Optoelectronics - Part 3

Photodetectors
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Optoelectronics (ETTI-TST 2014/2015)
384
Introduction
The most general definition: a photodetector is a

device that senses or detects light or other
electromagnetic energy
The photodetection usually involves the conversion
of the electromagnetic radiant energy into electrical
energy, but conversion to other forms of energy
(such as, thermal energy) may also be involved
If the photodetection results in an electrical signal,
the photodetector device is said to be an optical-toelectrical (O/E) transducer
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Introduction
Photodetectors
are used either for measuring

or monitoring the optical power and/or
energy
They are essential in most applications of
photonics technology, such as:
fiber optic communications
laser processing of materials
applications involving interferometry
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Introduction
Optical detectors respond to the power of the

optical beam, which is proportional to the square of
the electric field associated with the light wave
Therefore, optical detectors are called square-law
detectors
This is in contrast to e.g. the case of microwave

detectors, which can measure the intensity of the electric
field directly
This chapter will get you familiar with the most

important characteristics of photodetectors
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Types of photodetectors
Photodetectors
are usually divided into two
broad classes:
quantum (or photon) photodetectors, in which
the incident photons interact with electrons in
the detectors material and excite them
thermal photodetectors, which respond to the
heat resulted by irradiation of the detector
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In case of quantum photodetectors, the photons

must have sufficient energy to excite the electrons
or to free them from their atomic binding forces
Therefore, the wavelength response of quantum
photodetectors exhibits a cutoff at long
wavelengths
If the wavelength is longer than the cutoff wavelength,

the photon energy is too small to excite the electrons and
the response of the photodetector rapidly drops to zero
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Thermal photodetectors make use of some

temperature-dependent effect, such as the change of
electrical resistance, to sense the radiant energy
Because thermal detectors rely only on the total
amount of heat reaching the detector, their response
is independent of wavelength
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The output of quantum and thermal photodetectors

as a function of wavelength (i.e. the spectral
response) is shown qualitatively in the figure below
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Quantum photodetectors may be further subdivided

according to the physical effect that produces the
detector response
Some important classes of quantum photodetectors
are listed below:
photovoltaic detectors
photoemissive detectors
photoconductive detectors
They will be discussed later on
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Parameters of photodetectors
The performance of optical detectors is commonly

characterized by a number of different parameters,
which are sometimes called figures of merit
These parameters are important, because
manufacturers usually describe the performance of
the photodetectors in these terms
The figures of merit were developed to describe the
performance of detectors responding to a small
signal in the presence of noise
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Parameters of photodetectors
In general, one seeks for the following properties in

a detector:

a large response at the wavelength to be detected

a small value for the additional noise introduced by the
detector
sufficient speed of response to follow variations in the
optical signal being detected
In the following, the most important parameters of

photodetectors will be discussed
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Responsivity
Responsivity is a measure of the effectiveness of the

detector for converting electromagnetic radiation to
electrical current or voltage (if the detector output
is electric)
It is an important parameter of photodetectors,
because the knowledge of the responsivity allows
the user to determine how much detector signal will
be available for a specific application
Responsivity is defined as the ratio of the detector
output to the input radiant power
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Responsivity
More specifically, for a detector that generates a

current output, the responsivity Rd is the ratio of the
RMS signal current I output by the detector to the
radiant power e incident on the detector:
I
I
Rd =
=
e A Ee
A
W
where Ee [W/cm2] is the incident irradiance and

A [cm2] is the irradiated area of the detector
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Responsivity
If the detector outputs a voltage, the responsivity is

defined similarly as the ratio of RMS signal voltage
V per watt of incident radiation:
V
V
Rd =
=
e A Ee
V
W
where all the other quantities have the same

meaning as in the previous relation
Responsivity is dependent on wavelength, bias
voltage (or current), and temperature
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Quantum Efficiency
Quantum efficiency (Q) is defined as the ratio of

countable events produced by photons incident on
the detector to the number of incident photons
For a photoemissive detector that emits free electrons

from its surface when radiation strikes it, Q is the
number of free electrons divided by the number of
incident photons
For a semiconductor photodetector in which electron
hole pairs are produced, Q is the number of electron- hole
pairs divided by the number of incident photons
Example. If, over a period of time, 100,000 photons are
incident on the detector and 10,000 electron
- hole pairs
are produced, the quantum efficiency is 10%.
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Quantum Efficiency
Quantum efficiency is just another way of

expressing the effectiveness of the incident radiant
energy for producing an electrical current in a
detector
The quantum efficiency Q (in percent) may be
related to the responsivity by the equation
1.2395
Q = 100 Rd [A W ]
[m]
[%]
where Rd is the responsivity of the detector at

wavelength
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Quantum Efficiency

