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Unit 1: Cells
Cell Theory:
Abiogenesis: The idea that living organisms can develop spontaneously from lifeless matter.
(Abiogenenis is false).
Biogenesis: the idea that living organisms develop only from other living organisms and not from abiotic
matter. (Biogenesis is true).
Scientists:
Pasteur: Tried to settle the debate between biogenesis and abiogenesis. He used a swan necked flask,
allowing air in, but kept germs out while boiling the broth. He disproved abiogenesis.
Redi: demonstrated that maggots do not appear in meat if flies cannot land on the meat. Scientists
began to doubt abiogenesis.
Needham: Boiled meat broth to support spontaneous generation. The jar became cloudy because it was
not properly sealed.
Virchow: concluded that calls are the last link in a great chain that forms tissues, organs, systems and
individuals. Where cells exist, there must be a pre-existing cell.
a. Compound light microscope – these are the simplest and most commonly used microscopes.
The can view many but not all cells and have a maximum magnification of about 2000x.
b. Transmission electron microscope – these microscopes use a beam of electrons that pass
through the ultra-thin specimen, interacting with it as it passes through. An image is formed
through the interaction of the specimen with the electrons. The maximum magnification of a
TEM is about 500 000x.
c. Scanning electron microscope - Images surfaces at an atomic level. This microscope provides 3D
images. The SEM scans a narrow beam of electrons over the specimen.
Cell Structure:
Animal cell: a form of eukaryotic cell that makes up many tissues in animals.
First of all, plant cells have a cell wall made up of cellulose, which allows the plant cell to
maintain a high pressure inside of it without bursting. Animal cells do not have this wall, so if you fill up
an animal cell with too much liquid, it will break. Plant cells are also different from animal cells because
they use photosynthesis to convert sunlight into food for the plant. Plant cells also have chloroplasts,
which contain their own DNA, essentially directing the work of the chloroplasts. Plant cells also contain a
large vacuole that takes up much of the space in the cell; it contains waste, nutrients and water which
are secreted as necessary. Animal cells have small and numerous vacuoles.
Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes:
Eukaryotic cells have a true nucleus, bound by a double membrane. Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus.
Eukaryotic DNA is linear, prokaryotic DNA is circular. Eukaryotic DNA is complexed with proteins called
‘histones’ and is organized into chromosomes, prokaryotic cells have no histones associated with it.
Eukaryotic cells have more complex rhibosomes. Eukaryotic cells are filled with a variety of organelles,
each serving a different purpose. Prokaryotic cells contain no membrane-bound organelles.
Organelles:
Nucleus: Cells largest and most prominent organelle. Stores genetic information that determines how
the cell functions.
Nucleolus: Within the nucleus. Produces the chemical compounds used to construct the ribosomes
required by the cell.
Ribosomes: Each cell contains thousands. Lack a membrane envelope and are assembled in the nucleus.
Produce protein used within the cell.
Rough Endoplasmic reticulum (Rough ER): ER covered with ribosomes. The proteins produced on these
rhibosomes are processed and modified with the help of enzymes embedded on the inside of the rough
ER.
Smooth ER: Have enzymes embedded on the inner surface for processing macromolecules. Sections of
smooth ER pinch of to form vesticles which transport macromoleules to the cellmembrane or Golgi
apparatus.
Cell Membrane: Semi permeable boundary around cell that contains organelles.
Cell Wall: Plant cells only. Made of cellulose and makes the cell rigid.
Cell membrane:
- Phospholipid bilayer
- Cholesterol
- Glycoproteins
- Integral proteins embedded in the phospholipid bilayer of the membrane.
- Peripheral proteins attached to the phospholipid surface.
- The hydrophobic and hydrophyllic properties ofphospholipids help to maintain the structure of
cell membranes.
o Hydrophobic fatty acid tails repel water and form in the middle layer of the membrane.
o Hydrophyllic phosphate heads attract water and form the outer layers of the
membrane.
Osmosis: Movement of water from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
- Hypertonic solutions: Contain a high concentration of solute relative to another solution. When
a cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, water diffuses out of the cell, causing it to shrivel.
- Hypotonic solutions: Contain a low concentration of solute relative to another solution. When a
cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, water diffuses into the cell, causing it to expand and
possibly explode.
- Isotonic solutions: Contain the same concentration of solute and solution. When an cell is placed
in an isotonic solution, the water diffuses in and out of the cell at the same rate.
