CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION TO MEDICAL LABORATORY

Medical laboratory or clinical laboratory is laboratory where tests are usually done
on clinical specimens in order to get information about the health of a patient as
pertaining to the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of diseases
1.1 SOME INSTRUMENTS USED IN MEDICAL LABORATORIES.
1. Glass slide and cover slips: - Used as the solid backing on which test samples
are taken.
2. Petri dish: - Used for preparation of culture media and culture of organisms there
in.
3. Pasteur pipette:- Used for aspiration and addition of reagents.
4. Disposable gloves: - used for prevention of transmission of diseases to or from
the user.
5. Tourniquet:- Used to cause an artificial venous stasis.
o. Microscope: - Used for visualizing minute structures including microbes.
7. Burette: - Used to measure amount of the acid/alkali
8. Autoclave: - Used for sterilization and media preparation
9. Beaker: - Used for determining the volume of the contained liquids

1.2 GENERAL MEDICAL LABORATORY PRECAUTION

1. Smoking is prohibited in the laboratory
2. No food or drink should be stored in laboratory refrigerator
3. Application of cosmetics is prohibited in the laboratory working area
4. All personel must wear protective clothings e.g. lab coats while at work.
5. Open cuts and broken skin must be covered with a suitable means of protection
e.g. gloves.
6. Hands should be washed before and after work in the laboratory
7. Know the location and operation of equipment.
8. Clean work surfaces after each work in the lab
9. Do not mouth-pipette liquids

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 HAEMATOLOGY
Also spelled Hematology is the study of blood, the blood forming organs and the
diseases of blood. Hematology includes the study of etiology (science of the
causes of diseases), diagnosis, treatment, prognosis (i.e. assessment of the future
course and outcome of a patients disease), and prevention of blood diseases that
affect the production of blood and its components such as blood cells, hemoglobin
Physicians specialized in hematology are known as hematologists or hematologist.
Their routine work mainly includes the care and treatment pf patients with
hematological disease.
2.1 BLOOD COLLECTION
Blood collection is a vital procedure in blood testing. proper blood collection is
required to ensure the reliability of results. The methods for blood collection are:
VENIPUNTURE
It is the collection of blood from the veins through the use of a needle and a
syringe. In this procedure, the most common site of venipuncture is the antecubital
fossa where the cephalic. basilica and mid-cubital veins are found.
This procedure is required when large amounts of blood is needed for testing like
in glucose.
MATERIALS NEEDED
I. Syringe
2. Tourniquet
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3. Gauge 20-22 needle

4. Wet and dry cotton
5. Anti-coagulant bottle
6. Isopropyl alcohol
VENIPUNCUTRE PROCEDURE
1. Allow the patient to rest
2. Prepare the materials and select a suitable site for venipuncuture
3. Tourniquet the upper arm of the patient
4. Swab the venipuncuture site with the wet cotton
5. Perform the venipuncuture
6. Collect the sample (blood) into an EDTA bottle (anti-coagulant bottle).
PRECAUTIONS
1. Remove the tourniquet first before the needle
2. Do not puncture the vein through and through
3. Do not jerk the needle out of the vein
4. Allow the patient to rest for at least 10 minutes.
FINNGER PUNCTURE
Also known as capillary puncture, finger stick or finger puncture. Finger puncture
is used when smaller volumes of blood is required, like when performing white
blood-cell counts (WBC), peripheral blood smears and malaria smears.
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This method is useful for pediatric, obese and elderly patients where veins are
small and can not be palpated. It may also make use of the earlobe and big toe as
puncture sites.
MATERIALS NEEDED
1. Blood lancet
2. Wet and dry cotton
3. Isopropyl alcohol
FINGER PUNCTURE PROCFDURF:
1. Massage the selected linger down toward the fingertip.
2. Repeat this live or six times.
3. Cleans the fingertip with an isopropyl alcohol (in the cotton) and let dry.
4. Take a lancet and make a quick deep stab on the side of the finger.
5. Wipe away the first drop of blood to avoid dilution with tissue fluid.
6. When the required blood has been obtained, apply dry cotton and instruct the
patient to apply pressure.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Puncture only the specified site
2. Discard the first drop as this is made up of tissue fluid
3. Sterilize first before puncturing

