SOIL MECHANICS

CIEN 3134

CHAPTER 5
SECTION 5.9 5.13

GROUP 16

De Leon, Arsencel Dominic

Martinez, Alcy Jay
Sangcap, Dustin Pierre
Tan Jr. Eduardo

5.9 POREWATER PRESSURE UNDER

AXISYMMETRIC UNDRAINED LOADING

The porewater pressure changes in soils are due to the changes in mean total and
deviatoric stresses. Skempton (1954) proposed the following equation to determine
the porewater pressure under axisymmetric conditions:

u=B [ 3 + A ( 1 3 ) ]

(eq.5.44)

Table 5.2 Af Values

where

3 is the increase in lateral principal stress,

1 3 is the deviatoric

stress increase, B is a coefficient indicating the level of saturation, and A is an excess

porewater pressure coefficient. The A coefficient is due to the deviatoric stress. The
coefficient B is 1 for saturated soils and 0 for dry soils. However, B is not directly
correlated with saturation except at high values of saturation (S > 90%). At failure,

A= A f =

ud
1 3

where

u d is the change in excess porewater pressure resulting from changes in

deviatoric (shear) stresses. Experimental results of Af presented by Skempton (1954)

are shown in Table 10.5. The coefficient A was found to be dependent on the over
consolidation ratio (OCR). A typical variation of Af with OCR is shown in Figure 5.25.
Equation (5.44) is very useful in determining whether a soil is saturated in an
axisymmetric test. Let us manipulate Equation (5.44) by dividing both sides by

3 , resulting in

[ (

ud
1
=B 1+ A
1
3
3

During isotropic consolidation,

)]

(eq. 5.46)

3= 1 and Equation. (5.46) becomes

u
=B
3
If a soil is saturated, then B = 1 and u =

3 . That is, if we increase the

consolidation stress or confining pressure by 3, the instantaneous excess

porewater pressure change must be equal to the increase of confining pressure.
Equation (5.47) then provides a basis to evaluate the level of saturation of a soil
sample in an axisymmetric test. The coefficients A and B are referred to as
Skemptons porewater pressure coefficients.

The essential points are:

1. Under an axisymmetric loading condition, the porewater pressure can be
predicted using Skemptons porewater pressure coefficients, A and B.
2. For a saturated soil, B = 1.

5.10 OTHER LABORATORY DEVICES TO

MEASURE SHEAR STRENGTH
There are several other types of apparatuses that are used to determine the shear
strength of soils in the laboratory. These apparatuses are, in general, more
sophisticated than the shear box and the triaxial apparatus.

5.10.1 Simple Shear Apparatuses

The purpose of a simple shear test is to determine shear strength parameters
and the stressstrain behavior of soils under loading conditions that closely simulate
plane strain and allow for the principal axes of stresses and strains to rotate. Principal
stress rotations also occur in the direct shear test, but are indeterminate. The stress
states in soils for many geotechnical structures are akin to simple shear.
There are two types of commercially available simple shear devices. One
deforms an initial cuboidal sample under plane strain conditions into a parallelepiped
(Figure 5.26a). The sample is contained in a box made by stacking square hollow
plates between two platens. The top platen can be maintained at a fixed height for
constant-volume tests or allowed to move vertically to permit volume change to
occur (constant load test). By displacing the bottom of the box relative to the top, the
soil is transformed from a cube to a parallelepiped.
A load cell mounted on the top platen measures the excess porewater
pressures. The lateral stresses are deduced from one of the hollow plates outfitted
with strain gages. The stresses and strains deduced from measurements in the
cuboidal simple shear apparatus are shown in Figure 526b. If the excess porewater
pressures are measured in undrained (constant-volume) tests, then the effective
stresses can be determined.
The other apparatus tests a cylindrical sample whose vertical side is enclosed
by a wire-reinforced rubber membrane (Figure 5.26c). Rigid, rough metal plates are
placed at the top and bottom of the sample. Displacing the top of the sample relative
to the bottom deforms the sample. The vertical and horizontal loads (usually on the
top boundary) as well as displacements on the boundaries are measured, and thus
the average normal and shear stresses and boundary strains can be deduced. In the
cylindrical apparatus, the stresses measured are
referred to as direct simple shear.

and

zx,

and the test is

FIGURE
5.26

Cuboidal simple shear apparatus: (a) simple shear box, (b) stresses imposed on samples, and
(c) direct simple shear.