Diffusion: Movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
*** These are the mechanisms for PASSIVE TRANSPORT. Passive transport requires no energy.
- Protein called The Pump has 3 bonding sides for Na and 1 bonding site for ATP attachment.
- 3 Na attach and so does 1 ATP. The ATP is broken down into ADP and P. This provides energy to
change the shape of the pump so that it can dump the Na outside of the cell.
- Change in shape. Now has an open side of the pump facing outside the cell and 2 K can attach.
- This releases the Pi (inorganic phosphate group) that was still attached to the pump and the
pump shifts shape again, releasing the K inside the cell.
- In this way, the ions are moved against the concentration gradient from lower concentration to
higher. This pump is key in maintaining ion levels to ensure stimulus transmission in the nervous
system.
(Mr.Amoeba!) :Mr. Amoeba uses his pseudopods to engulf food into himself. ENDOCYTOSIS. Mr.
Amoeba’s lysosomes inside of him take the nutrients from the food and separates t from the waste. Mr
Amoeba discards of the waste through EXOCYTOSIS.
Pinocytosis: Fluids
Phagocytosis: Solids
Chemistry:
Photosynthesis:
Process: Chloroplasts capture sun’s energy and make food for plant.
Stages:
1. Pigment in Chloroplast captures sunlight.
2. Carbon dioxide and water are used to produce glucose and oxygen.
*** Plants are autotrophs, meaning they produce their own food. Heterotrophs obtain nutrients by
eating other organisms.
Cellular Respiration:
Stage:
1. IN the cytoplasm, glucose is broken down into smaller molecules. A small amount of
energy is released.
2. In the mitochondria, the smaller molecules combine with oxygen to produce carbon
dioxide and water. Releases a large amount of energy.
C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂---->6CO₂ + 6H₂O
Classification
Taxa:
- Many radioactive isotopes decay at known rates. Scientists use the decay of atoms in the
process called radiocarbon dating to find the ages of objects.
- Comparison of protein molecules among organisms can determine genetic similarities and
differences.
- DNA from different organisms are separated into single strands. Single strands from the two
samples are mixed. They bond together. The greater the bonding, the greater the
similarities between samples.
Achaea: cell membrane contains ether linkages; cell wall lacks peptidoglycan; genes and
enzymes behave more like Eukaryotes; have three RNA polymerases like eukaryotes; and
extremophiles
Bacteria: cell membrane contains ester bonds; cell wall made of peptidoglycan; have only one
RNA polymerase; react to antibiotics in a different way than archea do.
When the cell reaches a certain size, it elongates, separating it’s 2 chromosomes. The cell builds a
partition between them and eventually the original cell splits into two smaller, genetically identical
cells.
Bacteria:
- Prokaryotes
- Found in almost every environment due to its ability to uses widely different sources for
energy and nutrition.
- Use sexual and asexual reproduction.
Archaea:
- Extremophiles
- Cell wall does not contain peptoglycan.
- Reproduction is by means of binary fission or conjugation.
Protista:
Fungi:
Plantae:
Animalia:
- All except poriferans and cnidarians have 3 germ layers. Ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm.
- Digestive Tract: Almost all animals digest food extracellularly, in a digestive system.
- Body symmetry is radial or bilateral depending on type of movement.
- Some have a coelom (body cavity) these are coelomates, organs are suspended in coelom.
The coelom allows for development of more complex organs. Some do not have coelom
(acoelomates). This means their organs are less complex.
- Some reproduce sexually while others reproduce asexually.
Porifera - Aquatic
- Adult body is asymmetrical
- Adult is sessile
- 2 germ layers, no organs
- Single opening in which food enters and waste
leaves.
