

of the bundle is first determined by introducing its equivalent radius, Req into
the expression for the potential coefficients. The main gradient of a conductor
is then given by:
Emean
2.6.1
1
q
.
n 2. . 0 . r
Maximum gradient of the conductors
Since the total charge of the bundle is equally distributed on the n conductors
of the bundle. But due to the mutual shielding effect, the actual gradient is
larger towards the exterior and smaller towards the interior of the bundle.
Thus the maximum gradient of the conductors are defined by means of the
following expressions:
n 1
E Emean 1
R
E must be found within critical gradient E 0r

2.6.2
Critical phase to earth voltage
The critical phase to earth voltage is given by:

E
Vc 0 Vr . m
E
Vc must be found greater than Vr
2.7 ANNEX
Small electrical discharges

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Small electrical discharges (Corona) may sometimes occur on high-voltage

transmission lines. Here they are seen in close-up on a conductor and also on
a line in exceptional weather conditions (recorded with a long exposure)

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2.8 Example of CORONA test 800 kV
The first investigation starts with a preliminary approach focusing only on the cable
(accessories not taken into account).
The critical surface gradient of a cylindrical cable has been evaluated using Peek's
formula (inception of Corona effect) [1]
0.308
E c 31m 1
With an iterative process we can find the optimal distance between cables in the
bundle (lowest electrical field) and highlight the impact of modification of the bundle
size around this value. (fig 1)

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102%
Theorical gradiant versus bundle

spacing ( quad)
101%
100%
250 mm 300 mm 350 mm 400 mm 450 mm 500 mm
fig 1: electrical field variation around optimal point
The theoretical optimal cable spacing is 36 cm. And for cable purpose the effect of
the spacing is quite limited between 260mm and 500 mm ( less than 1% of
variation), in a first simple approach.
Fig 2: Electrical field around cable in the bundle
2.8.1 Corona limitation and accessories - test

This theoretical approach focuses only on the cable.
Limitations of RIV / corona performance are mainly link to connectors and equipment
limitations / design.
The corona extinction voltage of the system will be taken at maximum voltage of
the system 800 kV (Um) + 10%, (508 kV), to ensure low losses and radio
interferences
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Fig 3: BAZET High voltage laboratory
Test have been carried from 200mm to 450mm cable spacing, up to 130% of Um (i.e.
660 kV phase-ground) based on a corona design optimised initially for a 457mm
cable spacing.

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Fig 4 Disruptive discharge at ring level
Fig 5:
Fig 6: Disruptive discharge connector level

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As expected extinction voltages are quite similar from 300mm and 450 mm spacing,
except for the spacer
Fig 8: Experimental curves

The spacer design is the most critical material in this case, a redesign of spacer have
been carried and tested again to meet requirement.
Fig 9 Background noise measurement acceptable area is under 2500 V

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Fig 10: Redesigned spacer

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Bare Conductor Thermal Stress & Corona Calculation Guide

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