Simple shear apparatuses do not subject the sample as a whole to uniform stresses
and strains.
However, the stresses and strains in the central region of the sample are uniform. In
simple shear, the strains are

x= y=0
, z= z / H o , and zx = x / H o . A

zx versus zx is used to determine G.

The shear displacement x must be applied in small increments to comply with
plot of shear stress

the above definition. The principal strains from Equations (3.35) and (3.36) are

The dilation angle is determined from Equation (5.10).

5.10.2 True Triaxial Apparatus

The purpose of a true triaxial test is to determine soil behavior and properties
by loading the soil in three dimensions. In a true triaxial test, a cuboidal sample is
subjected to independent displacements or stresses on three Cartesian axes.
Displacements are applied through a system of rigid metal plates moving
perpendicularly and tangentially to each face, as shown by the arrows in Figure

5.27a.

FIGURE 5.27 Schematic of true triaxial cell and stresses imposed on a sample of soil.

Pressure transducers are fixed to the inside of the faces to measure the three
principal stresses. Like the conventional triaxial apparatus, the directions of principal
stresses are prescribed and can only be changed instantaneously through an angle of
900. The stresses and strains that can be measured in a true triaxial test are shown in
Figure 5.27b.

5.10.3 Hollow-Cylinder Apparatus

The purpose of a hollow-cylinder test is to determine soil properties from a
variety of plane strain stress paths. In the hollow-cylinder apparatus (Figure 10.30a),
a hollow, thin-walled cylindrical sample is enclosed in a pressure chamber and can be
subjected to vertical loads or displacements, radial stresses on the inner and outer
cylindrical surfaces, and a torque, as shown in Figure 5.28b.
The vertical stress acting on a typical element of soil in this device is

z=

Pz
A

If the internal and external radial pressures are equal, then

r =
The shearing stress applied is

z =

3M
2 (r 32 r 31)
where M is the applied torque and r1 and r3 are the inner and outer radii. We can
obtain

' p , ' cs , su, and G from the hollow-cylinder test.

FIGURE 5.28 (a) Hollow-cylinder cell and (b) stresses on an element of soil.

5.11 FIELD TESTS

5.11.1 Vane Shear Test (VST)
The shear vane device consists of four thin metal blades welded orthogonally
(900) to a rod (Figure 5.29). The vane is pushed, usually from the bottom of a
borehole, to the desired depth. A torque is applied at a rate of 6 0 per minute by a
torque head device located above the soil surface and attached to the shear vane
rod. After the maximum torque is obtained, the shear vane is rotated an additional 8
to 10 revolutions to measure the residual torque, Tres. The ratio of the maximum
torque to the residual torque is the soil sensitivity, St, where

St =

T max
Tr
Sensitivity is a measure of the reduction of undrained shear strength due to
soil disturbance. The results of a vane shear test are displayed as undrained or vane
shear strength versus depth.
The VST is simple, inexpensive, and quick to perform, and the equipment is
widely available. The insertion of the vane causes soil remolding. Higher blade
thickness results in greater remolding and lower soil strengths. The blade thickness
should not exceed 5% of the vane diameter. Errors in the measurements of the
torque include excessive friction, variable rotation, and calibration. The VST cannot
be used for coarse-grained soils and very stiff clays.

FIGURE 5.29 Vane shear tester. (Source:

Professor Paul Mayne, Georgia Tech.)