An ideal photodetector would have a quantum

efficiency of 100%
For most materials, Q is very low (up to 10-20%);
however, on the best sensitized commercial
photosurfaces, the maximum yield may be as high
as 3 photoelectrons for 4 light quanta (i.e. Q 75%)
Exceptions to the above statement are the
avalanche photodiode and the photomultiplier,
where Q may exceed unity (more than one electron
generated for each incident photon) due to the
internal gain of these devices
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Noise Equivalent Power

A third figure of merit, which depends on noise

characteristics, is the noise equivalent power (NEP)
This is defined as the optical power that produces a
signal voltage (or current) equal to the noise
voltage (or current) of the detector
Since the noise is dependent on the bandwidth of
the measurement, the bandwidth must be taken into
account (frequently it is taken as 1 Hz)
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The equation defining NEP is:

Ee A Vn
NEP =
1/ 2
Vs (f )
or
Ee A I n
NEP =
1/ 2
I s (f )
W
Hz1/ 2
where Ee is the irradiance incident on the detector

of area A, Vn and In are the RMS noise voltage or
current within the measurement bandwidth f,
Vs and Is are the RMS signal voltage or current,
respectively (depending on the output of the
detector)
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From the above definition, it is apparent that the

lower the values of the NEP, the better the
characteristics of the detector for detecting a small
optical signal in the presence of noise
One can see that NEP is measured in watts per
square-root hertz regardless of the output type of
the detector (current or voltage), because NEP can
also be expressed in terms of responsivity R as:
Vn
NEP =
1/ 2
Rd (f )
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Hz1/ 2
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Detectivity
When we compare several photodetectors, the best

detector is the one with the highest output for a
given radiation input, i.e., the one with the largest
responsivity
However, when we compare the detectors in terms
of their detecting ability (that is, in terms of the
minimum detectable radiant flux) the best detector
is the one with the lowest NEP
So, if there were a quantity proportional to the
reciprocal of the NEP, it would be more useful as a
figure of merit, along with the responsivity
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Detectivity
This parameter, called detectivity and denoted by

D* (pronounced D-star), is defined as the square
root of the detector area per unit value of NEP:
1/ 2
A
D =
NEP
cm Hz1/ 2
The usefulness of this parameter is that it provides

a figure of merit that is dependent on the intrinsic
properties of the detector, not on how large it
happens to be
Since many detectors have NEP proportional to
A1/2, D* is independent of the area of the detector
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Detectivity
The detectivity thus gives a measure of the intrinsic

quality of the detector material itself. The higher
the value of the detectivity, the better the detector
(similar variation as for responsivity)
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Response time of the detector

Another useful characteristic of photodetectors is

the speed of the detector response to changes in
radiation intensity
If a radiation source is instantaneously turned on
and irradiates an optical detector, it takes a finite
time for current to appear at the output of the
device, while the steady-state value of the current is
reached after a relatively long period of time
If the source is turned off instantaneously, it takes a
finite time for the current to decay back to zero
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The term response time refers to the time it takes the

detector current to rise to a value equal to 63.2% (i.e. a
factor of 1-1/e) of the steady-state value when the radiation
source is turned on
The recovery time is the time it takes for the photocurrent to
fall to 36.8% (i.e. a factor of 1/e) of the steady-state value
when the radiation source is turned off
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Because optical detectors often are used for detection of fast

pulses, another important terms, called rise time and fall
time are often used to describe the speed of the detector
response
We should note that, in general, the fall time may be
different numerically from the rise time
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The rise time is defined as the time difference between the

point at which the detector has reached 10% of its peak
output and the point at which it has reached 90% of its peak
response, when it is irradiated by a very short pulse of light
The fall time (or decay time) is defined as the time between
the 90% point and the 10% point on the trailing edge of the
pulse waveform
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The intrinsic response time of an optical detector

arises from the transit time of photo-generated
charge carriers within the detector material and
from the inherent capacitance and resistance
associated with the device
The measured value of response time is also
affected by the value of the load resistance that is
used with the detector, and may be longer than the
inherent response time
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There is a trade-off in the selection of a load

resistance between speed of response and high
sensitivity (it is not possible to achieve both
simultaneously)
Fast response requires a low load resistance
(generally 50 ohms or less), whereas high
sensitivity requires a high value of load resistance
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It is also important to keep any capacitance

associated with the circuitry, the electrical cables,
and the display devices as low as possible. This will
help keep the RC time constant low
Manufacturers often quote nominal values for the
rise times of their detectors. These should be
interpreted as minimum values, which may be
achieved only with careful circuit design and
avoidance of excess capacitance and resistance in
the circuitry
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Response time measurement