2.2 BLOOD GROUPING

Blood group (also called blood type). is a classification of blood based on the
presence or absence of inherited antigenic substances on the surface of red blood
cells RHCs). Several of these red blood cell surface antigens can stem from one
allele and collectively form a blood group system. Blood types are inherited and
represent contributions from both parents.
Antigens are protein molecules that are found on the surface of red blood cells and
antibodies are found on the plasma. They recognize anything usually in your body
and alert your immune system so that it can destroy it.
THE ABO SYSTEM
Blood groups are defined by the AHO system.
Blood group A has A antigens on its red blood cells and antt-t3 antibodies on
its plasma
Blood group B has B antigens and anti-A antibodies on its plasma
Blood group AB has both A and H antigens but no antibodies.
Blood group 0 has no antigens but anti-A and anti-B antibodies
MATERIALS FOR BLOOD GROUPING

Blood lice
EDTA bottle
Syringe-needle
Tourniquet
Anti Sera A,B,AB and D

PROCEDURES FOR BLOOD GROUPING

1. Tie the tourniquet around the upper arm to make the veins more prominent.
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2. Clean the puncture site with isopropyl alcohol.

3. Gently introduce the needle into the vein and draw out the required amount of
blood into the syringe.
4. Untie the tourniquet to withdraw the needle then press over the punctured site
with Cotton wool.
5. Place the blood in an EDTA bottle and shake horizontally
6. Make four drops of blood at intervals on a Tice and note them to be A,B , AB
and (i.e. O)
7. Make a drop of anti-sera A on blood A. anti-sera B on blood R, anti-sera All on
blood AB and anti-sera D on blood labeled D.
8. Mix the blood with their respective anti-sera and thereafter rock the tile for
agglutination to occur.
OBSERVATION AND RESULT
NOTE: A = Agglutination
N = No Agglutination
Anti- Sera A
A
N
A
N
A
N
A
N

Anti Sera B
N
A
A
N
N
A
A
N

Anti sera AB
A
A
A
N
A
A
A
N

Anti- Sera D
N
N
N
A
A
A
A
N

RESULT
ABABO+
A+
B+
AB+
O-

2.3 PACKED CELL VOLUME (PCV)

Is the volume of the red cells (erythrcytes) in the expressed a fraction of the total
volume of the blood. The packed cell volume is determined by centrifuging blood
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in a tube and measuring the heights of the red-cell column as a fraction of the total
by the use of an instrument called HAEMATOCRIT READER. PCV is measured
in percentage (%).
MATERIALS NEEDED FOR PCV TEST
Syringe and needle
Cotton
Touniqtiet
EDTA bottle
Haematocrit centrifuge
Haematocrit reader
Heparinated capillary tube
Electricity source
Plasticine
PROCEDURES FOR PACKED CELL VOLUME (PCV)
1. Tourniquet the upper arm and clean the site for puncture with cotton socked
in spirit
2. Gently insert the needle into the vein and draw out the required blood into
the syringe.
3. Loose the tourniquet and withdraw the needle from the vein. Press over the
punctured site with cotton wool.
4. Thereafter place the blood in an EDTA bottle and shake horizontally

5. Lower the capillary tube into the EDTA bottle (horizontally). If the blood is
filled to the point marked, remove the tube, close the FIYFA bottle and clean
the blood retained on the capillary tube surface.
6. Seal the tube with a plasticine
7. Place the sealed tube on the capillary chamber of the haematocrit centriftige
and close with the cover.
8. Plug the centriftige machine to an electric source and spin for 5 minutes.
TEST RESULT INTERPRETATION
Male : - 40-54%
Female: - 38-47%
Infant: - 30-35%
PRECAUTION
I. Ensure that the capillary tube is sealed.
2. Ensure that the blood is filled to the heparimated mark.
2.4 GENOTYPE:
Genotype is the genetic makeup of an individual or organisms. In other words, ii is
the genetic constitution of an individual. It is also kno4n as the sum total of genes
transmitted from parent to offspring.

MATERIALS FOR GENOTYIINC

I. Electrophorouses machine
2. Blood sample
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3. Cellulose acetate paper

4. Buffer solution
5. Applicator
6. Absorbent paper
7. Electricity
8. Tile
PROCEDURE FOR GENOTYPE
1. Collect the blood sample and place in an EDTA bottle
2. Make a drop of the blood on the tile, add a drop of water and stir
3. Insert the acetate paper into the absorbent paper to absorb its moisture
4. Make a vertical dot of blood on the acetate paper
5. Place the acetate paper into the electrophoresis machine. Make drops of gel a the
tips of the acetate paper (to allow the electrons to flow freely). After which mix
switch on the machine for 15 minutes.
OBSERAVATION
A
S

