Work-Life Balance as Source of Job Dissatisfaction and Withdrawal Attitudes

An Exploratory Study on the Views of Male Workers

Joanna Hughes Human Resources Department, NHS Tayside-Acute Services Division, Ninewells
Hospital, Dundee, UK, and Nikos Bozionelos Durham Business School, Durham, UK
Purpose The purpose of this article is to explore the views of male workers in a male
dominated occupation on issues that pertain to work-life balance.
Design/methodology/approach The study was qualitative in nature. Semi-structured
interviews were conducted with 20 bus drivers employed by a single company in order to
identify their perceptions on the following::
Whether issues related to work-life balance were sources of concern and dissatisfaction;
How concern over issues related to work-life balance was compared to other sources of concern
and dissatisfaction; and
Whether issues related to work-life balance were linked with withdrawal attitudes and
behaviors.
Findings It emerged that work-life imbalance was not only a source of concern, but also that it
was the major source of dissatisfaction for participants. Furthermore, participants made a clear
connection between problems with work-life balance and withdrawal behaviors, including
turnover and non-genuine sick absence.

Understanding the Link between Work Life Balance Practices and

Organizational Outcomes in SMEs
The Mediating Effect Of A Supportive Culture
David Cegarra-Leiva, M. Eugenia Sanchez-Vidal and Juan Gabriel Cegarra-Navarro
Economa de la Empresa, Universidad Politecnica de Cartagena/Facultad de Ciencias de la
Empresa, Cartagena, Spain
Purpose This study aims to explore the impact of the availability of work life balance (WLB)
practices on organizational outcomes in small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) mediated by
the existence of a culture that supports WLB.
Design/methodology/approach An empirical study was performed with a sample of 229
SMEs representing the metal industry sector of Southeast Spain.
The following Hypothesis were tested:
H1. The greater the availability of WLB practices for employees in the organization the higher
the level of organizational outcomes.
H2. WLB culture will mediate the relationship between the availability of WLB practices for
employees and organizational outcomes.
All measures in this research result from the combination of different items measured on sevenpoint scales.
Method- A principal factor analysis was carried with the WLB variables (practices and
supportive culture) yielding five factors. The first factor is composed of the items of WLB
supportive culture whereas the other four factors divide the WLB practices into four different
categories called:
(1) Flexible work practices;
(2) work leave;
(3) Spatial flexibility; and
(4) WLB information.
Findings The findings show that a WLB supportive culture mediates the effect of the
availability of WLB practices on organizational performance.

Work-Life Balance, Travel-To-Work, and the Dual Career Household

Dan Wheatley Nottingham Business School, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to reflect on the underlying conflicts associated with
current work-life balance and travel-to-work policies, as employed in organizations in the UK.
Design/methodology/approach A mixed method approach is used to ascertain whether
professional work-group cultures limit the effectiveness of work-life balance policy, and the
extent to which spill-over is present between work-life balance and transport preferences,
especially car use. These concerns are explored empirically using an in-depth local level
quantitative-qualitative case study of Greater Nottingham (a regional employment centre in the
East Midlands region of England).
Answers to two research questions were investigated:
RQ1. Do professional work-group cultures limit the effectiveness of work-life balance policy,
perpetuating work-life imbalance.
RQ2. To what extent is negative spillover present between work-life balance and transport
preferences, especially car use?
Findings The evidence presented in this paper suggests: work-group cultures prevent
employees, especially women, from achieving work-life balance; there is spill-over between
work and non-work activities, creating time allocation challenges, and stress, for dual career
households attempting to achieve desired work-life balance; and specific conflicts are reported in
balancing work with travel-to-work, especially car parking.

Work and Life: Can Employee Representation Influence Balance?

Jeff Hyman Department of Management Studies, University of Aberdeen,
Aberdeen, UK, and Juliette Summers
Department of Management, University of Stirling, Stirling, UK
Purpose The purpose of this article is to assess the influence of different forms of
organizational representation on the provision of work-life balance employment policies.
Design/methodology/approach The article uses on-site semi-structured interviews with
employees, HR and line managers and trade union representatives in four case studies as well as
survey responses from a total of 17 institutions in the financial services sector.
Findings Employees do influence work-life balance issues in the financial services sector, and
work-life balance initiatives had greater breadth, codification and quality where independent
unions were recognized. In all cases however, the extent of departure from minimal statutory
levels of provision was not great.

Employee Availability for Work and Family: Three Swedish Case Studies
Ann Bergman Karlstad University, Karlstad, Sweden, and Jean Gardiner
Leeds University Business School, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
Purpose The purpose of this article is to explore the concept of availability, both empirically
and theoretically, in the context of three Swedish organizations, and identifies the structural
influences on availability patterns for work and family.
Design/methodology/approach The article is based on quantitative case studies using
employer records and an employee questionnaire in three organizations(Paper and Pulp Mill, a
Bank, A university). Multivariate descriptive statistics and multivariate logistic regression are
used to illustrate and analyze patterns of availability for work and family.
Findings The descriptive data demonstrate the influence of the organizational context and type
of production process, as well as gender, on availability patterns. Patterns of work availability
appeared to differ across the organizations to a greater extent than patterns of family availability,
which were highly gendered. The logistic regression results indicated that: occupation was a
significant influence on both temporal and spatial availability patterns across the organizations;
gender was the most significant influence on time spent on household work and part-time
working for parents with young children; age of employees and age of employees children were
the most significant factors influencing the use of time off work for family

Work and Family Balance through Equal Employment Opportunity

Programmes And Agreement Making In Australia
John Burgess and Lindy Henderson
University of Newcastle, Newcastle, Australia, and Glenda Strachan Department of
Management, Griffith University, Nathan, Australia
Purpose The purpose of this article is to assess the ability of formal equal employment
opportunity (EEO) programmes and workplace agreement making to facilitate work and family
balance for women workers in Australia.
Design/methodology/approach This article uses documentary analysis and semi-structured
interviews in six Australian organizations that are required to develop formal EEO programmes.
Findings Formal EEO programmes and agreement making are limited in their ability to
promote work and family-friendly arrangements at the workplace. Informal arrangements and
managerial discretion are important in realizing work and care balance.

Employers Attitudes and Actions towards the Extension of Working Lives In

Europe
Wieteke S. Conen Department of Law, Economics and Governance, Utrecht University,
Utrecht, the Netherlands and Netherlands Interdisciplinary Demographic Institute (NIDI), The
Hague, the Netherlands
Ke`ne Henkens Netherlands Interdisciplinary Demographic Institute (NIDI), The Hague,
The Netherlands and Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences, Tilburg University, Tilburg,
the Netherlands, and
Joop Schippers Department of Law, Economics and Governance, Utrecht University,
Utrecht, the Netherlands
Purpose Although policymakers have put great efforts into the promotion of older workers
labour force participation, quantitative empirical knowledge about employers views towards
extension of working lives is limited. The purpose of this paper is to improve the understanding
of employers attitudes and actions towards extension of working lives, by examining
recruitment and retention behavior towards older workers, employers views on the
consequences of an ageing workforce, organizational policies, and what governments can do to
extend working lives.
Design/methodology/approach The authors analyze comparative surveys (through
questionnaires) administered to employers in Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands,
Poland, Sweden and the UK in 2009.
Findings It is found that a minority of employers has applied measures to recruit or retain
older workers, and employers rather retain than hire older workers. A considerable share of
employers, albeit to different degrees per country, associate the ageing of their staff with a
growing gap between labour costs and productivity. Employers expecting a larger gap do not
apply more organizational measures to either increase productivity or adjust the cost-productivity
balance. Employers may think the cost-productivity issue is partly for governments to solve;
employers expecting a larger cost productivity gap consider wage subsidies to be an effective
measure to extend working lives.

Women and Work-Life Balance: Is Home-Based Business Ownership the

Solution?
Elizabeth Walker, Calvin Wang and Janice Redmond
Small and Medium Enterprise Research Centre, Edith Cowan University,
Joondalup, Australia

Purpose This paper seeks to explore self-employment through home-based business ownership
as a potential solution to the inter-role conflict experienced by women attempting to balance dual
work and family roles.
Design/methodology/approach Home-based businesses (n626) were surveyed in Western
Australia as part of a larger national study. Data were collected on operator and business
characteristics, and specific home-based business issues (e.g. reasons for preferring a home-base,
management and planning, growth facilitators and barriers). Four-way comparisons investigating
the dynamics of home-based business ownership between male and female operators and
operators with and without dependants were made.
Findings The attraction of home-based business ownership is driven predominantly by the
flexibility afforded to lifestyle and the ability to balance work and family. While these
advantages were more salient for women than for men, gender per se was not a determining
factor in why operators started a home-based business. The more significant determining factor
was the issue of dependants.

Work-Life Balance in the Australian and New Zealand Surveying Profession

Sara J. Wilkinson Deakin University, Melbourne, Australia
Purpose This paper aims to establish and illustrate the levels of awareness of work-life balance
policies within the surveying profession in Australia and New Zealand. The culture and
characteristics of the Australian and New Zealand work force are to be identified. The key
aspects included in work-life balance policies are to be illustrated and the perceived benefits for
the surveying profession are to be noted. The paper seeks to posit that it is vital to comprehend
the levels of awareness of work-life balance issues within the surveying profession first, so that
benchmarking may occur over time within the profession and second, that comparisons may be
drawn with other professions.
Design/methodology/approach There is a growing body of research into work-life balance
and the built environment professions. Using a questionnaire survey of the whole RICS qualified
surveying profession in Australia and New Zealand, this paper identifies the awareness of worklife balance benefits within the surveying profession.
Findings This research provides evidence that awareness of the issues and options is unevenly
spread amongst professional surveyors in the region. With shortages of professionals and an
active economy the pressures on existing employees looks set to rise and therefore this is an area
which needs to be benchmarked and revisited with a view to adopting best practice throughout
the sector. The implications are that employers ignore work-life balance issues at their peril.

Relationship between Work-Family Conflict and Quality Of Life

An Investigation into the Role Of Social Support
Samsinar Md-Sidin and Murali Sambasivan Graduate School of Management, Universiti Putra
Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia, and Izhairi Ismail Kulliyyah of Economics and Management
Sciences, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Purpose The main purpose of this study is to link work-family conflict, quality of work and
non-work lives, quality of life and social support (supervisor and spouse supports). Specifically,
it seeks to address three different roles of social support that have theoretical and empirical
support and the mediating roles of quality of work life and quality of non-work life.
Design/methodology/approach The SEM-based approach has been used to study supervisor
and spouse supports as moderators between work-family conflict and quality of life; independent
variables of work-family conflict; independent variables of quality of life. The study has been
carried out in Malaysia.
The following were the Hypothesis:
H1. Individual perception of work-family conflict will be negatively related to the individual
perception of quality of work life.
H2. Individual perception of work-family conflict will be negatively related to the individual
perception of quality of non-work life.
H3. Individual perception of work-family conflict will be negatively related to the individual
perception of quality of life.
H4. Individual perceptions of quality of work life and quality of non-work life will mediate the
relationship between individual perceptions of work-family conflict and quality of life.
H5. Individual perceptions of supervisor and spouse supports will moderate the relationship
between individual perceptions of work-family conflict and quality of life
H6. Individual perceptions of supervisor and spouse supports will be independent variables of
individual perception of work-family conflict.
H7. Individual perceptions of supervisor and spouse supports will be independent variables of
individual perception of quality of life.
Descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) was used
Findings The main findings are:
(H1) supports the negative relationship between work-family conflict and quality of work life. T
(H2) supports the negative relationship between work-family conflict and quality of non-work
life. The result indicates a strong negative relationship between these variables.
(H3) establishes a strong negative relationship between work-family conflict and quality of life.
(H4) establishes the mediating roles of quality of work life and non-work life between workfamily conflict and quality of life.
(1) work-family conflict has a negative relationship on the quality of life
(2) Quality of work life and quality of non-work life mediates the relationship between workfamily conflict and quality of life. Our study has shown that of the total impact of workfamily conflict on quality of life, 60 percent can be attributed to the direct effect, and 40
percent to the mediation effects; and
(3) Supervisor support and spouse support play important roles in enhancing the quality of
life of an individual.