- Digests food intracellularly
- No body cavity
- Hermaphrodites, reproduce sexually or
asexually
- Fertilization in external
Cnideria - Aquatic
- Radial symmetry
- Some sessile, some free-moving
- 2 germ layers, simple nervous system and
muscle tissue
- Single opening
- No body cavity
- Reproduce sexually or asexually, some are
hermaphrodites
- Fertilization is external
Platyhelminthes - Live in water, soil or as parasites
- Bilateral symmetry
- Some motile, some non-motile
- 3 germ layers
- Distinct head, simple nervous system and
some have excretory
- Single opening
- Extracellular digestion
- No body cavity
- Can reproduce sexually or asexually
- Internal fertilization, some are
hermaphrodites
Nematoda - Soil, water or as parasites
- Bilateral symmetry
- 3 germ layers
- Free living motile, parasitic non-motile
- Head and organ systems
- Tube within tube body plan
- Reproduction is sexual
- Fertilization is internal, some are
hermaphrodites
Annelida - Live in water or on land
- Bilateral symmetry
- 3 germ layers
- Body cavity and organ systems
- Tube within tube body plan
- Extracellular digestion
- Sexual reproduction
- Internal fertilization, some are
hermaphrodites
Mollusca - Most live in water, few on land
- Bilateral symmetry
- 3 germ layers
- Body cavity with distinct organs
- Tube within a tube body plan
- Extracellular digestion
- Sexual reproduction
- Internal fertilization, some are
hermaphrodites
Echinodermata - Live in water
- Radial symmetry
- 3 germ layers
- Body cavity an distinct organs
- Tube within a tube
- Extracellular digestion
- Sexual reproduction
- Internal fertilization
Class Amphibia:
- Small lungs
- 3 chambered heart
- Have tongue, eyelids and limbs
Class Reptilia:
Class Aves
- Mammary glands
- Give birth to young
- All have lungs and need oxygen.
Life cycles:
Malaria :
*** we didn’t necessarily use these specific terms in class, this photo is purely to show the cycle, use
terms used in explanation.
1. Mosquito feeds on infected person. It ingests reproductive cells of Plasmodium present in red
blood cells.
2. The reproductive cells fuse inside of the mosquito to form a zygote. The zygote divides many
times to form numerous spore-like cell fragments. Eventually, the zygote breaks open, releasing
sporozoites.
3. The sporozoites invade the salivary glands of the mosquito, where they will be injected into a
new host.
4. Inside the human host, the sporozoites reproduce asexually in the liver to form a second type of
spore-like cells. The new cells invade the bloodstream and invade red blood cells.
5. The blood cells rupture, releasing toxic substances and great numbers of spores. The spores
goon to infect more red blood cells.
Frog:
Systems:
Circulatory System:
1. The Heart
2. Arteries
3. Arterioles
4. Capillaries
5. Veins
Each of the components has a specific job to do in order for the circulatory system to function properly.
Circulation Begins in the Heart:
By convention, the circulatory system can be thought of as beginning in the right atrium. In the model of
the heart discussed above, this is the upper right-hand chamber of the square. As blood moves through
the heart, it passes through each of the four chambers (upper right, lower right, upper left, lower left),
takes a quick detour to the lungs (to get rid of carbon dioxide and pick up oxygen) and ends up in the
lower left-hand chamber, called the left ventricle.
Left Ventricle:
In the context of pushing blood out to the body and through the circulatory system, the left ventricle is
the most important chamber in the heart. It is the largest of the four chambers, and is responsible for
generating the force necessary to propel the blood out into the aorta, which is first artery that blood
enters as it leaves the heart.
Regulation:
Blood travels from the aorta through a series of smaller and smaller blood vessels until it reaches the
capillaries. Before reaching the capillaries, however, blood must travel through the arterioles, where its
speed and pressure are constantly adjusted as different segments of the arterioles change diameter in
response to pressure and chemical sensors positioned nearby. These sensors adjust blood flow via the
arterioles in response to changing conditions in the body.
Capillary Flow:
Because of arteriole action, by the time blood reaches the capillaries it is no longer traveling in a pulsing
fashion - blood actually flows continuously through the capillaries, it does not "squirt" and "pause" along
with the beating of the heart. This continuous flow is necessary because there is a constant exchange of
oxygen and nutrients happening through the walls of the capillaries. No cell in the body is very far away
from a capillary.
Closed Loop:
As blood travels through the capillaries, its supply of oxygen is reduced and it acquires waste products.
From the capillaries, blood enters the venules and then veins, and travels back to the heart to be
refreshed and sent out once again.
Respiratory System:
Lungs:
- An internal respiratory surface connected to the air by means of internal passageways. Lung
systems vary from species to species.
- 3 basic elements:
o One or two lungs that have a moist respiratory surface.
o Some means of forcibly bringing air in contact with the lung surface.
o Circulatory system to carry the gases between the lungs and other cells of the body.
3 types of respiration:
- External Respiration: the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between air and blood.