Since radiation sources cannot be turned on or off

instantaneously, this affects the measured response
time of a photodetector
To make accurate measurements of rise time and
fall time, the source used for the measurement
should have a rise time much less than the rise time
of the detector being tested
Generally, one should use a source whose rise time
is less than 10% of the rise time of the detector
being tested
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Response time measurement

Another factor to consider is the rise-time

limitation introduced by cables or any display
devices, for example, the oscilloscope
As an example, if we fed a perfect step function into a

detector and then into an oscilloscope, we could
determine the output rise time by the following empirical
equation:
tt = t d2 + t s2
where:
tt is the rise time of combination of devices
td is the rise time of photodetector
ts is the rise time of the oscilloscope and cables
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Linearity

Yet another important characteristic of optical

detectors is their linearity
Detectors are characterized by a response in which
the output is linear with incident optical power (the
response may be linear over a broad range)
If the output of the detector is plotted versus the input

optical power, there should be no change in the slope of
the curve for many orders of magnitude of the input
optical power
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Linearity

Noise will determine the lowest level of incident

light that is detectable
The upper limit of the input/output linearity is
determined by the maximum current that the
detector can produce without becoming saturated
Saturation is a condition in which there is no further

increase in detector response as the input radiation
intensity is increased
When the detector becomes saturated, one can no longer
rely on its output to represent the input faithfully. The
user should ensure that the detector is operating in the
range in which it is linear
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Linearity

Manufacturers of optical detectors often specify

maximum allowable level of continuous radiation
Radiation levels in excess of this maximum may
cause saturation, hysteresis effects, and/or
irreversible damage to the detectors
If the radiation occurs in the form of a very short
pulse, it may be possible to exceed the continuous
rating by some factor (perhaps as much as 10
times) without damage or noticeable changes in
linearity
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Spectral response
If we plot the absolute responsivity as a function of

wavelength, we have what is called a spectral
response curve
This curve is commonly shown as a relative
response curve in which the peak of the response
curve (highest responsivity) is set equal to 100%.
All other points are relative to the peak
A common practice is to make an absolute
calibration only at the peak of the response curve
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Spectral response
Thus, to determine the absolute responsivity at

some other wavelength, we do as follows:

we find the percent relative response at this wavelength

then we multiply it by the absolute value of amps/watt at
the peak of the curve
Figures on the next slides show the spectral

response curves of some typical detectors
IMPORTANT NOTE The characteristics of some
detectors may be given in photometric terms (i.e.
lumens) rather than in radiometric terms (such as
watts). This may create some confusion.
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Spectral response
Spectral response of a typical photomultiplier
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Spectral response
Spectral response of a CdS photoconductive cell
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Spectral response
Spectral response of a silicon photodiode
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Types of quantum photodetectors

As stated previously, quantum photodetectors may

be subdivided in three important classes:
photovoltaic detectors
photoemissive detectors
photoconductive detectors
Each of this kind of photodetector will be discussed
in more detail subsequently
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Photovoltaic detectors

This kind of photodetector employs a p-n junction

in a semiconductor material
When the device is irradiated and no bias is applied
to the p-n junction, a
voltage is generated
across the junction
Notable examples of
such devices are the
photodiode (see on the
side) and the phototransistor
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This voltage appears due to the internal field of the

junction that separates the electrons and the holes
that are generated as a result of photon absorption
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In the darkness (i.e. no irradiation), no open circuit

voltage is present (i.e. V0 = 0 and hence I0 = 0 )
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When the junction is irradiated, the photons are

absorbed and, if the photon energy is large enough
(i.e. h0 E g ), hole-electron pairs are produced
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r
The electric field Ei across the junction separates
the electron-hole pairs by moving the electron into

the n-type region and the hole into the p-type
region
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This leads to an open-circuit voltage (VOC V0 for

RL and I0 = 0) that can be measured externally.
We note that VOC may be detected directly and that
neither bias voltage,
nor load resistor is required
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If the junction is short-circuited by an external

conductor (i.e. RL = 0), a current will flow in the
circuit when the junction is irradiated. This is the
short-circuit current
(ISC I0 for V0 = 0)
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One may measure either VOC or ISC. Both these

quantities will give measures of the radiation
falling on the junction
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Photoemissive detectors
These detectors are based on the photoelectric

effect, in which incident photons release electrons
from the surface of the detector material placed in a
vacuum tube. The free electrons are then collected
through an electric current in an external circuit
These detectors are available commercially from a
number of manufacturers. They represent an
important class of detectors for many applications.
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A photoemissive detector has a cathode coated with

a material that emits electrons when light of
wavelength shorter than the cutoff wavelength falls
on the surface
The electrons emitted from the surface are
accelerated by a voltage to an anode, where they
produce a current in an external circuit
The detectors are enclosed in a vacuum
environment to allow a free flow of electrons from
cathode to anode
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Some spectral response curves