AA
-

SS

2.5 ENTERIC FEVER TEST (WIDAL TEST)

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Widal test is an agglutination test for the presence of antibodies against the
salmonella organisms that cause typhoid fever. It is thus a method of diagnosing
the presence of the disease in a patient.
MATERIALS FOR WIDAL TEST
I. Blood sample
2. Tile
3. EDTA bottle
4. Haematocrit centrifuge machine
PROCEDURE FOR WIDAL TEST
I. Collet the blood sample and place in an EDTA bottle.
2. Place the blood in an EDTA bottle and spin for 5 minutes with centrifuge
machine.
3. Make 4 drops of serum at intervals on a tile at one side and the other 4 drops on
the other side of the tile.
4. The widal kit of paratyphy A, B ,C and H (somatic antigen reagent) was mixed
to one group of the serum and the paratyphy A.B.C and 0 (flagella antigen agent
mixed with the other group of the dropped serum.
5. The tile was rocked for 2 minutes for agglutination to occur.
NOTE: The degree of the agglutination shows how serious the typhoid fever is in
the body of the patient.
OBSERVATION
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Typhy H

Typhy O

Key:

agglutination
= non-agglutination

A. <20

<20

B. <20

<80

C. <80

<80

D. <160

<160

a. The values <20 implies that there is no agglutination.

b. Values <80 implies that moderate degree of agglutination occurred.
c. <160 shows that H and O agglutinations are significantly raised.
2.6 MALARIA PARASITE TEST (MP-TEST)
It is an infectious disease due to the presence of parasitic protozoa of the genus
plasmodium within the red blood cells. The test is therefore aimed at testing for the
presence of the parasite Plasmodium falciparum.
MATERIALS FOR NIP TEST
I. MP kit
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2. Blood sample
3. Blood lancet
4. Swab
PROCEDURE
I. Prick the finger tip of the patient and wipe away the first drop of blood.
2. Make a drop of blood on the blood chamber of the kit.
3. Add a drop of buffer on the buffer chamber.
4. Allow the reaction for 10 minutes.
OBSERVATION/RESULT
1. Appearance of band on the Control implies NEGATIVE.
2. Appearance of band on the Test implies INVALID.
3. Appearance of bond on both Test and Control implies POSITIVE
Is th plasma, measured under standardized conditions. The ESR increases if the
Level of ci1an proteins in the plasma rises, as in rheumatic diseases, chronic
infections and malignant disease and thus provides a simple hut valuable
screaming test for these conditions.

CHAPTER THREE
3.0 BIOCHEMISTRY
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Biochemistry is the scientific study of the chemical processes and substances

occurring in living things or the study of chemical processes within, and relating to
living organisms. It is sometimes called biological chemistry.
3.1 FASTING AND RANDOM BLOOD GLUCOSE (FBG AND RBG)
This a laboratory test used to determine the level of glucose in the blood. In fasting
type of blood sugar test, the patient is expected to have 12 hours fasting (i.e. should
not eat nor drink from 8pm to 8am) while Random type the blood sample is
collected at random for screening of diabetes mellitus.
MATERIALS
1. Blood lancet
2. Glucometer and strip Swab
4. Cotton wool
PROCEDURE
1. Prick the patient at the linger tip and wipe away the first drop of blood.
2. Press the finger and point the glucometer strip (attached to the glucometer)
to touch the blood.
3. Wait for some seconds to read the result.

OBSERATION/RESULT
Test
Fasting
Random

Values
70-120mmg/dl
80-140mmg/dl
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NOTE: - The range depends on the type of reagent used

3.2 URINALYSIS
This is the laboratory analysis of urine, using physical and chemical tests
determine the proportions 01 its normal constituents and to detect other abnormal
constituents.
MATERIALS
1. Urine sample
2. Combustik
3. Universal bottle
PROCEDURE
1. Collect the urine sample in the universal bottle and shake well.
2. Insert the strip into the bottle.
3. Place the strip on the cambastik container for observation.

OBSERVATION/RESULT
The combostik container has the urine constituent chart as folIow
S.G (specific gravity)
PH
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Protein
Blood
Glucose
Nitrite
Ketones
Urobilinogen
Bilirubin
Leukocytes

NOTE: -The standard color on the strip that corresponds the color chart, gives the
appropriate result.
3.3 PREGNANCY TEST (PT)
This is the Laboratory test used to determine whether or not a woman is pregnant.
Most pregnancy tests are based on the detection of a hormone, human chronic
gonadotrophin (HCG), in the urine.
MATERIALS
1. PT strip
2. Urine sample

PROCEDURE
1. Collect fresh urine sample.
2. Remove the test strip from the sealed pouch.
3. Immerse the test strip vertically in the urine sample for 15 seconds.