- Internal respiration: the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between blood and the cells of
the surrounding tissue.
- Cellular respiration: the complex series of chemical reactions that take place mainly in the
mitochondria of the cells.
The respiratory tract; how does air move through the body?
- The air first enters the nostrils which conduct air into the hollow nasal passages where several
things occur. Thin bones called turbinates, hang suspended from the nasal chambers. The mucus
secreted from the turbinates moistens the air which protects the lungs.
- The air then passes to through the pharynx, the glottis and the larynx.
- After passing through the larynx,air goes down the trachea and into bronchioles.
- At the end of each bronchiole, there are alveoli. This is wherethe exchange of oxygen and
carbon dioxide occurs.
- When the air comes down the trachea, it reaches a fork in the road; bronchus.
- The bronchus caries air to the lungs and bronchiole carries air to the alveoli
- The diaphragm pushes the air back out.
Lung capacity:
Asthma:
- Chronic obstructive lung disease that can occur at any age. Extreme sensitivity of the lungs to
certain triggers. Inflammation caused by asthma attacks cause narrowing of airways.
Emphysema:
- Airways become inflamed and filled with mucus. The alveoli become damaged and unable to
exchange gases. The elasticity of the lungs is reduced.
Digestive System:
- Mouth:
o Physically breaks down food
o Papillae: Where taste buds are
o Uvula: Prevents food from entering pharynx
o Food enters mouth and comes in contact with saliva which assists in the chemical
process of digestion.
Esophagus
- Food passes to the esophagus, lined with muscles that push food along.
Stomach
- Food then passes to the stomach, lined with gastric glands that secrete gastric juice needed for
digestion.
- Muscles lining the stomach break down food and mix it with gastric juice to create chyme.
Small intestine
- After exiting the stomach, the food enters the small intestine, which is subdivided into 3 regions:
o Duodenum: Shortest and widest region. Pancreatic and bile ducts open into duodenum.
This makes it important in chemical breakdown of food.
o Jejunum: breaks down proteins and carbohydrates so the end products can be
absorbed.
o Ileum: Absorbs nutrients and pushes undigested material into large intestine.
Large intestine
Diseases:
- Ulcers: Stomach acid penetrates the stomach wall and it begins to erode, resulting in a slow
healing sore known as an ulcer.
- Ileitis: Inflammation of the ileum.
Excretory System:
- Kidneys: filters blood in order to remove cellular waste products from the body.
- 3 sections:
o Cortex (outer layer)
o Medulla (inner layer)
o Pelvis ( inner collecting area)
- Within cortex and medulla there are nephrons which act as filters.
- Each nephron consists of the Bowman’s capsule, the proximinal tubule, the loop of Henle, the
distal tubule and the collecting duct.
- Blood enters cavity of the Bowman’s capsule through a tiny aretery. The fluid in the Bowman’s
Capsule is the nephral filtrate and it is pushed out of the capsule into the proximinal tubule.
When the nephric filtrate enters the proximinal tubule, re-absorbtion begins.Means of active
and passive transport draw water, glucose, amino acids and ions from the filtrate into the
surrounding cells. From here the materials return to the bloodstream. Fluid moves to loop of
Henle which removes water through osmosis.
- Fluid from nephrons moves from distal tubules into a common collecting duct which carries
what is now urine to the renal pelvis.
Disorders:
- Kidney failure: Waste begins to accumulate in blood and is treated by dialysis.
- UTI: Painful urination etc.
-
Immune system:
Barriers –
a) Cell mediated
a. Macrophage connects the disease antigen to its own protein and puts it on the cell
surface membrane.
b. Helper T-cells that have matching shape attach and secrete chemicals that attract and
activate other cells, particularly cytotoxic t-cells.
c. Matching killer T-cells are stimulated to divide and make clones.
d. Killer T- cells are matched to the pathogen and each can kill many infected cells.
b) Antibody mediated
a. Macrophages do the activating but they activate B-cells using protein complexes on
their surface.
b. At the same time, they are activating Helper-T cells that connect with B-cells from a and
stimulate them to divide many times.
c. A clone of B-cells is produced once helper T-cells stimulate and activate b-CELLS. These
new cells are plasma cells.
d. Some clone cells become memory cells and can allow the body to respond faster to the
same infection.
e. Plasma cells become antibody producing factories.
Deficiencies: