Journal of Management Development

Job characteristics, work attitudes and behaviors in a non-western context: Distributive

justice as a mediator
Hossam M. Abu Elanain

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Job characteristics, work

attitudes and behaviors in a
non-western context
Distributive justice as a mediator
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Hossam M. Abu Elanain

Department of Management, College of Business Administration,
University of Dubai, Dubai, United Arab Emirates

Job
characteristics

457
Received 14 September 2007
Revised 18 December 2007
Accepted 14 March 2008

Abstract
Purpose Previous studies on job characteristics have been performed mainly in Western contexts.
More empirical evidence is needed to understand the important job characteristics of positive job
outcomes in a non-Western context. Therefore, this research has two objectives: to assess the impact of
five job characteristics on work attitudes and behaviors in the UAE, and to test the mediating impact
of distributive justice on the job characteristics-work outcomes relationship.
Design/methodology/approach The study reports responses of 350 employees from five large
organizations operating in Dubai. Data were collected on a structured questionnaire containing
standards scales of job characteristics, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, turnover
intentions, distributive justice, and some demographic variables. After testing scales reliability and
validity, the proposed linear relationships were tested using a series of separate hierarchical
regression analyses. Proposed mediation hypotheses were tested using Baron and Kennys
recommendations.
Findings Consistent with studies conducted in a Western context, the study showed that skill
variety and feedback have functional impacts on job satisfaction, organizational commitment and
turnover intentions. Contrary to Western studies, the study reported that task identity and task
significance have functional effects on work attitudes and behaviors. Autonomy also showed
unexpected positive relationship with turnover intentions. Additionally, distributive justice mediates
some of the relationships between job characteristics and work outcomes.
Research limitations/implications The limitations of common method bias and cross-sectional
data are discussed in the light of implications for future research. Nevertheless, the results provide new
insights on the influence of job characteristics on work outcomes in a non-Western context of the UAE.
Also, the study reported evidence for the mediating impact of distributive justice on the job
characteristics-work outcomes relationship.
Practical implications The study has implications for enhancing work behaviors and attitudes.
In general, enhancing certain job characteristics can result in higher-level employee outcomes. Also,
managers should improve some of the contextual factor (i.e. distributive justice) in order to enhance the
impact of job characteristics on work outcomes.
Originality/value The study is considered to be one of the first to examine the job
characteristics-work outcomes relationship in a non-western context of the UAE. Also, it is among
the first studies to test the role of distributive justice as a mediator for the job characteristics-work
outcome relationship.
Keywords Job descriptions, Attitudes, Behaviour, United Arab Emirates
Paper type Research paper

Journal of Management Development

Vol. 28 No. 5, 2009
pp. 457-477
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0262-1711
DOI 10.1108/02621710910955985

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458

Introduction
There is an established body of knowledge supporting the idea that certain jobs can
enhance performance. It is experienced that well designed jobs can have a positive
impact on work attitudes and behaviors. Thus, job design takes on special importance
in todays human resource management. It is essential to design jobs so that stress can
be reduced, motivation can be enhanced, and satisfaction of employees and their
performance can be improved so that organizations can effectively compete in the
global marketplace.
Many theorists and researchers argued that enriching the employees job leads to
improve employee attitudes and behaviors (e.g., Hackman and Lawler, 1971; Hackman
and Oldham, 1980; Hackman et al., 1975; Umstot et al., 1976). One of the most
recognized model for this job redesign and enhancement approach is the Job
Characteristics Model (JCM) (Hackman and Oldham, 1975). Hackman and Oldhams
(1975) JCM identified five main job characteristics, namely: skill variety, task identity,
task significance, autonomy, and feedback. The core job characteristics are followed by
three critical psychological states: experienced meaningfulness, experienced
responsibility, and knowledge of results. In turn, the critical psychological states are
responsible for increased work satisfaction, internal work motivation, performance and
reduced absence and employee turnover (Garg and Rastogi, 2006).
Studies have established a connection between how employees view their jobs and
the various outcomes measure. Many studies showed that characteristics of the job are
primary determinants of work outcomes (e.g., Bhuian and Menguc, 2002; Champoux,
1991; Dodd and Ganster, 1996; Evans et al., 2002; Garg and Rastogi, 2006; Kulik et al.,
1987; Singh, 1998; Thomas et al., 2004).
The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of job characteristics on work
attitudes and behaviors. Also, the study investigates the mediating impact of
distributive justice on the job characteristics-work outcomes relationship. Previous
studies on job design and redesign have been performed mainly in Western countries.
There are few studies on the job characteristics-work outcomes relationship conducted
in a non-Western context. Therefore, the relationship between job characteristics and
work outcomes need to be further examined in a non-Western context. This study is
one of the first studies in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) to investigate the relation of
the job characteristics to work outcomes.
Job characteristics
During the last three decades a large amount of research on employees attitudes and
behaviors to job characteristics has been reported in the literature. At present, JCM is
one of the theoretical perspectives dominating the area. The model suggests that
objectives facets or attributes of individuals jobs primarily determine their perceptions
of and responses to jobs (Hackman and Oldham, 1975). The model assumes that jobs
can be described in terms of a set of predetermined objective attributes, dimensions, or
characteristics. Also, the theory presumes that the high level of those dimensions of
jobs lead to high levels of satisfaction, motivation, and performance, and to low levels
of absenteeism, and turnover among employees (Ferris and Gilmore, 1984; Griffin et al.,
1987).
Moreover, motivation theorists suggest that job design approach moves away from
the development of high fractionalized, repetitious, and programmed jobs toward