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4. Place the tests strip on a nonabsorbent flat surface, start the tinier and wait for
the colored line(s) to appear.
5. Read the result after three minutes.

OBSERVTION/RESULT
Positive: -Two distinct colored lines appear.
2. Negative: - One colored line appears in the control line region (c)
3. lnvalid: One band on the test region or not at all

CHAPTFR FOUR
4.0 MICROBIOLOCY
scientific studs of microorganisms. Microbiology in relation to medicine is
concerned mainly with the isolation and identification of the micro-organisms that
diseases.
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4.1 URINE MICROSCOPY

Microscopy is a simple yet informative test that is carried out on all patients ire
suspected of having renal disease. A mid-stream specimen of urine is analyzed for
the presence of:

White Cells
Red Cells
Casts
Bacteria

MATERIALS NEEDED
-

Urine simple
Glass slide
Cover ship
Microscopy

PROCEDURE
1. Collect urine sample from the patient.
2. Spin the urine sample with centrifuge machine.
3. Make a drop of the urine residue on the glass slide and cover with cover ship
4. View under x10 magnification.
Parasites likely to be seen
1. Red cells
2. Pore cells
4.2 STOOL MICROSCOPY

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Protozoa ale micro-organisms consisting of single cell. They are found in stools in
their motile form, also called vegetative of trophozoite form.
Protozoa in motile form are chiefly found in:
1. Fluid stools
2. Soft unformed stools
3. Stools containing mucus
MATRIALS NEEDED
I. Collect fresh stool sample in a container.
2. Make a smear of the sample on the slide and cover with the cover ship.
3. Mount the specimen and observe using x10 magnification of the microscope.
OBSERVATION
Some observable parasite in the stool
i. Ascaris lumbricode
ii. Schistosoma mansoni
iii. Trichuris trachura
iv. StrongIoides stercorrahis
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 INTRODUCTION TO VIROLOGY
Is the scientific study of viruses. It focuses on the following aspects of viruses:
their structure. classification, evolution and their ways to infect.
5.1 HIV TEST
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HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) test, is a medical test that helps detect
whether or not a patient has I liv infection.
MATERIALS
1. Test strip
2. Blood sample
3. Dropping pipette
4. Buffer
PROCEDURE
1. Collect blood sample from the patient.
2. Uncover the test strip and place a drop of blood on the blood chamber.
3. Add a drop of buffer to the drop of blood.
4. AllowCTthe reaction for 15minutes.
CT
C

RESULT

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POSITIVE
NEGATIVE

INVALID

5.2 HEAPATITIS B TEST

Hepatitis B (formerly known as serum hepatitis) is an inflammation of the liver
caused by viruses.
The test is aimed at detecting if or not a patient has the infection
MATERIALS
1. HBS test strip
2. Blood serum
3. Centrifuge machine
PROCEDURE
1.
2.
3.
4.

Collect 1.5m of blood sample from the patient.

Centrifuge the blood for 5 minutes.
Gently immerse the test-strip into the serum.
Allow the reaction for 15 minutes.

RESULT
C
Appearance of bands on both test
and control
Appearance
of bands on test or not at all invalid
Appearance of bands only on control implies non- reactive
Implies
C
REACTION
T
T

Reactive

Invalid

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Non-Reactive

SUMMARY
It is important that every individual should go for medical checkup regularly
regardless of age, sex and health. Even if you are enjoying good health.
It is important to understand that many small and critical diseases can be prevented
if they are caught earlier.
This few reports here in with procedures are medical test which every individual
ought to undergo in order to prevent diseases.
Blood test and analysis is most import of all medical tests.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
CONCLUSION
The student industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) has broadened my
knowledge and experience on Medical

Laboratory. The SIWES gained me

exposure to the World of Medical Laboratory Science.

Above all, the experience helps me to understand the more of what I learnt and
what I would learn in the remaining semester.
RECOMMENDATION
1. The SIWES should be a continuous training in order to expose the student to
different field of study.
2. The FG and other parastatals should organize an enlightenment campaign on
3.

the necessity of medical check-up.

Government and other officials concerned should encourage and support the
laboratory scientists.
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