for photoemissive cathodes are
shown in the figure on the side
The cathodes are often mixtures
containing alkali metals, such as
sodium and potassium, from
which electrons can easily be
emitted
The responsivity in mA/W of
these devices is shown in the
figure from UV up to near- IR
wavelengths
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At wavelengths longer than

about 1000 nm, no photoemissive
response is available
The short- w
avelength end of the
response curve is set by the
nature of the window material
used in the tube that contains
the detector
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Curve 1 is the response of a

bialkali type of cathode with a
sapphire window
Curve 2 is for a different bialkali
cathode with a lime glass
window
Curve 3 is for a multialkali
cathode with a lime glass window
Curve 4 is for a GaAs cathode
with a 9741 glass window
The curves labeled 1% and 10%
denote what the response would
be at the indicated value of Q
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The user can select a device

that has a cathode with
maximum response in a
selected wavelength region
An important variation of
the photoemissive detector
is the photomultiplier,
which will be described
later
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Photoconductive detectors

This kind of photodetectors are fabricated from

semiconductor materials such as silicon
A semiconductor in thermal equilibrium contains
free electrons and holes
The concentration of electrons and holes is changed
if radiation is absorbed by the semiconductor
The increased number of charge carriers leads to an
increase in the electrical conductivity of the
semiconductor
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This device is used in a circuit with a bias voltage

and a load resistor in series with it
The change in electrical conductivity
leads to an increase in the current
flowing in the circuit, and hence to a
measurable change in the voltage drop
across the load resistor
Examples of such devices are the
photodiode (used in photoconductive
regime, with reverse bias) and the photoresistor
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Photoconductive detectors are

most widely used in the IR
region, at wavelengths where
photoemissive detectors are not
available. Many different
materials are used for this
purpose
Some typical values of D* as a
function of wavelength for some
devices operating in IR are shown
in the figure on the side
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The temperature of operation

is indicated on the figure
Photovoltaic detectors are
denoted as PV, while
photoconductive detectors are
denoted as PC
The curves for ideal
PC and PV photodetectors
assume a field of view of
2 srad and a 295 K background
temperature
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The exact value of D* for a

specific photoconductor
depends on the operating
temperature and on the field
of view of the detector
Most IR photoconductive
detectors operate at cryogenic
temperature (e.g. liquid nitrogen
temperature, 77 K) which may
involve some inconvenience in
practical applications
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Photomultipliers
Previously,
we have described photoemissive

detectors in which current flows directly
from a photocathode to an anode
We turn now to an important photoemissive
detector that provides for amplification of
the current. This is the photomultiplier
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Photomultipliers
This
kind of device consists of a vacuum

tube which contains a photoemissive cathode
and a number of secondary emitting stages
called dynodes
The dynodes are arranged so that electrons
from each dynode are delivered to the next
dynode in series
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Photomultipliers
The figure on the side

shows the principle of
operation of the tube
Photoelectrons emitted
from the cathode
strike the first dynode
where they produce
1 to 8 secondary
electrons per incident
electron
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Photomultipliers
These electrons are

accelerated toward the
second dynode, where
the process is repeated
After several such
steps the electrons are
collected at the anode
and flow through the
load resistor
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Photomultipliers
Voltages of 100 to 300

volts accelerate
electrons between
adjacent dynodes, so
that the total voltage
may be from 500 to
3000 volts from anode
to cathode, depending
on the number of
dynodes
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Photomultipliers
The current gain of a

photomultiplier is the
ratio of the anode current
to the cathode current
Typical gain values may
be in the range 105106.
Thus 105 or more
electrons reach the anode
for each photon striking
the cathode
Photomultiplier tubes can
in fact detect the arrival of
a single photon at the
cathode
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Photomultipliers
Gain as a function of the anode-to-cathode voltage
for a typical photomultiplier tube
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Photomultipliers
The cross-sectional
diagram of a typical
photomultiplier tube
structure is shown on
the side
This tube has a
transparent end
window with the
underside coated with
the photoemissive
material (the cathode)
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Applications of photomultipliers
Due to the electron multiplication process (i.e.

internal gain), the photomultiplier tubes offer the
highest available responsivity in the UV, visible,
and near-IR regions of the spectrum. However,
their response does not extend to wavelengths
longer than about 1000 nm
Photomultiplier tubes are used in many photonics
applications, such as air-pollution monitoring, star
tracking, photometry, and radiometry
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Photodiodes
A photodiode is a p-n junction than can employ

either the photovoltaic or the photoconductive
effect
When used with no bias, it operates as photovoltaic (PV)

detector
When used with reverse bias it operates as
photoconductive (PC) detector
Commonly, the photodiode denomination refers

to the photoconductive configuration, where the p-n
junction is reverse biased
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Photodiodes