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eliciting intrinsic reward from work effort. Hackman and Oldhams (1975) JCM
identified five core job characteristics, namely: skill variety, task identity, task
significance, autonomy, and feedback.
Skill variety
Skill variety is described as the degree to which a job requires a variety of different
activities in carrying out the work, which involve the use of a number of different skills
and talents of the employee (Hackman and Oldham, 1975, p. 161). Empirical studies
suggested that skill variety is one of the best predictor of job satisfaction (Becherer
et al., 1982; Glission and Durick, 1988) and that organizational commitment is greater
among those who possess a variety of job skills (Glission and Durick, 1988; Hunt et al.,
1985).
Task identity
Task identity is the degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and
identifiable piece of work, i.e. doing a job from start to finish with a visible outcome
(Hackman and Oldham, 1975, p. 161). Previous studies suggested that task identity has
seldom emerged as strong predictors of work outcomes (e.g., Dodd and Ganster, 1996;
Snyder et al., 1982; Stone, 1986)
Task significance
Task significance is the degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives
or work of other people-whether in the immediate organization or in the external
environment (Hackman and Oldham, 1975, p. 161). Empirical research has found task
significance to be positively related to job satisfaction (Becherer et al., 1982; Glission
and Durick, 1988; Katz and Kahn, 1978; Kulik et al., 1988) and organizational
commitment (Glission and Durick, 1988).
Autonomy
Hackman and Oldham (1975, p. 162) described autonomy as the degree to which the
job provides substantial freedom, independence, and discretion to the employee in
scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out.
Several empirical studies have found autonomy to be significantly related to
commitment (Agarwal and Ramaswami, 1993; Hunt et al., 1985; Losocco, 1989;
Rabinowitz et al., 1977), performance (Hackman and Oldham, 1975); and job
satisfaction (Becherer et al., 1982; Katz and Kahn, 1978; Kulik et al., 1988).
Feedback
Supervisor feedback has been defined as the degree to which the employee receives
clear information about his or her performance (Hackman and Oldham, 1975, p. 162).
Bassett (1994) argued that feedback is the most effective device for improving
performance. Empirical research has shown that supervisor feedback is an important
predictor of employees job satisfaction (Churchill et al., 1976; Teas and Horrell, 1981;
Teas et al., 1979; Becherer et al., 1982), is positively related to commitment (Agarwal
and Ramaswami, 1993; Hunt et al., 1985; Johlke et al., 2000; Moch et al., 1979; Porter and
Steers, 1973), and is negatively related to role ambiguity (Agarwal and Ramaswami,
1993; Teas, 1983).

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The rational for the influence of the job characteristics is based on notions of
motivation. Theorists focusing on the effects of job characteristics have argued that the
characteristics of jobs can establish conditions which will enhance the intrinsic
motivation of workers (Hackman and Oldham, 1975). In particular, it has been
suggested that the higher a job scores on each of these characteristics, the better the job
is and the higher the motivation, performance, and satisfaction of the person executing
this job will be. Therefore, it makes sense to design and improve working
environments considering the impact on these characteristics.
Work attitudes and behaviors
The work attitudes and behaviors investigated in this study included job satisfaction,
organizational commitment, and turnover intentions.
The key conceptual difference between satisfaction, commitment, and turnover is
that the first two concepts are employees attitudes but turnover refers to an
employees behavior (Currivan, 2000). Job satisfaction is perhaps the most widely
studied work attitudes over the last four decades of organizational studies (Currivan,
2000). Researchers have defined and measured satisfaction both as a global construct
and as a concept with different dimensions (Currivan, 2000; Price, 1997). This study
used the global approach over the dimensions approach, conceptualizing job
satisfaction as the degree of positive emotions an employee has toward a job
(Kalleberg, 1977; Locke, 1976; Smith et al., 1969).
Whereas satisfaction means positive emotions toward a particular job,
organizational commitment is the degree to which an employee feels loyalty to a
particular organization Mueller et al., 1992; Price, 1997). Similar to Currivans (2000)
study, this research conceptualized organizational commitment as an affective form of
commitment based on feelings of loyalty toward the organization (Allen and Meyer,
1990; Meyer and Allen, 1984; Meyer et al., 1990). Furthermore, this study focuses on
commitment to an organization as a whole unit, rather than different subgroups within
the organization (Becker, 1992; Becker and Billings, 1992; Reichers, 1985).
Whereas, satisfaction and commitment focus on employees attitudes toward their
job and organization, turnover refers to actual movement across the membership
boundary of an organization (Price, 1997). The specific form of turnover of interest in
this study, and most organizational research, is voluntary quits (Bluedorn, 1982; Price,
1997). Since data on employees who quit voluntarily is difficult to collect, researchers
often focus on the most direct determinant of turnover, intent to leave (Bluedorn, 1982;
Currivan, 2000; Price, 1997). Turnover intentions of employees is a process (Mobley,
1982; Mobley et al., 1978) which comprises constructs of turnover intentions (thinking
of quitting, intention to search and intention to quit). Intent to leave has been
demonstrated to exert a strong negative influence on actual turnover (Bluedorn, 1982;
Mueller et al., 1992; Price and Mueller, 1986).
Few studies on employees behaviors and work outcomes have been conducted in
the Middle East in general and in the UAE in particular (e.g., Crossman and Abou-Zaki,
2003; Suliman, 2007; Yousef, 1998, 2000, 2002). For example, Crossman and Abou-Zaki
(2003) explored the relationships between socio-demographic variables and job
satisfaction facets in the Lebanese banking sector. They found that female employees
were significantly more satisfied with pay than their male counterparts, whereas, male
employees are reported to be significantly more satisfied with supervision than their

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female counterparts. The results indicated that less well-educated staff were least
satisfied with jobs. The study also revealed that female employees were found to be
more satisfied with pay than their male counterparts, whereas, males were more
satisfied with supervision.
In a study conducted in the UAE, Suliman (2007) found positive relationship
between education, age, job tenure and job level, and job satisfaction and performance.
He concluded that career factors (e.g. job tenure) are more important in predicting job
satisfaction and performance than personal factors (e.g. age). The results also indicated
that employees working in the private sector are showing higher levels of work
performance than the employees of the public sector. Yousef (2002) studied the impact
of role stressors on job satisfaction and organizational commitment in the UAE. He
found that role conflict and role ambiguity, as source of stress, are negatively related to
job satisfaction and organizational commitment. In another study, Yousef (2000)
investigated the relationship between leadership behavior and the work outcomes of
job satisfaction and job performance in the UAE. Results revealed that employees who
perceive their managers as adopting consultative or participative leadership behavior
are more committed to their organizations, more satisfied with their jobs and higher in
their performance. Yousef (1998) also examined the impact of satisfaction with job
security on organizational commitment and job satisfaction in the UAE. The study
reported that there is a significant positive relationship between satisfaction with job
security and organizational commitment, as well as between satisfaction with job
security and performance.
The influence of job characteristics on work attitudes and behaviors
Conceptually, the rational for the influence of the JCM dimensions is based on notions
of motivation and means-end chains. It is generally accepted that the way a job is
designed has a substantial impact upon the attitudes, beliefs, and feelings of the
employee (Lawler and Hall, 1969).
Hackman and Oldham (1980) argued that job characteristics affect the level of three
critical psychological states. Provision of a high level of skill variety, task identity, and
task significance in a job leads to a high level of intrinsic motivation because these
characteristics enhance the experienced meaningfulness of work (Champoux, 1991;
Ilgen and Hollenbeck, 1991). A high level of autonomy is predicted to be most strongly
associated with experienced responsibility for work outcomes. A high level of feedback
also provides information about the results of work activities and the efficacy of means
for achieving desired end goals. As such, feedback provision clarifies the means-end
connections (Champoux, 1991; Ilgen and Hollenbeck, 1991), thereby providing
motivational potential through experienced responsibility for work outcomes. This
motivational potential is believed to result in higher levels of performance and
psychological wellbeing for the job incumbent (Hackman and Oldham, 1980).
The JCM dimensions generally are found to significantly influence the behavioral
and psychological job outcomes of employees in a Western context. For example, Fried
and Ferris (1987) reported correlation between autonomy and satisfaction and
performance of 0.34 and 0.14, respectively, and between feedback and satisfaction and
performance of 0.29 and 0.15, respectively. Brown and Peterson (1993) reported that
greater amounts of feedback, variety, autonomy, and other positive job characteristics
are associated with greater job satisfaction. Ramaswami et al. (1993) reported

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correlations between variety, autonomy, feedback, participation, and commitment of

0.14, 0.34, 0.40, and 0.48, respectively. For turnover intentions, significant negative
relationship has been reported.
Another study conducted by Loher et al. (1985) found significant relationship
between job characteristics and job satisfaction. Also, Thomas et al. (2004) reported
significant positive relationship between skill variety, autonomy, and feedback and job
satisfaction. Additionally, Morrison et al. (2005) found that job designs that provide for
high levels of employee control also provide increased opportunities for the
development and exercise of skill.
In general, task variety, autonomy, and feedback generally emerge as the most
robust correlates of work outcomes in a Western context (e.g., Keller and Holland, 1981;
Mowday et al., 1979; OBrien, 1982; OReilly et al., 1980; Snyder et al., 1982; Stone, 1986;
Stone and Porter, 1975; Teas, 1981). Task significance and identity have seldom
emerged as strong predictors of outcomes in a Western context (e.g., Dodd and
Ganster, 1996; Keller and Holland, 1981; Snyder et al., 1982; Stone, 1986).
Given the above results, the research for job characteristics predictors of work
attitudes and behaviors has been conducted extensively in a Western context and need
to be replicated and tested in a non-Western context. Hence, the purpose of this study is
to examine the relationship between job characteristics and work attitudes and
behaviors in a non-Western context of the UAE.
Job characteristics, distributive justice, and work outcomes
Organizational justice refers to employees perceptions of fair treatment in the
workplace (Greenberg, 1990). Theories concerning workplace fairness have focused on
expanding conceptualization of fairness to incorporate both distributive and
procedural justice (Niehoff and Moorman, 1993). Distributive justice is the degree to
which rewards are allocated in an equitable manner. Procedural justice is the degree to
which those affected by such allocation decisions perceive them to have been made
according to fair methods and guidelines (Greenberg, 1990; Tyler and Bies, 1990).
Skarlicki and Folger (1997) suggested that justice dimensions are capable to
function as substitutes for each other and they have shown constantly to be
interrelated by number of studies (Elovainio et al., 2002; Skarlicki and Folger, 1997).
Furthermore, the effects of justice dimensions on work outcomes have shown to be
quite similar (Moorman, 1991). The current study used distributive justice in order to
test the mediating role of organizational justice in the job characteristics-work
outcomes relationship.
Although there is little empirical research on the relationship between job
characteristics and organizational justice, two studies have directly tested the role of
organizational justice as mediating factor between autonomy or participation and
emotional outcomes. According to Robertson et al. (1999), the effect of participation and
joint-decision making on job satisfaction was mediated by organizational justice
evaluations. Elovainio et al. (2001) found that organizational justice mediated the effect
of job decision latitude on stressful emotions. Also, Elovainio et al. (2004) reported that
organizational justice had a mediating role in the relationship between job decision
latitude and sickness absence.
Regarding the relationship between organizational justice and work outcomes
research has shown that when individual employees feel unfairly treated by their

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organizations, they respond both affectively (e.g. with lower commitment) and
behaviorally (e.g. with increased turnover, theft, decreased citizenship behavior)
(Colquitt et al., 2001; Niehoff and Moorman, 1993). In a study conducted in the UAE,
Suliman (2007) examined the impact of organizational justice on employees
satisfaction and performance and tested the mediation role of satisfaction in
justice-performance relationship. The study revealed that justice plays a significant
role in influencing employees satisfaction and performance. The study concluded that
interactional justice is the most important justice factor affecting job satisfaction
(r0:51) followed by distributive justice (r0:49) and procedural justice (r0:42). The
findings also indicated that organizational justice factors played a significant role in
predicting work performance. Moreover, only partial mediating role for job satisfaction
was found regarding the relationship between justice and performance.

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Model and research hypotheses

The foregoing literature review suggests the research model presented in Figure 1. The
research model employs job characteristics as independent variables and work
attitudes and behaviors as dependent variables. The five job characteristics
investigated in this study consists of skill variety, task identity, task significance,
autonomy, and feedback. The three work outcomes investigated in this study include
job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intentions.
Previous research has identified numerous demographic and organizational
variables as correlates of job outcomes (e.g., Brown and Peterson, 1993; Buchko et al.,

Figure 1.
Perceived job
characteristics and work
attitudes and behaviors
outcomes

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464

1998; Mayer and Schoorman, 1998). In order to control, at least to some extent, their
effects, the study included a number of demographic characteristics. The demographic
variables are gender, age, tenure in the organization, and salary. In addition to that,
previous studies confirmed that workplace justice perceptions lead to positive
workplace outcomes (e.g., Colquitt et al., 2001). Thus, organizational procedural justice
variable is used as control variable to control its effects.
The model posits that a positive perception on each of job characteristics will
impact positively on work outcomes. Hence, the following research hypotheses are
suggested:
H1. Each job characteristics (i.e. skill variety, task identity, task significance,
autonomy, and feedback) has a positive relationship with job satisfaction.
H2. Each job characteristics (i.e. skill variety, task identity, task significance,
autonomy, and feedback) has a positive relationship with organizational
commitment.
H3. Each job characteristics (i.e. skill variety, task identity, task significance,
autonomy, and feedback) has a negative relationship with turnover
intentions.
Additionally, the research model proposed that job characteristics have an indirect
effect via organizational procedural justice on work outcomes. The indirect path
suggests that distributive justice is a mediator variable in the job characteristics-work
outcomes relations. Hence, the following research hypotheses are suggested:
H4. Distributive justice will mediate the relationship between each job
characteristics (i.e. skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy,
and feedback) and job satisfaction.
H5. Distributive justice will mediate the relationship between each job
characteristics (i.e. skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy,
and feedback) and organizational commitment.
H6. Distributive justice will mediate the relationship between each job
characteristics (i.e. skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy,
and feedback) and turnover intentions.
Methods
Data and sample
In order to obtain sufficient heterogeneity to ascertain the stability of the construct
relationships, the data was collected from personnel in different functional areas across
five different organizations representing service and industrial product organizations
in Dubai.
Overall, 350 responses were received for analysis from the sample, for a response
rate of 70 percent. As shown in Tables I and II, the respondents average age was 2.0
(SD 0.78) (2 26 to 35 years), and 46.9 percent were women. Their average tenure in
their present organization was 2.21 (SD 1.07) (2 2 to 5 years and 3 6 to 10 years).
The average income of the respondents was 2.53 (SD 1.08) (2 5; 001 to 10,000 Arab