5.11.2 The Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

The standard penetration test (SPT) was developed circa 1927 and it is
perhaps the most popular field test. The SPT is performed by driving a standard split
spoon sampler into the ground by blows from a drop hammer of mass 63.5 kg falling
760 mm (Figure 3.7). The sampler is driven 152 mm (6 in.) into the soil at the bottom

of a borehole, and the number of blows (N) required to drive it an additional 304 mm
is counted. The number of blows (N) is called the standard penetration number.
The word standard is a misnomer for the standard penetration test. Several
methods are used in different parts of the world to release the hammer. Also,
different types of anvils, rods, and rod lengths are prevalent. Various corrections are
applied to the N values to account for energy losses, overburden pressure, rod
length, and so on. It is customary to correct the N values to a rod energy ratio of
60%. The rod energy ratio is the ratio of the energy delivered to the split spoon
sampler to the free-falling energy of the hammer. The corrected N values are denoted
as N60 and given as:

( ER60 )=NC

N 60=

where ERr is the energy ratio and CE is the 60% rod energy ratio correction factor.
Correction factors for rod lengths, sampler type, borehole diameter, and equipment
(60% rod energy ratio correction) are given in Table 3.4. We can write a composite
correction factor, CRSBE, for the correction factors given in Table 3.4 as
CRSBE = CRCSCBCE

Results from SPT have been correlated to several soil parameters. Most of these
correlations are weak. Typical correlation among N values, relative density, and

'

are given in Tables 10.6 and 10.7. You should be cautious in using the correlation in
Table 10.6. SPTs are not recommended for fine-grained soils, so the correlation shown
in Table 10.7 should be used only to provide an assessment of the relative shear
strength of fine-grained soils.

5.11.3 The Dutch Cone Penetrometer Test (CPT) and Piezocone

The Dutch cone penetrometer is a cone with a maximum area of 10cm 2 that is
attached to a rod. An outer sleeve encloses the rod (Figure 3.8a). The thrusts
required to drive the cone and the sleeve into the ground are measured
independently so that the end resistance or cone resistance and side friction or
sleeve resistance may be estimated separately. Although originally developed for the
design of piles, the cone has also been used to estimate the bearing capacity and
settlement of foundations.
The piezocone is a Dutch cone penetrometer that has porous elements
inserted into the cone or sleeve to allow for pore water pressure measurements (Fig.
5.31b).
The cone resistance qc is normally correlated with the undrained shear
strength. Several adjustments are made to qc. One correlation equation is

S u=

q c z
Nk
where Nk is a cone factor that depends on the geometry of the cone and the rate of
penetration. Average values of Nk as a function of plasticity index can be estimated
from

N k =19

I p10
; I p >10
5

Results of cone penetrometer tests have been correlated with the peak friction angle.
A number of correlations exist. Based on published data for sand (Robertson and
Campanella, 1983), you can estimate

' p=35 +11.5 log

'

qc
30 ' zo

using

; 25

<' p <50

The essential points are:

1. Various field tests are used to determine soil strength parameters.
2. You should be cautious in using these correlations of field test results, especially
SPT, with soil strength parameters in design.

5.12 EMPIRICAL RELATIONSHIPS FOR

SHEAR STRENGTH PARAMETERS
Some suggested empirical relationships for the shear strength of soils are shown in
Table 10.8. These relationships should only be used as a guide and in preliminary design
calculations.

5.13 SUMMARY

The strength of soils is interpreted using four failure criteria. Each criterion is suitable
for a certain class of problem. For example, Coulomb failure criterion is best used in
situations where planar slip planes may develop. All soils, regardless of their initial state of
stress, will reach a critical state characterized by continuous shearing at constant shear-tonormal-effective-stress ratio and constant volume.
The initial void ratio of a soil and the normal effective stresses determine whether the
soil will dilate or not. Dilating soils often exhibit (1) a peak shear stress and then strainsoften to a constant shear stress, and (2) initial contraction followed by expansion toward a
critical void ratio. Non-dilating soils (1) show a gradual increase of shear stress, ultimately
reaching a constant shear stress, and (2) contract toward a critical void ratio. The shear
strength parameters are the friction angles (
for undrained conditions. Only

cs

and

cs)

for drained conditions and su

is a fundamental soil strength parameter.

A number of laboratory and field tests are available to determine the shear strength
parameters. All these tests have shortcomings. You should use careful judgment in deciding
what test should be used for a particular project. Also, you must select the appropriate
failure criterion to interpret the test results.