Work-Family Enrichment as a Mediator between Organizational

Interventions for Work-Life Balance and Job Outcomes
Rupashree Baral and Shivganesh Bhargava
Shailesh J. Mehta School of Management, Indian Institute of Technology, Mumbai, India
Purpose This paper aims to examine the role of work-family enrichment in the relationships
between organizational interventions for work-life balance (job characteristics, work-life benefits
and policies, supervisor support and work-family culture) and job outcomes (job satisfaction,
affective commitment and organizational citizenship behavior). It is hypothesized that
organizational interventions for work-life balance will be positively related to job outcomes and
work-to-family enrichment will mediate these relationships.
Design/methodology/approach Data were collected from 216 managerial employees through
a structured questionnaire from four organizations in India representing manufacturing and
information technology (IT) sectors. Analysis was done using t-test and ANOVA test to estimate
if there were any significant mean differences in any of the dependent variables since, data were
collected from two different sectors (manufacturing and information technology) and four
different organizations and multiple regressions.
The following were the hypothesis:
H1. Job characteristics will be positively related to: (a) job satisfaction; (b) organizational
commitment; and (c) organizational citizenship behavior.
H1d. Job characteristics will be positively related to work-to-family enrichment
H2. Work-life benefits and policies (WLBPs) will be positively related to (a) job satisfaction, (b)
organizational commitment and (c) organizational citizenship behavior.
H2d. Work-life benefits and policies (WLBPs) will be positively related to work-to-family
enrichment.
H3. Work-family culture will be positively related to (a) job satisfaction, (b) affective
commitment and (c) organizational citizenship behavior.
H3d. Work-family culture will be positively related to work-to-family enrichment.
H4. Supervisor support will be positively related to (a) job satisfaction, (b) organizational
commitment and (c) organizational citizenship behavior.
H4d. Supervisor support will be positively related to work-to-family enrichment.
H5. Work-to-family enrichment will mediate the relationships between job characteristics and (a)
job satisfaction, (b) organizational commitment and (c) OCB.
H6. Work-to-family enrichment will mediate the relationships between WLBPs and (a) job
satisfaction, (b) organizational commitment and (c) OCB.
H7. Work-to-family enrichment will mediate the relationships between work-family culture and
(a) job satisfaction, (b) organizational commitment and (c) OCB.
H8. Work-to-family enrichment will mediate the relationships between supervisor support and
(a) job satisfaction, (b) organizational commitment and (c) OCB.
Findings Job characteristics were positively related to all the measures of job outcomes.
Supervisor support and work-family culture were positively related to job satisfaction and
affective commitment. No significant association was found between work-life benefits and
policies (WLBPs) and any of the job outcome measures. Job characteristics and supervisor
support were positively related to work-to-family enrichment. Work-to-family enrichment

mediated the relationships between job characteristics and all job outcomes and between
supervisor support and affective commitment.

Comparing Telework Locations and Traditional Work Arrangements

Differences in Work-Life Balance Support, Job Satisfaction, and Inclusion
Valerie J. Morganson, Debra A. Major and Kurt L. Oborn
Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia, USA
Jennifer M. Verive White Rabbit Consulting, Carson City, Nevada, USA, and
Michelle P. Heelan Telecommuting Advantage Group, San Francisco, California, USA
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine differences in work-life balance (WLB)
support, job satisfaction, and inclusion as a function of work location.
Design/methodology/approach Web-based survey data were provided by 578 employees
working at one of four locations (main office, client location, satellite office, and home).
Multiple regression analyses were used to identify differences in WLB support, job satisfaction,
and inclusion across employees working at the four locations.
The following Hypothesis were tested:
H1. Individuals working from home will report greater perceptions of WLB support than those
working from a (a) satellite location, (b) the main office, or (c) a client location.
H2a. Individuals working from home and from the main office will report similar levels of job
satisfaction.
H2b. Individuals working from home will report greater job satisfaction than those working from
(bi) a satellite office or (bii) a client location.
H3. Individuals working from (a) home, (b) a satellite office, or (c) a client location will report
lower workplace inclusion than individuals working from the main office.
Findings Results showed that main office and home-based workers had similar high levels of
WLB support and job satisfaction. Main office workers reported higher levels of WLB support
than satellite and client-based workers. Additionally, main office workers reported the highest
levels of workplace inclusion.

Comparing Work-Life Balance In Spanish And Latin-American Countries

Sandra Idrovo Carlier INALDE Business School, Universidad de La Sabana, Bogota, Colombia
Consuelo Leon Llorente Universitat Internacional de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain, and
Marc Grau Grau International Center for Work and Family, IESE Business School,
Universidad de Navarra, Barcelona, Spain
Purpose This paper aims to determine the level of awareness and implementation of familyresponsible parameters: policies, enablers, practices, and culture, in Spanish and Latin-American
companies, and how they impact work-life balance.
Design/methodology/approach The study uses data from different national IESEs
Family-Responsible Employer Index surveys in Spain (1,000 companies) and five LatinAmerican countries (1,155 companies), Brazil, Chile, Colombia, El Salvador and Peru, done
between 2006 and 2008. This is a structured questionnaire that assesses the stage of development
the organization is in regarding four main family-responsible parameters: policies, enablers,
practices, and culture.
Findings Latin-American countries get a slightly higher number of companies that are fully
supportive of work-family balance environment than Spain, but with lesser formal policies
implemented and a stronger presence of enablers and practices. Policies are important but might
not be as effective if not accompanied by the example of managers and staff as well as by a deep
understanding of the cultural value placed by them on work, family and personal life.

Using Focus Groups as a Tool to Develop a Hospitality Work-Life Research

Study
John W. ONeill School of Hospitality Management, the Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
Purpose This paper seeks to describe how the results of the qualitative research method of
focus groups may be used as conceptual data at the onset of a research study to inform
researchers regarding relevant issues for future more in-depth quantitative study.
Design/methodology/approach Seven focus group sessions with a total of 50 participants
were conducted, each focus group with six to eight participants. All focus groups included the
homogeneous participants of new entrants to the hospitality industry. Focus group questions
were inductive and naturalistic and centered on career expectations and work-life issues.
Sessions averaged 1 hour and 15 minutes and were conducted by trained graduate students.
Findings The paper suggests that long, unpredictable hours create both work-related and nonwork stress. Further, there is general agreement regarding the stressors and benefits associated
with working in the hospitality industry.

Work/Life Balance: Senior Management Champions or Laggards?

Eileen Drew Department of Statistics/Centre for Gender and Womens Studies, Trinity College,
Dublin, Ireland, and Eamonn M. Murtagh Commission for Energy Regulation, Dublin, Ireland
Purpose This paper seeks to examine the experience of, and attitudes towards, work/life
balance (WLB) by female and male senior managers in a major Irish organization for which
WLB is now a strategic corporate objective.
Design/methodology/approach Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected using an
electronic questionnaire survey designed to obtain the views of female and male managers on
strategies that would contribute to a better gender balance, promote diversity and raise leadership
capacity in the organization. Work/life balance emerged as a major issue in impeding the career
progression of female managers. All female managers and a sample of male managers were
surveyed. This paper concentrates on the responses of the two senior management grades below
Executive Director on the issue and strategies to promote work/life balance. Additional
qualitative data were drawn from interviews (with eight women and five men) and three focus
group sessions with all male, all female and mixed gender groups.
Findings The greatest obstacle to achieving WLB is seen as the long hours culture in which
availing one of flexible options (e.g. working from home/reduced hours/flexitime) is
incompatible with holding a senior management post. Many of the senior men have followed the
breadwinner model by being able to delegate family and caring activities to their wives. This
option has not been possible for the majority of women in senior posts. Hence, men seek WLB to
resolve commuting/working time issues. Women want to avail themselves of more flexible
arrangements for family/quality of life reasons. Both men and women in senior management
recognize that their own careers would be seriously jeopardized by taking up WLB
arrangements.

The Relationship of Social Support to the Work-Family Balance and Work

Outcomes of Midlife Women
Wendy C. Marcinkus Carroll School of Management, Boston College, Chestnut Hill,
Massachusetts, USA Karen S. Whelan-Berry School of Business, Utah Valley State College,
Orem, Utah, USA, and Judith R. Gordon Carroll School of Management, Boston College,
Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts, USA
Purpose This paper seeks to examine the relationship of a network of social support for
midlife women with their attitudes toward work-family balance and work outcomes, including
job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and career accomplishment.
Design/methodology/approach A total of 1,089 women between the ages of 35 and 50 across
three organizations were surveyed and then 72 of them interviewed. The study addresses two
research questions:
RQ1. Is social support associated with work-family balance and work outcomes for midlife
women?
RQ2. What is the nature of social support for working women at midlife?
The following hypotheses were tested:
H1a. Work-based social support is positively associated with work-family balance for midlife
working women.
H1b. Personal social support is positively associated with work-family balance for midlife
working women.
H2a. Work-based social support is positively associated with the work outcomes of job
satisfaction, organizational commitment, and career accomplishment for midlife working
women.
H2b. Personal social support is positively associated with the work outcomes of job satisfaction,
career accomplishment, and organizational commitment for midlife working women.
H3a. Work-family balance mediates the relationship between work-based social support and the
work outcomes of job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and career accomplishment for
midlife working women.
H3b. Work-family balance mediates the relationship between personal social support and the
work outcomes of job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and career accomplishment for
midlife working women.
The analysis was done using ANNOVA and hierarchical regression. Variables that were taken
into consideration were Social support, Work-family balance, Job satisfaction, Organizational
commitment, Career accomplishment, Control variables
Findings Results indicate that the women generally received more personal social support than
work-based social support and more instrumental than expressive support from all sources.
Work-based social support was positively associated with job satisfaction, organizational
commitment, and career accomplishment; personal social support was also associated with job
satisfaction and organizational commitment. Work-family balance may partially mediate the
relationship between social support and work outcomes.

A Comparative Analysis of the Use of Work-Life Balance Practices in Europe

Do Practices Enhance Females Career Advancement?
Caroline Straub Institute for Labor Studies, ESADE, Universitat Ramon Llull, Barcelona, Spain
Purpose The objectives of this study are: to identify and compare companies involvement
with work-life balance practices and policies in 14 European countries and to test whether these
practices actually enhance the career advancement of women to senior management positions.
Design/methodology/approach A comparative descriptive analysis shows differences in worklife balance practices and policies and womens participation in the workforce between countries.
In order to test whether work-life balance practices and policies enhance the career advancement
of women to senior management positions a multiple regression analysis is performed.
Findings There are certain differences in the provision of work-life balance practices and
womens participation in the labour force among European companies. A positive influence of
work-life balance policies and practices on womens career advancement into senior
management positions was confirmed in only one case the payment of an additional amount for
maternity leave. All other practices were shown to have no significant impact or a significant
negative relationship.

The Job Satisfaction of UK Architects and Relationships with Work-Life

Balance and Turnover Intentions
Katherine J.C. Sang Department of Human Sciences, Loughborough University,
Loughborough, UK Stephen G. Ison and Andrew R.J. Dainty Department of Civil and Building
Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK
Purpose There is evidence that those working within the construction industry are exposed to a
number of stressors which potentially negatively impact well-being, namely; long working
hours, high workload, poor work-life balance, low sense of professional worth and lack of job
security. Additionally there is some evidence architects may also be vulnerable to an erosion of
professional status, low pay and limited scope to use their creative skills. This paper aims to
explore the job satisfaction of architects who are currently employed within the UK.
Design/methodology/approach A questionnaire is used to elicit data from 110 practicing
architects on their occupational well-being and work-life balance.
Findings The results reveal that between 20 and 40 percent of respondents are dissatisfied with
their rate of pay, practice management, promotion prospects, working hours and opportunity to
use their abilities. Additionally the majority of respondents report some work-life balance
difficulties and approximately one-third were considering leaving their current employer. The
causes of poor well-being are associated with organizational factors rather than factors intrinsic
to the work of an architect. Further analysis demonstrates that those who are self employed may
experience better occupational well-being.

Preferences for Working Hours over Life Course among Japanese

Manufacturing Workers
Tetsushi Fujimoto Nanzan University, Nagoya, Japan
Purpose The paper sets out to explore how Japanese workers want to allocate their time to
work and private life in different stages of life. To examine whether they prefer to reduce hours
in paid work and spend more time on family and leisure.
Design/methodology/approach A statistical analysis was conducted using data from a survey
conducted among 3,800 Japanese automotive workers in 2000. Analysis consists of mean
comparisons of ideal proportion of work across different stages of life, and comparison of
attitudes toward taking leave by age and job type.
Findings The results of this paper show that a majority of Japanese workers, regardless of age
and job type, have a strong preference to work constantly without major career disruptions
between ages 20 and 60, then reduce drastically the time spent in paid work after job retirement
at age 60. The results suggest that, although Japanese today increasingly recognize the
importance of integrating work and private life, deviation from the normalcy of work life, or
constant working over life course, is still unlikely to be welcome.

Workaholic Worker Type Differences in Work-Family Conflict

The Moderating Role of Supervisor Support and Flexible Work Scheduling
James A. Russo and Lea E. Waters Department of Management, University of Melbourne,
Melbourne, Australia
Purpose This study had three aims. 1. To examine the validity of the work holism triad as
compared to the work holism dyad. 2. To test the relationship between work holism and workfamily conflict. 3. To explore the three-way relationships between worker type, work-family
conflict (WFC) and supervisor support and flexible work schedules.
Design/methodology/approach Participants consisted of 169 workers employed in the legal
industry. The sample used was respondent-driven and questionnaires were self-administered.
Work holism was operationalized using two dimensions of the Spence and Robbins WorkBat:
first, drive to work and second, work enjoyment, which produced four worker types
(workaholics, enthusiastic workaholics, relaxed workers and uninvolved workers).
The following research questions were addressed:
Research Question 1. Is work involvement, as defined by the WorkBat, a reliable and meaningful
dimension of work holism?
Research Question 2. Should work holism be conceptualized as a triad or dyad?
The following hypotheses are presented.
H1. Worker type (workaholic, enthusiastic workaholic, uninvolved worker and relaxed worker)
will contribute significantly to work-family conflict; once demographic factors (marital status,
children, and gender), environmental factors (supervisory support and flexible work schedules)
and number of hours worked have been accounted for.
H2a. Workaholics will experience higher levels of work-family conflict compared with
enthusiastic workaholics, uninvolved workers and relaxed workers.
H2b. Enthusiastic workaholics will experience higher levels of work-family conflict compared
with uninvolved and relaxed workers.
H3a. The relationship between supervisor support and work-family conflict will be moderated by
worker type in that workaholics will not experience a decline in work-family conflict as
perceived levels of supervisor support increase.
H3b. Enthusiastic workaholics, uninvolved workers and relaxed workers will experience a
decline in work-family conflict as perceived levels of supervisor support increase.
H4a. The relationship between flexible work practices (i.e. the ability to alter weekly schedules)
and work-family conflict will be moderated by worker type such that workaholics will not
experience a decline in work-family conflict if they have the capacity to alter their schedules on a
weekly basis.
H4b. Enthusiastic workaholics, uninvolved workers and relaxed workers will experience a
decline in work-family conflict if they have the capacity to alter their schedules on a weekly
basis.
These questions were investigated via factor analysis, reliability analysis, ANNOVA and chisquare analysis.
Findings Support was found for McMillan et al.s dyad conceptualization of work holism as
opposed to Spence and Robbins triad model. Specifically it was found that the work
involvement subscale had low internal reliability and an unreliable factor structure. Results

demonstrated that worker type was significantly related to WFC. Specifically, workaholics and
enthusiastic workaholics experienced significantly more WFC than relaxed and uninvolved
workers. Regarding the three-way relationships, it was found that worker type moderated the
relationship between schedule flexibility and WFC. Specifically, it was found that enthusiastic
workaholics, in contrast to their workaholic counterparts, experienced declining WFC with
access to flexible scheduling. Supervisor support was not significant.

Gender and Work-Life Balance: A Phenomenological Study of Women

Entrepreneurs in Pakistan
Sumaira Rehman Management School, Superior University, Lahore, Pakistan, and
Muhammad Azam Roomi Centre for Womens Enterprise, Business School, University of
Bedfordshire, Luton, UK
Purpose Increased participation of women in the labor force creates challenges for them to
balance work and family obligations. The situation becomes more complicated in patriarchal
societies such as Pakistan due to womens stereotypical domestic roles, religious prescriptions as
well as cultural norms and values. This study aims to explore different influencing factors on
womens work and family roles in the unique Pakistani socio-economic and cultural
environment.
Design/methodology/approach Based on the interpretive phenomenological approach (IPA),
this study explores different influencing factors on womens work and family roles in the unique
Pakistani socio-economic and cultural environment. The methodology helped to analyse data
about challenges faced by women entrepreneurs to achieve work-life balance as well as to have
an insight about some of the techniques and effective strategies they use to balance work and
family obligation.
Findings The results show that among other motivational drivers to start their own businesses,
achieving work-life balance is one of the most significant ones. Their own businesses give them
flexibility, control and freedom to juggle with their family and social responsibilities. Lack of
sufficient time, gender bias, social and cultural norms as well as family responsibilities are the
most significant challenges women face to achieve balance in a patriarchal Islamic society.
Strategic planning, organizing and delegating are the most effective strategies women use to
cope with competing roles of work and family.

Work-Life Balance: An Exploratory Study of Supports and Barriersin a

Construction Project
Michelle Turner and Helen Lingard RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia, and
Valerie Francis Faculty of Architecture, Building and Planning, The University of Melbourne,
Parkville, Australia
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to explore employees perceptions of work-life balance
(WLB) in an Australian infrastructure construction project, using semi-structured focus groups.
Design/methodology/approach In total, 43 employees participated in the focus groups,
representing 50 per cent of the project workforce at the time. Focus groups explored employees
experiences of WLB during the planning and design stage of the project, as well as their
expectations for the management of WLB during the construction phase. this research sought to
develop hypotheses specifically relating to the experience of
WLB in projects through examining the following questions relating to WLB in a construction
project:
. What are the perceived barriers to WLB in the project?
. What are the perceived factors facilitating WLB in the project?
Findings Project culture, project resourcing and the schedule demands of the construction
stage of the project were identified as barriers for WLB, while participants believed that the
project alliance delivery model, flexibility of working hours and the project management
teams support for WLB would facilitate WLB in the project.

Is The Glass Ceiling Kept In Place In Sudan? Gendered Dilemma of the

Work-Life Balance
Samia Kargwell Eshal European University Brussels, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Purpose This paper has two-fold objectives: first, it presents female managers experience with
family-work dilemma. Second, it examines the priorities married female managers assign to the
commitments of their dual roles and the support they received from their organizations.
Design/methodology/approach This study was based on a case study, using a qualitative
approach and triangulation of methods. These include: interviews, observations, analysis of texts
and documents and autobiography. In-depth interviews were carried out with 26 male managers
in senior posts and 22 female managers in senior and middle management levels in two Federal
Ministries (Health and Education) located in Khartoum (the capital city of Sudan). interview
questions revolve around the following issues:
. Women managers experience with the work organizations;
. The career barriers confronting female managers;
. Organizational policies and practices affecting women managers career advancement;
. Reasons behind female under-representation in management; and
. Organizational processes and their influence on womens career advancement.
Examples of these questions are:
. What has been the effect of your family on your career development? How do you prioritize the
following according to their importance in your life: (career social recreation and family)?
. What facilities does the ministry provide to you? Are there additional facilities, which you think
the ministry should provide? For highlighting participants feelings towards their career; the
question is:
. How do you feel about your career development?
The narrative style (story-telling) was used to analyze the interview data.
Findings Results indicates that female managers interviewed give first priority to their families
and secondary importance to their job. Married women managers who have children sought the
assistance of others, (their extended families, servants, nannies and cooks). The priority married
women managers give to their families play a negative role in their career progression and
contributes to their under-representation at top management level.

Workaholism, Work Stress, Work-Life Imbalance: Exploring Genders Role

Shahnaz Aziz and Jamie Cunningham East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina, USA
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine potential differences between male and
female workaholics in relation to work stress and work-life imbalance; also to test for gender as a
moderator in the relation between workaholism with work stress and work-life imbalance.
Design/methodology/approach An exploratory approach was used to examine employees on
workaholism, work stress, and work-life imbalance. A separate variances t-test tested gender
differences in the study variables. Hierarchical regression analyses tested the potential moderator
effect of gender on the work stress-workaholism and work-life imbalance-workaholism relations.
Following were the hypothesis:
H1. Work stress will positively correlate with workaholism.
H2. Work-life imbalance will positively correlate with workaholism.
H3. Men will score higher than women on workaholism.
H4. Women workaholics will score higher than men on work stress and work-life
Imbalance
H5. Gender will moderate the relation between work stress and workaholism.
H6. Gender will moderate the relation between work-life imbalance and
workaholism
Findings It was found that work stress and work-life imbalance correlated with workaholism,
regardless of gender. Gender did not moderate the relations between workaholism with work
stress and work-life imbalance.

Life-Work Balance

Emotional Intelligence as a Crucial Component of Achieving both Personal

Life and Work Performance
Veronika Koubova and Aaron A. Buchko Department of Business Management and
Administration, Foster College of Business, Bradley University, Peoria, Illinois, USA
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to develop a conceptual linkage between life-work
balance and emotional intelligence (EI).
The purpose of this paper is to present a simple model that:
. Incorporates this ambiguity by allowing for a reciprocal effect (i.e. family can positively or
negatively influence ones performance in the work role, and work can positively or negatively
influence ones performance in the family role)within the work-life balance framework;
. Shows how family and personal life dominates over work life in terms of emotional intelligence
(EI) development; and
. Suggests that emotions coming from family and personal life tend to be stronger than those
found in work life.
Design/methodology/approach Based on a review of the literature, it is suggested that life
experiences contribute to the development of EI, which then moderates the individuals life-work
balance. The effect of emotions in an individuals personal life environment is of primary
importance in the development of EI, which influences the work environment. The effects of
work experience onones personal life are influenced significantly by the level of emotional
intelligence.
Findings The level of EI is viewed as central to developing an individuals life-work balance,
and the primary effect of ones personal life suggests that it is more appropriate to view work as
a component of overall life satisfaction; hence the use of the term life-work balance.