Demographics
Gender
Age

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Tenure in the organization

Monthly gross salary

Male
Female
Less than 25 years
26-35 years
36 to 45 years
46 to 55 years
Older than 56 years
One year or less
2-5 years
6-10 years
11-15 years
16-20 years
21 years or more
Less than 5,000 AED
5,001-10,000 AED
10,001-15,000 AED
15,001-20,000 AED
More than 20,000 AED

Frequency

135
119
76
119
53
4
2
65
114
40
23
8
4
36
106
67
24
21

53.1
46.9
29.9
46.9
20.9
1.6
0.7
25.6
44.9
15.7
9.1
3.1
1.6
14.2
41.7
26.4
9.4
8.3

Emirates Dirham (AED), and 3 1; 001 to 15,000 AED). Note that annual average
value of US$1 and 1 Euro in 2007 was 3.76 AED and 5.40 AED, respectively.
Measures
Job characteristics. Measures for the five core job dimensions were obtained from
Hackman and Oldham (1980) based on the Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) (Hackman and
Oldham, 1975, 1976). The JDS measures the amount of task variety, identity,
significance, autonomy, and feedback from the job. Three items on the questionnaire
tap each characteristic. Items were averaged to obtain the score for each characteristic.
The measure was assessed on a five-point scale (ranging from 1 strongly disagree to
5 strongly agree.)
Job satisfaction. This measure was estimated by 4-items scale employed by
Currivan (2000). Sample items are: I find enjoyment in my job and Most days I am
enthusiastic about my job the measure was assessed on a five-point scale (ranging
from 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree.)
Turnover intentions. This measure was drawn from the measure examined by
Mobley et al. (1978) and widely used in the literature (Michaels and Spector, 1982;
Miller et al., 1979). It assesses turnover intentions of an employee from his/her
organization and consists of three items (i.e. I think a lot about leaving the
organization). This measure was assessed on a 5-point scale from 1 strongly
disagree to 5 strongly agree.
Organizational commitment. This measure was estimated by 4-items scale
employed by Currivan (2000). Sample items are: I am proud to tell others I part of the
organization in which I work and I really care about the fate of the organization in
which I work the measure was assessed on a 5-point scale (ranging from 1 strongly
disagree to 5 strongly agree).
Organizational distributive justice. Measured by 5-items developed by Niehoff and
Moorman (1993). Sample items are: I feel that my job responsibilities are fair and

Job
characteristics

465

Table I.
Demographic
characteristics of
respondents

Table II.
Means, standard
deviation, and
correlations among study
variables
1.00

0.50**

0.02
0.13*

Notes: * Significant at p , 0.05; ** Significant at p , 0.01

1.00
0.16*

1.00

0.08

20.01

0.32**

1.00
0.29**

10

0.22**

1.00

11

1.00

12

13

0.20** 20.41** 20.44** 2 0.37** 1.00

2 0.13*

2 0.22** 20.17** 2 0.15*

2 0.20** 20.17** 2 0.23**

0.10

0.36**

0.30**
0.28**

2.82 1.07 20.40** 2 0.33** 20.28** 2 0.23** 2 0.28** 20.02

0.46**

0.41**
0.27**

0.51**
0.26**

1.00

0.04

0.48**

0.47**

3.89 0.86

0.30**
0.30**

20.21**
20.14*

1.00
20.24**

0.01

0.47**
0.34**

0.51**
0.36**

3.41 0.76
3.61 1.04

2 0.17** 2 0.06
2 0.19** 2 0.06

0.74
0.63**
0.68**
1.00
0.85
0.66**
0.57**
0.61**
1.00
0.70
0.68**
0.73**
0.73**
0.61**
1.00
0.50
0.03 2 0.02
0.03
0.13* 2 0.07
0.78 20.18** 2 0.08 20.13* 2 0.20** 2 0.06

1.00
0.72**

2.21 1.07 20.14* 2 0.07 20.07

2.53 1.08 20.21** 2 0.18** 20.11

3.81
3.50
3.86
1.54
2.00

3.73 0.87
3.83 0.79

SD

466

Skill variety
Task identity
Task
significance
Autonomy
Feedback
Gender
Age
Tenure in the
organization
Salary
Distributive
justice
Job satisfaction
Organizational
commitment
Turnover
intentions

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I think that my level of pay is fair the measure was assessed on a five-point scale
(ranging from 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree).
Demographic variables. The study used the following demographic variables as
control variables:
.
Respondents gender.
.
Respondents age.
.
Tenure in the organization. Measured by the number of years the respondent is
employed in the current organization.
.
Gross income. (1 less than 5,000 AED, United Arab Emirates Dirham; 2
5; 001 to 10,000 AED; 3 10; 001-15,000 AED; 4 15; 001 to 20,000 AED; and
5 more than 20,000 AED).
Methods of analysis
To assess the linear relationship between job characteristics and work outcomes, a
series of separate hierarchical regression analyses was performed. Each model had two
steps. The first step involved entering the control variables and the second step
involved entering the independent variable (job characteristics).
To test the mediating role of distributive justice, the recommendations of Baron and
Kenny (1986) were followed. According to them, three conditions must hold to establish
a significant mediation effect:
(1) The predictor (independent variable) must significantly impact the mediator.
(2) The predictor must impact the criterion (dependent variable).
(3) The mediator must impact the criterion variable and the impact of predictor on
criterion must either become insignificant (total mediation) or become less
significant (partial mediation) in the third equation when the criterion is
regressed on both independent and mediator variable in the third condition.
Results
Measurements characteristics
In the present study, the measurement instrument used items from previously
validated scales. When analyzed using a principal component factor analysis
procedure, each scale evidenced consistent unidimensional properties, including a clear
break after the first eigenvalue, explained variance due to the first factor of 58.77
percent (Autonomy) to 85.56 percent (job satisfaction) of the total variance, and large
significant loading on the first factor (. 0.74) (see Table III). Also, Table III shows that
the reliabilities for all study variables exceed 0.70.
The five job characteristics are correlated positively. This suggests that job
characteristics are distinct aspect of employees work environment and evidence a high
level of systematic variance and discriminant validity. In addition, these
characteristics have significant relationships with the three job outcomes and in a
direction consistent with previous theory and research. Job characteristics have a
positive relationship with job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and a negative
correlation with turnover intentions (all significant at P , 0.01) (see Table II). Overall
these significant relationships indicate the nomological validity of the job
characteristics dimensions.

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Factors
Skill variety

468

Task identity

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Task significance
Autonomy
Feedback
Distributive justice

Job satisfaction

Organizational commitment
Table III.
Exploratory factor
analysis and reliability
results

Turnover intentions

Items

Factor loading

Eigenvalue

Percentage of
variance

Cronbach

1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
1
2
3

0.85
0.82
0.82
0.83
0.80
0.76
0.82
0.76
0.76
0.79
0.77
0.74
0.78
0.77
0.75
0.85
0.82
0.81
0.80
0.74
0.92
0.92
0.91
0.90
0.91
0.91
0.89
0.88
0.93
0.92
0.90

2.06

68.62

0.77

1.91

63.82

0.72

1.83

61.02

0.71

1.76

58.74

0.74

1.76

58.77

0.75

3.235

64.71

0.86

1.71

85.56

0.83

1.65

82.64

0.79

2.53

84.28

0.91

Finally, the intercorrelations among the job outcomes are also consistent with
theoretical expectations (see Table II). Turnover intention is correlated negatively to
job satisfaction and commitment (all significant at P , 0.01). Also, job satisfaction is
correlated positively to organizational commitment (significant at P , 0.01). This
suggests that various measures of job outcomes evidence nomological validity.
Test of hypotheses
The correlation analysis results as shown in Table II show that skill variety, task
identity, and task significance all have a significant positive relationship with job
satisfaction and organizational commitment (P , 0.01) and a significant negative
relationship with turnover intentions. Feedback was found to have a significant
positive relationship with job satisfaction and commitment (P , 0.01) and a significant
negative relationship with turnover intentions. Also, autonomy was found to have a
positive relationship with job satisfaction, commitment (P , 0.01) and a significant

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negative relationship with turnover intentions. These results are consistent with the
extent literature and support the study hypotheses.
In terms of linear effects, hierarchical regression analysis indicated that job
characteristics successfully predicted job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and
turnover intentions. Job characteristics explained an average of 17 percent, 45 percent,
and 9 percent of the variance in work outcomes respectively, above and beyond the
control variables (see Table IV). Task significance, task identity, and skill variety had
significant functional influence on job satisfaction (b0:24, P , 0.01; b0:20, P , 0.05;
and b0:18, P , 0.05). Also, feedback, skill variety, and task significance appeared to
enhance organizational commitment significantly (b0:35, P , 0.001; b0:23, P ,
0.001; and b0:19, P , 0.01). In contrast, skill variety (b20:27, P , 0.001) and
feedback (b20:22, P , 0.01) have significant functional effects by reducing turnover
intentions. Surprisingly, autonomy had significant functional influence on turnover
intentions (b0:21, P , 0.001). Hence, the study H1, H2, and H3 testing the linear
relationship between job characteristics and work outcomes were partially supported.
The role of distributive justice as a mediator variable in the job characteristics-work
outcomes relationship was tested using a statistical procedure suggested by Baron and
Kenny (1986) based on the procedure, in order to establish the mediating role of
distributive justice, one needs to first show job characteristics have significant effect on
distributive justice as well as on the three work outcomes in four separate hierarchical
regression models. Job characteristics which were not significantly related to work
outcomes were eliminated from testing the mediating role of distributive justice (see
Table V).
Second, when a regression model of work outcomes on job characteristics and
distributive justice is analyzed, distributive justice must still have a significant effect

Predictors

Job
satisfaction

Step 1: Control variables

Gender
Age
Tenure in the organization
Salary
Distributive justice
Adjusted R 2

0.12
20.03
20.08
20.19
0.37 * * *
0.24

Step 2: The five job characteristics

Skill variety
Task identity
Task significance
Autonomy
Feedback
D R2
F for D R 2
Adjusted R 2 for total equation

0.18 *
0.20 *
0.24 * *
20.06
20.02
0.17
13.51 * * *
0.41

Notes: * p , 0.05; * * p , 0.01; * * * p , 0.001

Job
characteristics

469

b values for dependent variables

Organizational
Turnover
commitment
intention
0.11 *
0.09
0.11
20.06
0.01
0.13
0.23 * * *
0.06
0.19 * *
0.03
0.35 * * *
0.45
46.24 * * *
0.58

0.08
2 0.02
0.13 *
0.20 * * *
2 0.45 * * *
0.43
2 0.27 * * *
2 0.04
0.04
0.21 * * *
2 0.22 * *
0.09
8.86 * * *
0.52

Table IV.
Hierarchical regression
results testing the
relationship between job
characteristics and work
outcomes (n 350)

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470

Step 1
Gender
Age
Tenure in the organization
Salary
Adjusted R 2
Step 2
Skill variety
Task identity
Task significance
Autonomy
Feedback
Adjusted R 2
D R2
F for D R 2 (Steps 1 and 2)

Table V.
Hierarchical regression
results for testing
mediation: distributive
justice as mediator of job
characteristics-work
outcomes relationship
(n 350)

Step 3
Skill variety distributive justice
Task identity distributive justice
Task significance distributive justice
Autonomy distributive justice
Feedback distributive justice
Distributive justice
Adjusted R 2
D R2
F for D R 2 (Steps 3 and 4)

Distributive
justice
2 0.04
2 0.11
0.01
0.04
0.09
0.55 * * *
0.22 * *
0.15 *
0.27 * * *
0.23 * *

0.43
43.34 * * *

b values
Job
Organizational
satisfaction
commitment
0.11
2 0.05
2 0.08
2 0.11
0.12

0.11 *
0.08
0.11 *
20.05
0.12

Turnover
intention
0.10
0.05
0.14 *
0.17 * *
0.12

0.20 * *
0.24 * *
0.18 *
2 0.03
2 0.06
0.39
0.27
20.80 * * *

0.23 * *
0.07
0.18 * *
0.04
0.35 * * *
0.58
0.46
48.35 * * *

2 0.47 * * *
2 0.19 *
0.07
0.13
2 0.07
0.39
0.27
19.99 * * *

0.14
0.18 *
0.21 * *

0.25 * *
0.21 * *

2 0.33 * * *
2 0.13

0.39 * * *
0.03
0.58
0.0
0.0

2 0.42 * * *
0.51
0.12
49.25 * * *

0.16 * *
0.44
0.08
12.80 * * *

Notes: * p , 0.05; * * p , 0.01; * * * p , 0.001

on work outcomes and the effect of job characteristics on work outcomes must be
insignificant or must become less significant in step 2. Table V shows that distributive
justice still has functional significant effects on both job satisfaction and turnover
intentions.
It can be seen from Table V that distributive justice fully mediates the relationship
between skill variety and job satisfaction, and between task identity and turnover
intentions as the main effects of both skill variety and task identity become
insignificant after distributive justice is introduced in the equation. Moreover,
distributive justice partially mediates the relationship between task identity and
significance, and job satisfaction, and between skill variety and turnover intentions as
their effects become less significant after distributive justice is introduced in the
equation. The reported D R 2 and F for D R 2 as shown in Table V support the
previously mentioned results. Hence, H4 and H6 are partially supported.
In contrast, distributive justice did not mediate the relationship between job
characteristics and organizational commitment as job characteristics effects become
more significant after distributive justice is introduced in the equation. Hence, H5 is
not supported.

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Discussion
The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which job characteristics
augments positive work attitudes and behaviors of employees in a non-Western
context of the UAE. The study also investigated whether distributive justice mediates
the job characteristics-work outcomes relationships. The study advances the literature
pertaining to job characteristics model by empirically demonstrating the importance of
job characteristics for developing positive work outcomes in a non-Western context.
The study reaffirms the view of that job characteristics have functional effects on
work outcomes. The study found that to increase the employee satisfaction and
commitment and decrease turnover intentions in a non-Western context, organizations
needs to increase the provision of job characteristics. The estimated coefficients
provide further insights into these effects.
Skill variety and task significance have consistent functional effects on job
satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intentions, in support of JCM
predictions of that skill variety and task significance hold motivational potential
through experienced meaningfulness of work. These results are also consistent with
the results reported by Singh (1998) who argued that provision of task variety through
rotating employees helps them deal with perceived role conflict. Therefore, high task
variety helps to reduce dysfunctional influence of role conflict on job satisfaction,
organizational commitment, and turnover intentions.
Moreover, the study shows that in a non-Western context feedback has functional
impact on work outcomes and this support the view of that feedback serves to enhance
work outcomes through its instrumental function (knowledge of results). This
connection also exists because feedback facilitates coping with high levels of role
stressors by getting information that aids in dealing with stress-inducing situations
(Singh, 1998). For employees facing role conflict, feedback helps by reducing the
negative effects of conflict on job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and
turnover intentions (Singh, 1998).
The significant relationships reported between skill variety and the three job
outcomes, and between feedback and organizational commitment and turnover
intentions were consistent with the previous studies conducted in a Western context
(e.g., Brown and Peterson, 1993; Evans et al., 2002; Fried and Ferris, 1987; Hackman
and Oldham, 1980; Keller and Holland, 1981; Morrison et al., 2005; Mowday et al., 1979,
Singh, 1998; Stone and Porter, 1975; OBrien, 1982; OReilly et al., 1980; Snyder et al.,
1982; Stone, 1986; Stone and Porter, 1975; Teas, 1981; Thomas et al., 2004).
Contrary to many Western context studies (e.g., Dodd and Ganster, 1996; Keller and
Holland, 1981; Snyder et al., 1982; Stone, 1986) reported that task significance and
identity have seldom emerged as strong predictors of outcomes, the study showed
significant relationships between task significance and the three job outcomes and
between task identity and job satisfaction. One possible explanation of this might be
that in the UAE culture the more the internal and external significance of the job is, the
more likely to be perceived as a symbol of high status.
Also and contrary to previous Western context studies (e.g., Keller and Holland,
1981; Mowday et al., 1979; OBrien, 1982; OReilly et al., 1980; Snyder et al., 1982; Stone,
1986; Stone and Porter, 1975; Teas, 1981) suggested that that autonomy has emerged as
the most robust correlates of work outcomes, the present study showed that autonomy
was not a valid predictor of variation in job satisfaction and organizational

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472

commitment. Also, autonomy was found to be positively related to turnover intentions.

One possible explanation for this result is that UAE culture is high in uncertainty
avoidance (preferring strict rules and regulations and resistance to change and risk),
therefore, for UAE people, increasing autonomy is perceived as lack of direction.
Additionally, the finding that distributive justice mediates some of the relationships
between job characteristics and work outcomes is noteworthy. Practitioners and
academics alike have given increased attention to job characteristics and the many
positive work outcomes that are associated with certain job characteristics. The study
shows that employees whose their jobs are high in certain characteristics (i.e. skill
variety, task identity, task significance, and feedback) are more likely to perceive
distributive justice, which in turn lead to better work outcomes (i.e. job satisfaction and
turnover intentions). These results were consistent with the results reported by
Suliman (2007) who stressed the significant role that justice plays in influencing
employees behavior and work outcomes in the Middle East in general and in the UAE
in particular. He argued that managers in the Middle East should assess organizational
justice in order to improve employees satisfaction and performance.
Several limitations of this research must be recognized in a balanced discussion of
its findings. First, because self-report method was used, it is possible that the explained
variances are increased because of common method variance. Second, common
variance problems cannot be ruled out since data on both independent and dependent
variables were collected at the same time and using the same questionnaire. This
potential bias could be prevented by the use of longitudinal approaches. Third, the
impact of cultural dimensions was not controlled in this study, and may have
influenced job characteristics-work outcomes relationship.
Nevertheless, the results provide new insights on the influence of job characteristics
on work outcomes in a non-western context of the UAE. The study also determined the
most important job characteristics affecting each of the work outcomes after
controlling the impact of some demographic variables and distributive justice. Finally,
the study provided an evidence for the mediating role of distributive justice on some of
the job characteristics-work outcomes relationships.
There are several areas for possible future research. First, future replications and
extensions are necessary to circumscribe the generalizablity and applicability of
findings reported here. Second, future researches need to consider the impact of some
potential moderators (e.g., personality, other contextual factors) on the relationship
between job characteristics and work outcomes. Finally, future researches could
measure the impact of culturally sensitive on job characteristics-work outcomes
relationship.
Research implications
The current study demonstrates that in a non-Western context the characteristics of a
job are important determinants of positive work outcomes. Researchers and
practitioners interested in creating or redesigning jobs to lead to more job
satisfaction, more organizational commitment and low turnover intentions in the
UAE should concentrate on implementing certain characteristics of the job such as
skill variety, task significance and feedback in order to motivate their employees. For
improving job satisfaction, managers should concentrate on the characteristics of skill
variety, task identity, and task significance. For improving organizational

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commitment, managers should concentrate on the characteristics of feedback, skill

variety, and task significance. Furthermore, concentrating on skill variety, task
significance, and feedback, would decrease turnover intentions. Finally, managers in
UAE should train their employees on how they can accept and use autonomy at work.
Greater autonomy helps reduce role stress and increase work outcomes.
The study also provides evidence that should be of interest to organizational
decision-makers with regard to what they may do in order to enhance distributive
justice experienced by employees. Specifically, if managers can focus on and improve
job characteristics that associated with distributive justice, overall justice may likewise
be improved. Thus, managers may increase skill verify, task identity, and task
significance in order to enhance distributive justice, which in turn lead to high job
satisfaction and low turnover intentions.
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Corresponding author
Hossam M. Abu Elanain can be contacted at: helanain@ud.ac.ae

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