The figure on the side shows qualitatively the

current-voltage characteristics of a photodiode
The black curve shows the current-voltage relation
in the absence of
light (at dark). It
shows the familiar
rectification
characteristics of
a p-n semiconductor
diode
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Photodiodes
The other curves represent the current-voltage

characteristics when the device is irradiated at
different levels
The PV and PC regimes
correspond to the 4th
and the 3rd quadrants,
respectively
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Photodiodes
A number of different semiconductor materials are

in common use as photodiodes; they include:

Si for use in the visible, near UV, and near IR

Ge and InGaAs in the near IR
InSb, InAs, HgCdTe, and Ge doped with elements like
Cu and Au in the longer- wavelength IR
Among them, the most frequently encountered type

of photodiode is the silicon one
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Types of photodiodes
A variety of photodiode structures are available. No

single photodiode structure can best meet all
requirements
Perhaps the two most
common structures are
the planar diffused
photodiode and the
Schottky photodiode,
both shown on the side
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Types of photodiodes
Based on their internal structure, there are 2 main

types of photodiodes:

PIN photodiodes
Avalanche photodiodes (APD)
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PIN photodiodes
The name PIN stands for P-I-N, indicating the
photodiodes internal structure: there is an additional
layer of intrinsic (undoped) semiconductor between the
p-type and n-type regions that form the junction
This intrinsic region serves to increase the width of the
spatial charge region around the junction, which in turn
provides for more efficient conversion of photons to
charge carriers and improved frequency response of the
photodiode
PIN photodiodes are the most commonly used
detectors in many applications
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The
avalanche photodiode exhibits internal

gain due to multiplication of the number of
charged carriers
It is sometimes referred to as a "solid-state
photomultiplier"
The most widely used material for APDs is
silicon, but they could be fabricated from
other materials, such as germanium
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APDs are operated at high reverse bias voltages,

i.e. in the breakdown region of the current-voltage
characteristic
As a consequence, a large internal electric field is
developed across the junction, which leads to
multiplication of the number of charge carriers
through ionizing collisions
To avoid junction breakdown and consequent
failure of the device, the interface between the
diffused p-type region and the n-type substrate
must be smooth and surface contouring is also used
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Due to the internal gain, the output signal is

increased to a value perhaps 100-200 times greater
than that of a non-avalanche photodiode
The detectivity is also increased, provided that the
limiting noise is not from background radiation
Avalanche photodiodes cost more than
conventional photodiodes and they require
temperature compensation circuits to maintain the
optimum bias, but they represent an attractive
choice when high performance is required
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Performances of photodiodes
Silicon photodiodes are widely used as the detector

elements in optical disks and as the receiver
elements in optical fiber telecommunication
systems operating at wavelengths around 800 nm
Silicon photodiodes respond over the approximate
spectral range of 400 - 1100 nm, covering the
visible and part of the near infrared regions
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The spectral responsivity of typical commercial

silicon photodiodes is shown in below
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The responsivity reaches a peak value around 0.7

A/W, near 900 nm, decreasing at longer and shorter
wavelengths
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Optional models provide somewhat extended

coverage in the infrared or ultraviolet regions.
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Silicon photodiodes are useful for detection of

many of the most common laser wavelengths,
including argon, HeNe, AIGaAs, and Nd:YAG
In practice, silicon photodiodes have become the
detector of choice for many photonics applications
within their spectral range
They use well-developed technology and are
widely available. They represent the most widely
used type of detector for lasers operating in the
visible and near infrared portions of the spectrum
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Thermal photodetectors
The thermal photodetectors are the only kind of

detectors that can be made to be satisfactorily nonselective
They use the heat generated by irradiation to create
the highest possible change in temperature inside
the detector
A change in some other value (e.g. in pressure,
thermo-e.m.f., capacity, length, volume, etc.) which
is caused by the change in temperature, is then
measured. In principle, any property which changes
with temperature can be used
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Linearity of thermal photodetectors

The proportionality between input radiant energy

and the output quantity is valid, provided that the
incident radiant flux and the accompanying
temperature changes are not too great. When large
differences in temperature occur, deviations from
linearity will result
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Linearity of thermal photodetectors

Measurement of large radiation fluxes is often

inconvenient for this reason, especially as the
commercially available detectors are made as
sensitive as possible
This is due to the fact that most thermal radiation
detectors operate in thermal balance, i.e. the
increase in temperature causes a dissipation of heat
which balances the incident radiation flux. If the
latter is high, then a high temperature of the
detector is necessary to dissipate the heat.
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470
Design requirements for thermal

photodetectors
The heat dissipation is governed by the following

time constant: K
t=
V
where K is the thermal capacity and V is the heat
loss per second per degree
In order to arrive at large changes in temperature in
short irradiation periods (small time constant)
thermal capacity should be as small as possible
and heat dissipation should be sufficiently large
17/05/15
471

photodetectors
As
the previous two properties are often

difficult to change separately, there are
certain restrictions in practice
The best solution is that the radiation
receiving element of the detector to be flat
and made of a narrow strips or a thin foil
17/05/15
472

photodetectors

Uniform absorption in wide wavelength ranges is

obtained by a black layer over the irradiated side of
the detector
Suitable blackening substances are various kinds of
soot, metal oxides, or metals in an amorphous state
The latter can be produced electrolytically or by
evaporating of metals in suitable gases at reduced
pressure
17/05/15
473

photodetectors
To reduce heat dissipation in the ambient

atmosphere (considering transmission or
convection with thin strips or foils) thermal
detectors are preferably placed in a high vacuum,
where only the radiation losses are of importance
It is obvious that in this case a high-quality planeparallel window made of suitable transparent
material must be used. However, there are no
window materials that are equally well-suited for
the entire optical wavelength range
17/05/15
474

photodetectors
Detectors mounted in vacuum always have a higher

sensitivity than those in air (a ratio of 510 is
typical). The gain is therefore considerable
Apart from the higher sensitivity, vacuum detectors
have the advantage of being much less prone to
disturbances
With a free- air thermal detector not only air movements

caused by objects moving in the neighborhood result in
disturbances, but especially so do adiabatic compressions
which are unavoidable in windy weather, even in closed
rooms
17/05/15
475
Compensation of zero shift

A zero shift is caused by changing temperature

conditions in the room and in the instrument
This shift can be considerably reduced by suitable
compensation
However, it cannot be entirely eliminated,
especially when operating with continuous
radiation
17/05/15
476
Compensation of zero shift

Compensation arrangements usually employ a

second detector of exactly the same design as the
main detector, but which does not receive any
irradiation
When the two detectors are close together, both are
affected by all other external conditions, including
temperature, and the differential response will be a
measurement of the incident radiation only
17/05/15
477
Types of thermal detectors

The
main types of thermal detectors are as

follows:

thermoelectric detectors (thermocouples and termopiles)

Golay cells, which are a combination of a thermal
detector and a photonic detector
bolometers (metal bolometers, semiconductor
bolometers, superconducting bolometers)
pyroelectric detectors (which employ ferroelectric
materials)
17/05/15
478
Thermoelectric detectors
The
thermoelectric detector has a special

place amongst thermal radiation detectors,
because it converts directly the heat in
electric energy
It makes use of the thermoelectric current
which is produced by means of the Seebeck
effect as a result of the irradiation and
consequent heating of one of the two metaljunctions of a thermocouple
17/05/15
479
Accuracy of measurement
For
an accurate measurement, the cold

junction must be kept at room temperature
This is why the cold junction is protected
against irradiation as much as possible
Moreover, the transfer of heat from the hot
junction to the cold junction must be kept as
small as possible
17/05/15
480
When
the parasitic irradiation or heating of

the cold junction cannot be avoided, this
junction is brought into contact with a good
heat conductor of high heat capacity
Provided that radiation intensity or heat
transfer is not too high, the temperature
increase of the cold junction will be very
small
17/05/15
481
In
order to avoid a zero shift, it is essential

that when no irradiation takes place, no
changes in temperature occur between the
cold and the hot junctions, even in conditions
of fluctuations of the ambient temperature
This goal is reached only if the cold and the
hot junctions are placed as close as possible
17/05/15
482
Thermopile vs. thermocouple

When
multiple thermocouples are mounted

in series in such a way that the hot junctions
lie in the plane of irradiation, a thermopile is
obtained
The main advantage of this kind of detector
is that it is able to receive a larger portion of
the radiation field, so it is more sensitive
17/05/15
483
Thermopile vs. thermocouple

Example of o thermopile detector
17/05/15
484
The Golay cell

The
Golay cell is a type of opto-acoustic

detector mainly used for infrared
spectroscopy
In fact, it is a combination of a thermal
detector and a photonic detector
It has been devised by Marcel J. E.
Golay, after whom it came to be named
17/05/15
485
The Golay cell

Illustration of a Golay Cell
17/05/15
486
The Golay cell

It consists of a gas-filled
enclosure with
an infrared absorbing
material and a
flexible membrane
When infrared radiation is
absorbed, it heats the gas,
causing it to expand
The resulting increase
in pressure deforms the
membrane
17/05/15
487
The Golay cell

The light reflected off the

membrane is detected by
a photodiode
The slightest movement of
the membrane produces a
change in the signal on the
photodiode
17/05/15
488
The Golay cell

Alternative design:
The incident light beam is
initially passed through a
grating and the reflected
beam is made to form an
image of the grating on a
second grating in such a
way that no light passes
through it and no current
is generated by the
photodiode
17/05/15
489
The Golay cell

The
Golay cell has high sensitivity and a flat

response over a very broad range of
frequencies
The response time is modest, of the order of
10 ms
The detector performance is degraded in the
presence of mechanical vibrations.
17/05/15
490
Bolometers
As
opposed to a thermoelectric detector

where the heat resulting from irradiation is
converted directly to electric energy, in a
bolometer, one uses the changes in an
electrical resistance (typically) of a material
as a result of the temperature change due to
irradiation
17/05/15
491
Structure of a bolometer
As illustrated schematically aside,

a bolometer consists of an
absorptive element (such as a thin
layer of metal) connected to a
thermal reservoir (i.e. a heat sink,
a body of constant temperature)
through a thermal link
Any radiation incident on the
absorptive element raises its
temperature above that of the heat
sink
17/05/15
492
Structure of a bolometer
The temperature increase is given

by:
T = P / G
This temperature change can be
measured directly by using an
attached resistive thermometer, or
the resistance of the absorptive
element itself can be used as a
thermometer
17/05/15
493
Surrounding temperature
Metal
bolometers usually work without

cooling. They are produced from thin foils or
metal films
Today, most bolometers use semiconductor
or superconductor absorptive elements rather
than metals. These devices can be operated
at cryogenic temperatures, enabling
significantly greater sensitivity
17/05/15
494
Characteristics of bolometers

Bolometers are sensitive to any kind of radiation

(not only ionizing particles and photons, but also
for non-ionizing particles). The only thing that is
important is the energy left inside the absorber
Hence, they are also known as thermal detectors
In some applications, this lack of discrimination
could represent a shortcoming. On the other hand,
compared to more conventional particle detectors,
they are extremely efficient in energy resolution
and in sensitivity
17/05/15
495
Characteristics of bolometers
The most sensitive bolometers are very slow to

reset (i.e., return to thermal equilibrium with the
environment)
The intrinsic thermal time constant,
which sets the speed of the detector,
is equal to the ratio of the heat capacity
of the absorptive element to the thermal
conductance between the absorptive
element and the reservoir:
=C/G
17/05/15
496
Langley's bolometer
The first bolometer devised by Langley consisted

of two platinum strips covered with lampblack:

one strip was shielded from radiation

the other strip was exposed to radiation
The strips formed two branches of a Wheatstone

bridge which was fitted with a sensitive
galvanometer and connected to a battery
Electromagnetic radiation falling on the exposed
strip would heat it and change its resistance
17/05/15
497
Langley's bolometer
Circuit diagram of Langleys bolometer. The bolometer A
was connected to the Wheatstone bridge by the insulated
copper wires u, v, y, z.
(Figure 3 in Langley, S.P., 1881, Proc. of the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences, Vol. 16, p. 342, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25138616).
17/05/15
498
Langley's bolometer
By 1881, Langley's bolometer was refined enough

to detect thermal radiation from a cow a quarter of
a mile away and was sensitive to differences in
temperature of 0.001K
This instrument enabled him to thermally detect
across a broad spectrum, noting all the
chief Fraunhofer lines
He also discovered new atomic and molecular
absorption lines in the invisible infrared portion of
the electromagnetic spectrum
17/05/15
499
Pyroelectric detectors
Pyroelectricity
(from the Greek pyr, fire,

and electricity) is the ability of certain
materials to generate a temporary voltage
when they are heated or cooled
The change in temperature modifies the
positions of the atoms slightly within
the crystal structure, such that the electrical
polarization of the material changes
17/05/15
500
Pyroelectric detectors
The
polarization change gives rise to a

voltage across the crystal
If the temperature stays constant at its new
value, the pyroelectric voltage gradually
disappears due to leakage current (the
leakage can be due to electrons moving
through the crystal, ions moving through the
air, current leaking through
a voltmeter attached across the crystal, etc.)
17/05/15
501
Pyroelectricity vs. thermoelectricity

Pyroelectricity should not be confused

with thermoelectricity (see thermocouples)
In a typical demonstration of pyroelectricity, the whole

crystal is changed from one temperature to another, and
the result is a temporary voltage across the crystal
In a typical demonstration of thermoelectricity, one part
of the device is kept at one temperature and the other
part at a different temperature, and the result is
a permanent voltage across the device as long as there is
a temperature difference.
17/05/15
502
Pyroelectricity
Pyroelectricity can be visualized as one side of a

triangle, where each corner represents energy states
in the crystal: kinetic, electrical and thermal energy.
The side between electrical and thermal corners

represents the pyroelectric effect and produces no kinetic
energy
The side between kinetic and electrical corners
represents the piezoelectric effect and produces no heat
17/05/15
503
Pyroelectric materials
The effect was first discovered in minerals such

as tourmaline

Tourmaline is a crystal boron silicate mineral compounded with

elements such as aluminium, iron, magnesium, sodium, lithium,
or potassium. Tourmaline is classified as a semi-precious stone
and the gemstone comes in a wide variety of colors.
Nowadays, artificial pyroelectric materials have

been engineered
The pyroelectric effect is also present in
both bones and tendons
17/05/15
504
Pyroelectric materials

Pyroelectric charge in minerals develops on the

opposite faces of asymmetric crystals. These
materials are said to exhibit ferroelectricity
All pyroelectric materials are also piezoelectric, the
two properties being closely related.
However, note that some piezoelectric materials
have a crystal symmetry that does not allow
pyroelectricity
17/05/15
505
Passive Infrared (PIR) sensors

Very small changes in temperature can produce an

electric potential due to a materials' pyroelectricity
Passive Infrared (PIR) sensors are often designed
around pyroelectric materials,
as the heat of a human or animal
from several feet away is enough
to generate a difference in charge
17/05/15
506
Structure of a PIR sensor

Infrared radiation enters through the front of the

sensor, known as the sensor face
At the core of a PIR sensor is a solid state sensor
(or set of sensors) made from pyroelectric material.
Typically, the sensors are approx. 40 mm2 and take
the form of a thin film
Materials commonly used in PIR sensors include
GaN, CsNO3, polyvinyl fluorides, derivatives
of phenylpyridine, and cobalt phthalocyanine
The sensor is often embedded in an integrated
circuit
17/05/15
507
Applications of thermal detectors

The non-selectivity of thermal detectors is

important in every case where the radiation must be
measured independently of its wavelength. In the
far-IR region we have anyhow no choice
A further advantage of the thermal detectors is that
they are less sensitive to irregularities in the
irradiance since for them only the absorbed heat is
the decisive factor
17/05/15
508

Optoelectronics - Part 3

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Optoelectronics - Part 3

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Photodetectors

Optoelectronics (ETTI-TST 2014/2015)

The most general definition: a photodetector is a

Optoelectronics (ETTI-TST 2014/2015)

are used either for measuring

Optoelectronics (ETTI-TST 2014/2015)

Optical detectors respond to the power of the

This is in contrast to e.g. the case of microwave

This chapter will get you familiar with the most

Optoelectronics (ETTI-TST 2014/2015)

are usually divided into two

Optoelectronics (ETTI-TST 2014/2015)

In case of quantum photodetectors, the photons

If the wavelength is longer than the cutoff wavelength,

Optoelectronics (ETTI-TST 2014/2015)

Thermal photodetectors make use of some

Optoelectronics (ETTI-TST 2014/2015)

The output of quantum and thermal photodetectors

Optoelectronics (ETTI-TST 2014/2015)

Quantum photodetectors may be further subdivided

Optoelectronics (ETTI-TST 2014/2015)

The performance of optical detectors is commonly

Optoelectronics (ETTI-TST 2014/2015)

In general, one seeks for the following properties in

a large response at the wavelength to be detected

In the following, the most important parameters of

Optoelectronics (ETTI-TST 2014/2015)

Responsivity is a measure of the effectiveness of the

Optoelectronics (ETTI-TST 2014/2015)

More specifically, for a detector that generates a

where Ee [W/cm2] is the incident irradiance and

Optoelectronics (ETTI-TST 2014/2015)

If the detector outputs a voltage, the responsivity is

where all the other quantities have the same

Optoelectronics (ETTI-TST 2014/2015)

Quantum efficiency (Q) is defined as the ratio of

For a photoemissive detector that emits free electrons

Optoelectronics (ETTI-TST 2014/2015)

Quantum efficiency is just another way of

where Rd is the responsivity of the detector at

Optoelectronics (ETTI-TST 2014/2015)

An ideal photodetector would have a quantum

Optoelectronics (ETTI-TST 2014/2015)

Noise Equivalent Power

A third figure of merit, which depends on noise

Optoelectronics (ETTI-TST 2014/2015)

Noise Equivalent Power

The equation defining NEP is:

where Ee is the irradiance incident on the detector

Optoelectronics (ETTI-TST 2014/2015)

Noise Equivalent Power

From the above definition, it is apparent that the

Optoelectronics (ETTI-TST 2014/2015)

When we compare several photodetectors, the best

Optoelectronics (ETTI-TST 2014/2015)

This parameter, called detectivity and denoted by

The usefulness of this parameter is that it provides

Optoelectronics (ETTI-TST 2014/2015)

The detectivity thus gives a measure of the intrinsic

Optoelectronics (ETTI-TST 2014/2015)

Response time of the detector

Another useful characteristic of photodetectors is

Optoelectronics (ETTI-TST 2014/2015)

Response time of the detector